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Article

A Case Study on the Vertical Distribution and Correlation Between Low-Frequency Lightning Sources and Hydrometeors During a Thunderstorm

1
Nanjing Innovation Institute for Atmospheric Sciences, Chinese Academy of Meteorological Sciences–Jiangsu Meteorological Service, Nanjing 210041, China
2
Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Severe Storm Disaster Risk/Key Laboratory of Transportation Meteorology of CMA, Nanjing 210041, China
3
State Key Laboratory of Severe Weather Meteorological Science and Technology & CMA Key Laboratory of Lightning, Chinese Academy of Meteorological Sciences, Beijing 100081, China
4
Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
5
Key Laboratory of Big Data & Artificial Intelligence in Transportation, Ministry of Education, Beijing Jiaotong University, Beijing 100044, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Remote Sens. 2025, 17(15), 2676; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs17152676 (registering DOI)
Submission received: 23 May 2025 / Revised: 26 July 2025 / Accepted: 31 July 2025 / Published: 2 August 2025

Abstract

Understanding the interplay between lightning activity and hydrometeor distribution is crucial for advancing knowledge of thunderstorm electrification processes. Using three-dimensional lightning mapping and dual-polarization radar observations, this study investigates the spatiotemporal correlations between low-frequency (LF) lightning sources and hydrometeors during a severe thunderstorm on 11 June 2014, in North Carolina, USA. The results reveal that lightning sources are predominantly observed above 6 km (near the −10 °C isotherm) and stabilize into a dual-peak vertical distribution as the storm progresses into its mature stage, with peaks located at 6–7 km (−10 °C to −15 °C) and 10–11 km (approximately −40 °C). Low-density graupel (LDG) and aggregates (AGs) dominate at lightning locations. Stronger updrafts lead to higher proportions of LDG and high-density graupel (HDG), and lower proportions of AG. LDG exhibits the strongest positive correlation with LF lightning sources, with a peak correlation coefficient of 0.65 at 9 km. During the vigorous development stage, HDG and hail (Ha) also show positive correlations with LF lightning sources, with peak correlation coefficients of 0.52 at 7 km and 0.42 at 8 km, respectively. As the storm reaches its mature phase, the correlation between LDG and lightning sources also displays a dual-peak vertical distribution, with peaks at 7–8 km and 13–14 km. Both the peak correlation coefficient and its corresponding height increase with the strengthening of updrafts, underscoring the critical role of updrafts in microphysical characteristics and driving electrification processes.
Keywords: lightning mapping array; low-frequency lightning sources; hydrometeors; thunderstorms lightning mapping array; low-frequency lightning sources; hydrometeors; thunderstorms

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MDPI and ACS Style

Jiang, S.; Lyu, F.; Cummer, S.A.; Zheng, T.; Wang, M.; Liu, Y.; Lyu, W. A Case Study on the Vertical Distribution and Correlation Between Low-Frequency Lightning Sources and Hydrometeors During a Thunderstorm. Remote Sens. 2025, 17, 2676. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs17152676

AMA Style

Jiang S, Lyu F, Cummer SA, Zheng T, Wang M, Liu Y, Lyu W. A Case Study on the Vertical Distribution and Correlation Between Low-Frequency Lightning Sources and Hydrometeors During a Thunderstorm. Remote Sensing. 2025; 17(15):2676. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs17152676

Chicago/Turabian Style

Jiang, Sulin, Fanchao Lyu, Steven A. Cummer, Tianxue Zheng, Mingjun Wang, Yan Liu, and Weitao Lyu. 2025. "A Case Study on the Vertical Distribution and Correlation Between Low-Frequency Lightning Sources and Hydrometeors During a Thunderstorm" Remote Sensing 17, no. 15: 2676. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs17152676

APA Style

Jiang, S., Lyu, F., Cummer, S. A., Zheng, T., Wang, M., Liu, Y., & Lyu, W. (2025). A Case Study on the Vertical Distribution and Correlation Between Low-Frequency Lightning Sources and Hydrometeors During a Thunderstorm. Remote Sensing, 17(15), 2676. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs17152676

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