Characteristics of Snow Depth and Snow Phenology in the High Latitudes and High Altitudes of the Northern Hemisphere from 1988 to 2018
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.2. NHSD and GlobSnow Datasets
2.3. Auxiliary Datasets
2.3.1. Ground Observation Datasets
- (1)
- Quantity of data: if the quantity of data corresponding to a certain site in the study period was greater than or equal to 90% of the total data, these data were retained.
- (2)
- Distribution of data: data may have been unevenly distributed in certain years following step (1). Here, the data obtained in a given year at a certain site were divided into five-day groups, resulting in a total of 73 data groups; then, a judgment was made. If the number of valid values corresponding to each group was greater than or equal to four, the site was retained.
2.3.2. IMS and ERA Datasets
3. Methods
3.1. GlobSnow and NHSD Datasets Preprocessing
3.2. Definition of Snow Phenology
- (1)
- An SD greater than or equal to 3 cm was considered snow cover.
- (2)
- The first day on which the SD was greater than or equal to 3 cm and the length of continuous snow cover exceeded five days in the snow hydrological year was considered the snow cover onset day (SCOD).
- (3)
- The last day on which the SD was greater than or equal to 3 cm and the length of continuous coverage exceeded five days in the snow hydrological year was considered the snow cover end day (SCED).
- (4)
- The difference between the SCED and SCOD was regarded as the number for the snow season length (SSL).
- (5)
- The number of days with an SD greater than or equal to 3 cm on a given pixel in the snow hydrological year was considered the snow cover duration (SCD).
- (1)
- For the passive microwave dataset NHSD, the snow cover threshold is 3 cm due to uncertainties regarding shallow and thin snow measurements when using passive microwave snow cover inversion methods [58].
- (2)
- The model-simulation ERA-Interim dataset considers an area to be snow-covered when the snow depth is greater than 0 cm.
- (3)
- In the IMS dataset, pixel values of 4 or 165 are considered to be snow-covered [55].
- (4)
- The SD criterion for the ground observation datasets is 0.5 cm.
4. Results
4.1. Changes in Snow Depth
4.2. Changes in Snow Phenology
4.2.1. Spatial Distributions of SCOD, SCED, SSL and SCD
4.2.2. Interannual Variations in SCOD, SCED, SSL, and SCD
4.3. Characteristics of Snow Depth and Phenology in Typical Areas
- (1)
- Most typical areas were characterized by decreased SD, advanced SCOD and SCED, and insignificantly increased SCD and SSL trends.
- (2)
- The SCD and SSL were similar at high latitudes. The SSL was larger than the SCD at high altitudes; this may have been related to the presence of extensive transient snow cover in relatively low-elevation regions.
- (3)
- The general trends in SD, SSL, and SCD were consistent at high altitudes, while the trends in SSL and SCD at high latitudes were consistent. The interannual SD, SSL, and SCD fluctuations were similar in each typical area.
- (4)
- The SCOD variations influenced the changes in SCD and SSL. The SCD and SSL increased with an advanced SCOD and SCD, and the SSL decreased with a delayed SCOD.
5. Discussion
5.1. Comparisons with Ground Observation Datasets
5.2. Comparisons with the IMS and ERA-Interim Datasets
5.3. Comparisons with Existing Studies
6. Conclusions
- (1)
- Snow depth in the NH showed a significant decreasing trend from 1988 to 2018, with a rate of −0.55 cm/decade. Different snow depth changes were observed between the pre-2010 period and the post-2010 period. Changes in snow depth were insignificant at high altitudes, while significant decreases were found at high latitudes.
- (2)
- The NHSD dataset was shown to be capable of obtaining large-scale and long-term snow phenology information via comparisons with ground observation datasets, IMS, and ERA-Interim. The snow phenology parameters presented both latitudinal and vertical zonal distributions; in detail, the higher the latitude and altitude was, the earlier the snow cover onset day occurred, the later the snow cover end day occurred, and the longer the snow cover duration and snow season length were. The areas associated with an earlier snow cover onset day were 10.47% larger than the delayed areas in the NH. The snow cover onset day occurred earlier at high altitudes except for the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau, as it did at most of the high latitudes. The areas associated with an advanced snow cover end day were 22.52% larger than the delayed areas in the NH. An advanced snow cover end day occurred in most typical areas.
- (3)
- Most typical areas were characterized by a decreased snow depth, an advanced snow cover onset day, an insignificantly advanced snow cover end day, and insignificant increasing trends in snow cover duration and snow season length. The snow cover duration and snow season length values were similar at high latitudes, while the snow season length value was larger than the snow cover duration value at high altitudes. The snow depth exhibited similar interannual fluctuation characteristics as snow cover duration and snow season length in each typical area. In addition, we found that the snow cover duration and snow season length increased and decreased corresponding to an advanced or delayed snow cover onset day.
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
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Typical Area | Number |
---|---|
Alps | 1 |
Rocky Mountains | 162 |
Qinghai–Tibet Plateau | 0 |
Alaska | 14 |
Eastern European Plain | 130 |
Eastern Siberian Mountains | 40 |
Northern Canada | 9 |
West Siberian Plain | 54 |
Central Siberian Plateau | 85 |
Typical Area | SD (cm/a) | SCOD (Day/a) | SCED (Day/a) | SSL (Day/a) | SCD (Day/a) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
High altitudes | Alps | 0.013 | −0.210 | −0.183 | 0.033 | 0.519 ** |
Rocky Mountains | 0.018 | −0.678 ** | 0.092 | 0.784 ** | 0.948 ** | |
Qinghai–Tibet Plateau | −0.003 | 0.156 | −0.153 | −0.296 | −0.621 * | |
High latitudes | Alaska | −0.348 ** | 0.215 | −0.100 | −0.323 | −0.267 |
Eastern European Plain | −0.229 ** | 0.466 * | 0.104 | −0.349 | −0.325 | |
Eastern Siberian Mountains | 0.076 | −0.191 | −0.135 * | 0.052 | 0.115 | |
Northern Canada | −0.300 ** | −0.184 | −0.119 | 0.061 | 0.197 | |
West Siberian Plain | −0.090 | −0.302 * | −0.240 | 0.074 | 0.165 | |
Central Siberian Plateau | −0.071 | −0.346 ** | −0.215 * | 0.142 | 0.384 * |
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Yue, S.; Che, T.; Dai, L.; Xiao, L.; Deng, J. Characteristics of Snow Depth and Snow Phenology in the High Latitudes and High Altitudes of the Northern Hemisphere from 1988 to 2018. Remote Sens. 2022, 14, 5057. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14195057
Yue S, Che T, Dai L, Xiao L, Deng J. Characteristics of Snow Depth and Snow Phenology in the High Latitudes and High Altitudes of the Northern Hemisphere from 1988 to 2018. Remote Sensing. 2022; 14(19):5057. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14195057
Chicago/Turabian StyleYue, Shanna, Tao Che, Liyun Dai, Lin Xiao, and Jie Deng. 2022. "Characteristics of Snow Depth and Snow Phenology in the High Latitudes and High Altitudes of the Northern Hemisphere from 1988 to 2018" Remote Sensing 14, no. 19: 5057. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14195057
APA StyleYue, S., Che, T., Dai, L., Xiao, L., & Deng, J. (2022). Characteristics of Snow Depth and Snow Phenology in the High Latitudes and High Altitudes of the Northern Hemisphere from 1988 to 2018. Remote Sensing, 14(19), 5057. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14195057