Satellite and Ground Based Thermal Observation of the 2014 Effusive Eruption at Stromboli Volcano
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Thermal Observations of Active Volcanoes
2.1. Characteristics of Instruments Suitable for Observing Volcanic Thermal Anomalies
- high spatial resolution (width of an average lava flow <20 m),
- short revisit time (<15 min),
- numerous spectral channels, or at least an appropriate combination of channels [27],
- high radiometric accuracy (<0.1 K), and
- automatic adjustment of gain settings, i.e., being able to observe high and low temperature events using the same sensor.
2.2. TET-1
Parameter | 1 VIS Camera | 2 IR Cameras |
---|---|---|
Wavelength | 460–560 nm 565–725 nm 790–930 nm | 3.4–4.2 μm 8.5–9.3 μm |
Quantization | 14 bit | |
Swath width | 192 km | 162 km |
Spatial resolution | 40 m | 320 m |
Ground sampling distance | 40 m | 160 m |
3. TET-1 Data Processing Chain
3.1. Pre-Processing
3.2. Co-Registration of MIR and TIR Channels
- combine VNIR data with MIR/TIR,
- preserve the radiometric values in MIR/TIR channels, and
- simultaneously preserve the geometry of MIR/TIR pixels.
3.3. Area, Temperature and Volcanic Radiant Power of Lava Flow
3.4. Time Averaged Lava Discharge Rate
4. Results
4.1. Field Observations
A | B | C | D | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Longitude | 15°12′49.92″ E | 15°12′52.12″ E | 15°12′48.68″ E | 15°12′15″ E |
Latitude | 38°48′18.58″ N | 38°48′13.52″ N | 38°48′26.68″ N | 38°48′59″ N |
Observer elevation | 293 m | 372 m | 178 m | 0 m |
Target mean elevation | 600 m | 700 m | 300 m | 500 m |
Date (September 2014) | 10, 12, 15,17 | 16 | 18–24 | 20 (boat) |
Mean dist. from the lava flow | 1100 m | 1100 m | 850 m | 2200 m |
SWIR transmittance | - | 0.75 | 0.80 | - |
MIR transmittance | 0.82 | 0.82 | 0.87 | 0.57 |
TIR transmittance | 0.70 | 0.70 | 0.75 | 0.35 |
Infratec ImageIR | Infratec VarioCam HR | |
---|---|---|
Spectral range | 2.0–5.5 μm | 7.5–14.0 μm |
Central wavelengths | filter 1: 2.4 μm, filter 2: 3.9 μm | 10.3 μm |
Detector type | Cooled InSB FPA | Uncooled micro bolometer FPA |
Number of pixels | 640 × 512 | 640 × 480 |
Temperature res. At 303 K | 0.02 K | 0.03 K |
Accuracy | ±1% | ±1% |
Dynamic range | 16 bit | 16 bit |
Lenses focal length | 25 mm | 30 mm |
Field of View | 21.7° × 17.5° | 30° × 23° |
Date & Time | Maximal T (K) in | Remarks | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
TIR | MIR | SWIR | ||
2014/09/10; 17:45 | 699 | / | / | We could observe the area close to the vent with T > 670 K. Mid-flow was out of sight. The lowest part was visible, but significantly cooler with T ~430 K. |
2014/09/12; 10:30–13:00 | 767 | / | / | We could observe the area close to the vent with T ~750 K. T dropped between 10:30 and 10:40. First it dropped to 670 K and then it kept cooling, but remained above 570 K |
2014/09/15; 16:20–17:00 | 733 | 961 | / | We could observe the area close to the vent with T ~950 K (in MIR). First simultaneous observations in MIT and TIR band. |
2014/09/16; 10:30–11:20 | 758 | 923 | 806 | Only the area close to the vent was visible. First observations with SWIR filter. |
2014/09/17; 13:30 | 617 | / | / | We could observe only the area just below the vent, but not the vent itself. |
2014/09/17; 15:40 | 680 | / | / | We could observe the entire area with the exception of the vent. Considering the temperatures, it is likely that fresh lava remained under the crust. |
2014/09/18; 12:05–12:50 | 680 | 728 | / | The lava front extended between 12:09 and 12:12; it progressed by 220 m in 3 min (Figure 3). This was accompanied by a flow front brecciating and collapsing down the slope, with rocks having temperatures between 500 and 700 K and rolling down with velocities ~10 m/s. |
2014/09/19; 10:55–11:35 | 892 | / | / | The observed part of the flow reached T > 770 K (at 11:07), but the lava front did not advance down the slope. At 11:10, it started to cool down to 570 K. At 11:28, it heated up again and some material broke out for 10 s. |
2014/09/20; 15:50 | 668 | / | / | Short observation; we could observe only the lower part of the flow. |
2014/09/20; 19:35–19:55 | 831 | 1080 | Night observations were made from a boat at a distance to vents ~2.2 km. Lava front on the west side moved for 120 m in 5 min. | |
2014/09/20; 23:25–23:35 | 573 | 751 | 829 | Night observations; lava front was high on the slope. |
2014/09/21; 14:40–15:00 | 739 | Observations in SWIR exposed significant degassing. | ||
2014/09/21; 15:10-15:25 | 535 | / | / | The entire flow was visible below the vent. |
2014/09/21; 15:28–15:38 | 502 | 735 | / | Observations of the crater area revealed visible explosions shooting material up to 50 m above the terrain. |
2014/09/21; 15:40–16:40 | 529 | 702 | / | Lava front advanced three times: the first pulse was weak; the second one was stronger—it moved the lava front 240 m down the slope in 5 min; the third pulse moved the lava front with the same velocity over the same path as the second event. |
2014/09/22; 11:20–12:40 | 543 | 737 | / | Low temperatures and low activity with some rock-fall and some minor movements of the lava front. |
2014/09/23; 10:30–10:45 | 872 | 1112 | 977 | High temperatures were observed high on the slope and not on the lowest lava front. Some intense degassing (no ash) was visible above the crater. |
2014/09/24; 16:10 | 652 | Although the temperatures were relatively low, the lava flow almost reached the sea. |
Min TADR (m3/s) | Max TADR (m3/s) | |
---|---|---|
ImageIR 3.9 μm | 0.189 | 0.409 |
VarioCam | 0.190 | 0.343 |
Teff (dual band) | 0.186 | 0.440 |
4.2. TET-1 Observations
Parameter | Min TADR | Max TADR |
---|---|---|
Tamb ambient air temperature | 303 K | |
Tcore lava core temperature | 1273 K | |
Tbase flow base temperature | 773 K | |
k lava thermal conductivity | 0 W/m2/K | 1.5 W/m2/K |
hc convective heat transfer coefficients | 10 W/m2/K | 15 W/m2/K |
ρ lava density | 2340 kg/m3 | 2030 kg/m3 |
cp lava specific heat capacity | 1035 J/kg/K | 900 J/kg/K |
ΔT temperature diff. between eruption and solidus temperature | 350 K | 200 K |
f mass fraction of post eruption crystallization | 0.45 | |
L latent crystallization heat | 3.5 × 105 J/m3 | |
h thickness of thermal boundary layer | 1 m |
4.3. MODIS Observations
5. Discussion
5.1. Simple Model for Waning Mass Flux
5.2. Added Value of TET-1 Data
Date/Time | T (K) | A (Ha) | VRPDB (MV) | VRPW (MW) |
---|---|---|---|---|
2014/08/25 10:49 | 572 | 3.2 | 182 | 187 |
2014/09/09 23:30 | 672 | 0.2 | 23 | 36 |
2014/09/16 23:32 | 587 | 1.7 | 105 | 155 |
2014/09/19 10:46 | 504 | 7.4 | 238 | 167 |
2014/09/23 10:33 | 583 | 1.3 | 78 | 90 |
2014/09/23 23:34 | 601 | 0.7 | 52 | 102 |
2014/09/27 23:21 | 966 | 0.1 | 62 | 94 |
2014/09/30 23:34 | 541 | 2.6 | 115 | 150 |
2014/10/07 10:33 | 724 | 0.3 | 49 | 95 |
2014/10/07 23:33 | 698 | 0.2 | 32 | 68 |
2014/10/10 10:45 | 539 | 2.7 | 117 | 124 |
6. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Zakšek, K.; Hort, M.; Lorenz, E. Satellite and Ground Based Thermal Observation of the 2014 Effusive Eruption at Stromboli Volcano. Remote Sens. 2015, 7, 17190-17211. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs71215876
Zakšek K, Hort M, Lorenz E. Satellite and Ground Based Thermal Observation of the 2014 Effusive Eruption at Stromboli Volcano. Remote Sensing. 2015; 7(12):17190-17211. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs71215876
Chicago/Turabian StyleZakšek, Klemen, Matthias Hort, and Eckehard Lorenz. 2015. "Satellite and Ground Based Thermal Observation of the 2014 Effusive Eruption at Stromboli Volcano" Remote Sensing 7, no. 12: 17190-17211. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs71215876