The Bumpy Road toward Low-Energy Urban Mobility: Case Studies from Two UK Cities
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Sociotechnical Transitions and Innovation
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- IT-based innovations not only encompass telecommuting programs and the like, but also intelligent transport systems seeking to increase transport’s efficiency through real-time information provision and smartcard-based integrated ticketing;
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- Public transport innovations, such as light rail systems, and improved information provision and ticketing systems;
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- Intermodal travel programs that seek to integrate different systems such as car and bus travel (Park and Ride) or car and public transport with public bike sharing schemes; and
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- Cultural and socio-spatial niches that challenge the normality of private car use through land use developments (e.g., compact cities, smart growth, Transit Oriented Development (TOD), Complete/Livable Streets and home zones), or collective/commercial ownership (car/bike sharing).
3. Research Design
3.1. Innovations Defined
3.2. Data and Analysis
3.3. Comparative Case Study Approach
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- Transport system—both cities are known to have very high levels of bus usage, in the UK only surpassed by London;
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- Land use configuration—both are compact cities with significant planning constraints on expansion: Oxford is surrounded by a green belt, Brighton by the sea and nature reserves;
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- Local economy—in both cities based on IT, knowledge intensive services, higher education, high tech manufacturing and tourism; and
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- Population composition—large shares of highly educated young adults and professionals, often with progressive political beliefs (Brighton and Hove is the only local authority in the UK that in 2011–2015 had a local administration led by the Green Party), in combination with considerable pockets of social deprivation in South East Oxford and toward the east and north-east of Brighton’s city center. Both sets of conditions depress car ownership and usage levels [61] and are conducive to bus travel and walking.
Brighton and Hove | Oxford City | ||
---|---|---|---|
Modal split (2011) | Car/van driver | 39.9% | 36.2% |
Car/van passenger | 3.9% | 3.5% | |
Train | 11.3% | 2.7% | |
Bus | 15.2% | 17.8% | |
Cycling | 5.4% | 19.1% | |
Walking | 22.2% | 18.8% | |
Other | 2.1% | 2.0% | |
Increase in the number of people cycling to work (2001–2011) | 109% | 33% |
4. Innovations in Brighton and Oxford
4.1. Caveats
4.2. General Observations
Category | Innovation | When | Spatial scope | Lead actor(s) | Budget and main source(s) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Green propulsion (cf. [20]) | Biofueled bus services | 2007 | Region | nfp bus operator | Unknown—savings, shares, revenue |
EV charging infrastructure | 2009/10 | City | LG, fp operator | £500k–<1m—LG, CA | |
Euro 5 compliant int. combustion buses | 2011 | Region | fp bus operator | >£10m—bus operators | |
E-bike demonstration project | 2011/14 | Neighborhood | University, LG | £1m–<3m—LSTF, research councils | |
HEV buses | 2012/13 | Region | fp bus operator | £1m–<3m—NG, fp bus operator | |
Intermodal transport (cf. [20]) | Bus service at railway station | 2011/14 | Site, Axis | LG, fp bus operator | £500k–<1m—LSTF |
Railway station redesign | 2012/13 | Site | LG, NR | £3m–<10m—NG, NR, LSTF | |
Integrated ticketing bus and car club | 2013 | City | fp operators | Unknown—fp operators | |
Cycle Hub, Brighton railway station | 2014/15 | Site (facility), City (catchment area) | Train operator, NR, LG | £1m–<3m—NG, LG, NR, train operator | |
Public transport (cf. [20]) | Talking bus stops for vis. impaired | 2007 | City | LG, fp bus operator | Unknown—fp bus operator |
Real time information at bus stops | 2009 | Region | LG, bus operators | £1m–<3m—LSTF, bus operators | |
Eco-driving technology and training for bus drivers | 2009 | Region | fp bus operator | Unknown—fp bus operator | |
Smartcard ticketing buses | 2011 | Region | fp bus operator | Unknown—fp bus operator | |
Bus stop improvement | 2012/13 | City | LG, fp bus operator | £1m–<3m—LSTF | |
Bus ticketing on smartphone | 2013 | Region | fp bus operator | Unknown—bus operator | |
Mobility services (cf. [19]) | City Car Club | 2003 | Neighborhood/City | fp operator | Unknown—fp operator |
Streetcar/Zipcar | 2005 ǂ | Neighborhood/City | fp operator | Unknown—fp operator | |
Car clubs to low-income areas | 2009 | Neighborhood | LG | <£100k—EU | |
Mobility management and support (cf. [19]) | Cycling training at schools | 2005 | City | LG, Sustrans | £500k–<1m—NG, CDT, CT, LG, Sustrans |
Cycling awareness events | 2005 | City | LG, CO’s | £500k–<1m—CDT, CT, LG | |
Travel planning, door-to-door | 2006 | City | LG | £3m–<10m—CDT, CT, LSTF, EU, LG | |
Travel planning at schools, universities and employers | 2006 | City | LG | £500k–<1m—CDT, CT, NG, EU, Sustrans | |
Internet-based journey planner | 2007 | City | LG | £100k–<500k—LG, EU, LSTF | |
Bike-Off cycle security project | 2008/10 | City | LG | <£100k—EU, LG | |
Pedestrian way finding info | 2011/14 | City center, Axes | LG | £500k–<1m—LSTF, LG | |
Circus Street Bike Hub, incl. bike maintenance and cycling training | 2014 | Site (facility), City (catchment area) | CO, LG | <£100k—LSTF, loans & revenues | |
Physical infrastructure retrofit | Cycling retrofit Grand Avenue/Drive | 2005/08 | Axis | LG | £500k–<1m—CDT |
Cycling retrofit Old Shoreham Rd | 2012 | Axis | LG | £500k–<1m—Sustrans, NG, LG | |
Minor cycling retrofits (e.g., ASLs, priority and signage) | 2005 onwards | City | LG | £500k–<1m—CDT, CT, EU, LG | |
Cycling retrofit other thoroughfares and cycling links/roads | 2008 onwards | Axes | LG | £3m–<10m—LG, NG, CT, EU, LSTF | |
Cycling parking | 2009 onwards | City | LG | £100k–<500k—CT, EU, LG, train operator | |
Redesign Seven Dials roundabout | 2012 | Site | LG | £100k–<500k—NG, LG | |
Cycle/bus retrofit Lewes Road | 12/14 | Axis | LG | £1m–<10m—LSTF | |
Other | Cycling monitoring (incl. interactive cycling counter) | 2005 | City | LG | £100k–<500k—CDT, CT, EU, LSTF, LG |
Smart traffic signaling | 2011/14 | Axis | LG | £500k–<1m—LSTF | |
20mph speed limit | 2012/14 | City | LG | -- | |
Controlled parking zones | 2012 | City | LG | -- |
Category | Innovation | When | Spatial scope | Lead actor(s) | Budget and main source(s) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Green propulsion (cf. [20]) | EV charging infrastructure | 2009 onwards | City | LG, operator | £1m–<3m—LG, NG |
Mini E field trial | 2009/11 | City | CM, university, LG | £5m–<10m—CM, NG | |
Euro 5 compliant int. comb. buses | 2009 | Region | Bus operators | £5m–<10m—bus operators | |
HEV buses | 2009/13 | Region | Bus operators, LG | >£10m—NG, bus operators | |
Retrofit buses to Euro 5 standard | 2012 | City centre | Bus operators | £500k–<1m—bus operators, NG | |
Intermodal transport (cf. [20]) | Thornhill P&R intelligent access | 2012 | Site | LG | <£100k—LSTF |
Thornhill P&R expansion | 2013/14 | Site (facility), Region (catchment) | LG | £1m–<3m—LSTF | |
Railway station redesign | 2014 | Site | NR, LG, train operators | >£10m—NG, LG, rail sector | |
Public transport (cf. [20]) | Eco-driving technology and training for bus drivers | 2008 | Region | bus operator | £100k–<500k—fp bus operator |
RTI at bus stops | 2009/14 | City | LG, bus operators | £100k–<500k—LSTF, bus operators | |
East West rail (Oxford, Bedford), incl. new station Oxford Parkway | 2011 | Region | NR, train operators, LG | >£10m—NG, LG, rail sector | |
Smartcard ticketing buses | 2011 | Region | Bus operators, LG | Unknown—bus operators, LSTF | |
New bus services Headington-city | 2013 | City | LG, bus operator | £1m–<3m—LSTF, bus operator | |
Mobility services (cf. [19]) | Streetcar/zipcar | Mid-2000s | Neighborhood/City | fp operator | Unknown—fp operator |
Co-wheels/ Commonwheels | Mid-2000s | Neighborhood/City | fp operator | Unknown—fp operator | |
Oxford Liftshare | 2009 | Region | LG, fp company | <£100k (start)—LG | |
Oxford Brookes Uni car club | 2013 | Neighborhood | University, fp operator | Unknown—university | |
North Oxford e-car club | 2013 | Neighborhood | CO, nfp operator | Unknown—CO | |
Brompton bike share | 2013 | Site | fp operator | Unknown—fp operator | |
Oxonbike bike share | 2013, 2014 | Neighborhoods | LG, fp operator | £100k–<500k—LSTF | |
Mobility management and support (cf. [19]) | Travel hub and easitOxford travel information | 2011 | City | LG | £100k–<500k—LSTF |
Pedestrian way finding info city center | 2011/12 | City center | LG | Unknown—LG | |
Internet-based journey planner | 2012 | Region | LG | <£100k—LSTF, LG | |
Broken Spoke bike maintenance, cycling training | 2012 | Site (facility), City (catchment area) | CO | <£100k—CO, LG | |
Physical infrastructure retrofit | Various cycling paths/routes | 2010 | Axes | LG | £100k–<500k—LG, LSTF |
Plains roundabout retrofit | 2014/15 | Site | LG | £1m–<3m—NG, LG | |
Bus retrofit/bus lane London Rd | 2014/15 | Axis | LG | £500k–<1m—LSTF | |
Shared space retrofit Frideswide Square | 2015 | Site | LG | £3m–<10m—LG | |
Other | Low emission zone, city center | 2014 | City center | LG, bus operators | -- |
- ■
- Regulator—for instance, being formally in charge of road/street space they play a pivotal role in the allocation of parking bays to all forms of car club, and by having a decisive say in the granting of franchises to bus operators, they have considerable influence over the practices of the latter. They also provide permits for many grassroots initiatives to provide and raise awareness about low-energy forms of urban mobility;
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- Financier—they support many innovations by both private sector and community organizations with grants. Even grassroots innovations with socially and politically progressive identities, such as Oxford’s Broken Spoke bike cooperative and the Circus Street cycle hub in Brighton, are to some extent dependent on small-scale financial support from local government. Financial support can also come in the form of officer time, as exemplified by the time council staff spent on the preparation of bids to DfT funding streams to subsidize the purchase of hybrid electric vehicles (HEV) by the main bus operators in Oxford and Brighton; and
- ■
- Initiator—they develop, lead, coordinate and are ultimately responsible for many of the innovations listed in Table 2 and Table 3. This reflects both the changing configurations of finance in English transport planning (see below), and the enthusiasm and determination of many policy makers—at all levels of organizational hierarchy—and some local politicians in encouraging a transition toward low-energy urban mobility systems.
4.3. Geographies of “Radicalness”
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- “Soft”—cycling training in schools and more recently also the city’s two universities, as well as travel planning for households, employers and businesses; and
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- “Hard”—the creation of a network of retrofitted major thoroughfares, including Lewes Road, as well as the provision of bike racks and other minor interventions in the materiality of public spaces to make cycling more convenient. The idea has been, in the words of one senior transport planner, to create the quality of infrastructure “so you don’t have to be a kind of hardcore cyclist, it’s designed for all levels of ability”.
4.4. Further Geographical Differentiations
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- The positive reinforcement that follows from the perception that earlier initiatives have been successful.
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- The emergence of specialized expertise and a (small) workforce of travel planners within BHCC.
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- Continued success with raising money from dedicated funding programs run by DfT and the EU. In 2005 Brighton became one of six Cycling Demonstration Towns—national test bed sites allowing governments to learn about what can be achieved in the UK with continental-European level of investment per capita in cycling—and subsequently benefited from the follow-up Cycling Town program (2008–2011) and more recently the LSTF (2011–2016). The city also obtained EU funding (CiviTAS) to bolster its activities.
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- The strongly territorialized nature of most cycling-related innovations: partly in response to restrictions imposed by external funders, most travel planning projects and road retrofits have been—and still are—limited to specific neighborhoods in the city, meaning there has been at least until now a supply of areas for retrofit and travel planning.
5. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Schwanen, T. The Bumpy Road toward Low-Energy Urban Mobility: Case Studies from Two UK Cities. Sustainability 2015, 7, 7086-7111. https://doi.org/10.3390/su7067086
Schwanen T. The Bumpy Road toward Low-Energy Urban Mobility: Case Studies from Two UK Cities. Sustainability. 2015; 7(6):7086-7111. https://doi.org/10.3390/su7067086
Chicago/Turabian StyleSchwanen, Tim. 2015. "The Bumpy Road toward Low-Energy Urban Mobility: Case Studies from Two UK Cities" Sustainability 7, no. 6: 7086-7111. https://doi.org/10.3390/su7067086