1. Introduction
Global societies have been acknowledging the issues surrounding climate change and CO
2 emissions, and have developed international agreements such as the Kyoto Protocol and the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change [
1]. There have been various attempts to adapt to such unavoidable impacts of climate change and prevent more detrimental impacts through the reduction of emissions [
2]. Tourism has also been connected to the rising interests in the global phenomena of climate change, as the UNWTO (United Nations World Tourism Organization) organized the First Conference on Climate Change and Tourism in 2003 [
3]. Since then, there have been discussions about the role of tourism as a net contributor to global greenhouse gas emissions, and the UNTWO Davos Declaration encourages tourists to reduce their carbon footprints or offset their emissions, and to opt for environmentally friendly activities that contribute to the preservation of the natural environment and consider the economic, societal and environmental impacts of their travel behavior [
4].
On the one hand, although tourists are aware of climate change, they would not be willing to change their behavior through reducing air travel, among other ways, to reduce their personal carbon footprint [
5,
6]. On the other hand, tourists would adopt the necessary behavior to minimize the dangers posed by climate change if they were aware of climate change and its consequences [
1,
7]. Specifically, climate change could affect tourist perceptions about weather conditions, safety, attractiveness and seasonality of the destination [
7], which is associated with travel experience [
8]. Accordingly, we can assume that when tourists become more aware of and concerned about climate change or its impacts, they are more likely to behave in environmentally responsible ways. Researchers have held ongoing discussions on the associations between perceptions toward climate change and environmentally responsible behavior, but the effects of perceptions toward climate change on tourists and environmental behavior are not yet conclusive.
Nature-based tourism destinations seek opportunities to increase the local economy by utilizing their resources to attract more tourist arrivals, yet adverse environmental impacts may occur if tourism grows and tourists behave in inappropriate ways while traveling [
9,
10]. It is challenging in nature-based tourism destinations to balance economic viability and environmental responsibility. To meet the dual roles, it is important for destination marketers and resources managers to provide quality experiences for tourists and to induce tourists’ environmentally responsible behavior in destinations [
11]. Under the pressure of climate change and adverse environmental effects as consequences of tourism activities, there has been increasing interest in the study of tourists’ on-site experiences and environmentally responsible behavior, e.g., References [
10,
11,
12,
13].
Understanding tourists’ environmentally responsible behavior while traveling is critical to nature-based tourism destinations when they expect both economic and environmental sustainability. Researchers addressed that tourists are likely to behave in environmentally responsible ways when they are exposed to the natural environment and participate in nature-based on-site experiences [
10,
14]. Specifically, researchers explained that the connection with natural environments encourages nature-based tourists’ environmentally responsible behavior by strengthening the tourists’ environmental knowledge and environmental attitudes [
10,
15]. Thus, it is logical to expect that those tourists with quality experiences in a nature-based tourism destination and strong concerns for the environment are more likely to behave in an environmentally responsible way at a destination. However, little is known about whether and how such tourist experiences (i.e., increased perceived value and satisfaction) and perceptions toward climate change (i.e., awareness and moral responsibility) affect the likelihood of tourists’ engagement in environmentally responsible behavior while traveling.
Furthermore, despite the fact that international tourism is rapidly growing worldwide, not many comparative studies have been done. A comparative study of two (or more) tourist groups from different countries can provide useful information to better understand tourists’ environmentally responsible behavior in nature-based tourism destinations that attract international tourists.
The purpose of this study is to examine the differences of perceptions toward climate change, tourists’ experiences, and tourists’ environmentally responsible behavior between domestic (i.e., Korean) and international (i.e., Chinese tourists in this study) tourists at Jeju Island, South Korea. Two tourist groups are recognized in this research as these groups are the most dominant tourist groups on this island. This study also assesses the effects of perceptions toward climate change and tourist experiences on nature-based tourists’ environmentally responsible behavior and compares the associations between domestic and international tourists. The specific objectives are: (1) to examine and compare the perceptions toward climate change (i.e., awareness and moral responsibility) and the tourist experiences (i.e., perceived value and satisfaction) between Korean and Chinese tourists; (2) to examine the effects of perception toward climate change and tourist experiences on nature-based tourists’ environmentally responsible behavior; and (3) to compare the relationships between determinants and environmentally responsible behavior between Korean and Chinese tourists. It is expected that this study’s findings will suggest strategies for resource managers and destination marketers to reduce the negative environmental impacts of climate change at a nature-based tourism destination by assessing and comparing determinants of domestic and international tourists’ environmentally responsible behavior while traveling.
5. Discussion
Based on the present study’s findings, four theoretical contributions are presented with relevant managerial suggestions.
First, this study’s results show that while Korean tourists highly recognize the climate change compared to the Chinese, their level of moral responsibility toward climate change is relatively low in comparison. Also, the likelihood of Korean tourists’ environmentally responsible behavior is less than that of the Chinese tourists. These findings imply that awareness of climate change might not be an influential factor in explaining environmentally responsible behavioral intention. This exploratory notion is supported by a subsequent multiple regression analysis. The regression analysis combining Korean and Chinese tourists reveals that three determinants—i.e., moral responsibility for climate change, perceived value, and satisfaction—are statistically significant in inducing the environmentally responsible behavior intention; however, awareness of climate change does not have an impact on the behavioral intention. This finding is consistent with previous literature, which stated that tourists are not likely to translate environmental awareness into voluntarily changing their behavior to reduce negative environmental consequences [
56,
57]. Meanwhile, as perceptions toward climate change are different depending on nationality [
58], further investigation is necessary to discuss research findings, particularly in the context of nature-based tourism destinations which invite international tourists.
Second, two regression models with Korean and Chinese tourists show a clear divergence in influential factors of environmentally responsible behavior. This research finding shows that perceptions toward climate change (i.e., awareness and responsibility) have impacts on the environmentally responsible behavior intention among domestic Korean tourists, but not among Chinese tourists. This finding partially supports the Value-Belief-Norm theory [
42], suggesting that tourists are likely to be engaged in environmentally responsible behavior when they are aware of the environmental issues and feel morally responsible for the issues. The explanation of this theory works, however, only for domestic Korean tourists and not for Chinese tourists, according to this study’s findings. These divergent findings support the notion that climate change could still be a fairly vague term that can differ among individuals in different countries [
58]. In addition, individuals may perceive that climate change would only occur in the future or affect others first [
70]. For example, [
5] found that only 12% of Americans thought that climate change would affect them or their families directly, while others believed climate change would have an impact outside their countries. Foreign tourists who travel overseas, contrary to domestic tourists, may not be motivated to behave in an environmentally responsible way just due to being aware of climate change or a feeling of moral responsibility for climate change when they travel outside of their home country. As such, resource managers should develop differentiated environmental campaigns that target different tourist groups. Messages or information designed to encourage tourists’ environmentally responsible behavior would not be effective for international tourists if focusing only on increasing awareness and activation of a moral norm with regard to climate change. Since awareness and moral responsibility are powerful determinants of environmental behavioral intention among domestic tourists, such determinants could be utilized in fostering domestic tourist behavior when implementing the necessary policies or campaigns.
The third contribution from the findings in this research is that tourists-perceived value and satisfaction have impacts on environmentally responsible behavior intention among both Korean and Chinese tourists. The findings add explanations to the literature discussing the environment-related attitude-behavior (or behavioral intention) gaps. That is, in addition to or beyond environment-related motives such as moral responsibility, there are other influential factors such as experience-related motives in formulating environmentally responsible behavior among nature-based tourists. In this sense, this study’s findings are supported by previous literature showing that tourist-perceived valuable experiences may result in additional support for natural resources conservation in a protected area [
63]. The present study’s findings are also consistent with the point of previous literature [
56], which showed that there would be situational factors and other internal factors in motivating environmental behavior. The present study shows that both the domestic and international tourists who experience higher value and satisfaction would be more likely to engage in environmental behavior at tourist destinations. The findings on the relationships between tourists’ experiences and environmental behavior are supported by previous literature on tourism [
10,
12,
60]. A well-conserved and well-managed natural resource would create experiences that are attractive to tourists, which in turn will produce higher tourist satisfaction [
60]. In understanding the linkage of resource conservation, tourists’ experiences, and environmental behavior, Ramkissoon et al. [
12] revealed that satisfaction with a place leads to greater environmentally responsible behavior in nature-based tourism destinations. Based on the previous literature and this study’s findings, it is therefore important to focus on how to couple conservation and tourism benefits in nature-based tourism destinations. Nature-based tourism managers should make greater efforts to increase tourists’ perceived value and satisfaction in relation to nature-based tourism activities that accompany environmentally responsible behavior. For example, interpretation programs can be used to foster experiential engagement and appreciation of esthetics, to increase tourist values and travel satisfaction, and to increase environmentally responsible behavior [
71]. This could benefit tourism planners and resource managers who strive to achieve both environmental sustainability and maximize tourist satisfaction.
Fourth, as shown in the results, Korean tourists’ environmentally responsible behavior intention is affected both by tourist perceptions toward climate change (i.e., awareness and responsibility) as well as tourists’ experiences (i.e., perceived value and satisfaction). In this regard, tourism planners and resources managers could have choices when designing effective environmental programs and attractive tourism products targeting domestic Korean tourists: (1) climate change issues could be embedded in environmental campaigns or information for tourists that could result in inducing tourist engagement in environmental behavior; (2) planners and managers may make efforts toward increasing tourists’ perceived value and satisfaction in association with providing nature-based recreational activities; and (3) informational, moral and high quality experiential approaches could be combined to foster environmentally responsible behavior among domestic tourists.
Marketers and managers in nature-based tourism destinations need to see tourists as “partners” who voluntarily engage in environmentally responsible behavior rather than those whose adverse behavior should be controlled and limited by using regulations and laws [
10]. In contrast to the pessimistic view about the role of personal benefits in inducing environmental awareness—when personal benefits are seen to be large and the perceived environmental impacts are seen to be small [
1]—the present study suggests that dual goals toward sustainable tourism—i.e., minimizing negative environmental impacts to host areas as well as providing a quality tourist experience—would be attainable.
6. Conclusions
Notwithstanding the theoretical and practical contributions towards better understanding the relationships between climate change, tourist experiences, and tourists' environmentally responsible behaviors, this study has limitations which researchers should consider when evaluating the study’s findings. This study measured behavioral intentions rather than actual behavior. Accordingly, it is possible that there would be gaps between behavioral intention and actual behavior. To address this, researchers acknowledge that restrictions need to be placed on interpreting the determinants of behavioral intention. Also, this study utilized non-probability sampling, and this limits the ability to generalize the findings. Additionally, this research compared behavior models between domestic Korean and Chinese international tourists who travelled to Jeju Island in Korea, and thus it is recommend to apply this model with other nations and with tourist groups of different nationalities in future research. This paper is exploratory in nature and encourages the conduct of further in-depth studies with the aim of influencing tourists’ environmentally responsible behavior in nature-based tourism destinations. In conclusion, emphasizing economic viability and environmental responsibility as joint goals of sustainable tourism development and management partnerships in natural heritage areas is deemed appropriate if the destinations provide tourists valuable experiences and encourage them to engage in environmentally responsible behavior while traveling.