The Spatio-Temporal Variability of Frost Blisters in a Perennial Frozen Lake along the Antarctic Coast as Indicator of the Groundwater Supply
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area and Climate Analyses
2.2. Photogrammetric Analysis
2.3. DEM Analysis and Sublimation Rates
3. Results
3.1. Climate
3.2. Frost Blisters
3.3. Sublimation
4. Discussion
4.1. Frost Blisters and Lake Ice Surface Variations
4.2. Lake Ice and Snow Surface Sublimation
4.3. Water Recharge
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Survey | Date | Camera | Markers | GCPs | Check Points | Resolution (cm) | Reprojection Error of Tie Points (px) | Reprojection Error of Markers (px) | Vertical Error of Check Points (cm) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
A | 08/11/2017 | Honor 9 Smartphone—20 MP | 9 | 5 | 1 | 8.1 | 1.0–3.6 | 1.8–3.2 | 2.3 |
B | 03/12/2018 | Sony QX1—20 MP | 21 | 13 | 7 | 0.7 | 0.3–1.0 | 0.3–0.6 | 2.0 |
C | 30/12/2018 | Sony QX1—20 MP | 20 | 13 | 3 | 0.6 | 0.3–1.5 | 0.2–1.0 | 1.0 |
D | 21/11/2019 | Sony QX1—20 MP | 15 | 12 | 3 | 0.7 | 0.5–0.9 | 0.3–0.9 | 1.5 |
Mean Elevation from Pixel Analysis (m a.s.l.) | Mean Elevation from DEM (m a.s.l.) | Area (m2) | Volume (m3) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
M1 | M2 | Ice | M1 | M2 | Ice | M1 | M2 | M1 | M2 | |
1996 | 206.067 | 205.468 | ||||||||
2002 | 206.231 | 205.489 | 205.036 | |||||||
2004 | 206.198 | 205.229 | 205.196 | 32.0 | 21.3 | |||||
2009 | 19.6 | 0 | ||||||||
2011 | 15.9 | 1 | ||||||||
2014 | 205.569 | 205.058 | 204.878 | 18.2 | 16.3 | |||||
2017 (A) | 205.913 | 205.762 | 205.563 | 1.93 | 0.95 | |||||
2018 (B) | 205.997 | 205.801 | 205.435 | 20.7 | 23.6 | 2.35 | 1.24 | |||
2018 (C) | 206.058 | 205.874 | 205.468 | 2.76 | 1.49 | |||||
2019 (D) | 205.98 | 205.807 | 205.29 | 22.3 | 21.5 | 2.35 | 1.17 |
Area (%) | Mean Change (cm) | St. Dev. (cm) | Accuracy (cm) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2018 | 2019 | 2018 | 2019 | 2018 | 2019 | 2018 | 2019 | |
Ice | 21.9 | 48.7 | 3.6 | −18.1 | 2.5 | 6.1 | 4.4 | 3.5 |
Snow | 51.3 | 51.3 | 14.9 | −12.3 | 8.9 | 9.2 | ||
Ice/Snow | 26.8 | - | 8.6 | - | 5.2 | - |
Min (cm) | Max (cm) | Mean (cm) | St. Dev. (cm) | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Ice | −4.3 | 3.4 | −0.7 | 1.7 |
Snow | −12.0 | 10.8 | −2.0 | 8.6 |
Ice/Snow | −13.1 | 7.9 | −2.4 | 5.3 |
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Ponti, S.; Scipinotti, R.; Pierattini, S.; Guglielmin, M. The Spatio-Temporal Variability of Frost Blisters in a Perennial Frozen Lake along the Antarctic Coast as Indicator of the Groundwater Supply. Remote Sens. 2021, 13, 435. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13030435
Ponti S, Scipinotti R, Pierattini S, Guglielmin M. The Spatio-Temporal Variability of Frost Blisters in a Perennial Frozen Lake along the Antarctic Coast as Indicator of the Groundwater Supply. Remote Sensing. 2021; 13(3):435. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13030435
Chicago/Turabian StylePonti, Stefano, Riccardo Scipinotti, Samuele Pierattini, and Mauro Guglielmin. 2021. "The Spatio-Temporal Variability of Frost Blisters in a Perennial Frozen Lake along the Antarctic Coast as Indicator of the Groundwater Supply" Remote Sensing 13, no. 3: 435. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13030435