Revealing Sustainability: The Influence of Gender and Consumption Values on Sustainable Fashion Habits in U.S. and Greek Millennials and Gen Z

Abstract

In recent years, the literature has concentrated on consumers’ sustainable attitudes and purchases, and the underlying mechanisms behind consumers’ sustainable buying decisions. Yet, to the best of our knowledge, studies that examine the impact of culture on attitudes and purchase behaviors towards sustainable fashion, through the prism of consumption values, and moderated by gender, are fragmented and limited. Elaborating on the dynamics of culture, gender, and consumption values, this study applies an online survey with 171 U.S. and 157 Greek participants to delve into sustainable fashion consumption. Notably, it reveals the effect of country on purchase behavior via consumption values and attitudes toward sustainable fashion, in the moderating presence of gender. U.S. (vs. Greek) men demonstrate higher attitudes and purchase behaviors towards sustainable fashion, driven by enhanced emotional and social value. U.S. (vs. Greek) women exert enhanced purchase behavior and social consumption value, while Greek women demonstrate higher levels of emotional value. These findings provide fruitful evidence with respect to the impact of cultural and demographic dynamics on sustainable fashion consumption, through the prism of consumption values. The study also highlights potential paths for future research that could help marketers delve into understanding sustainable fashion consumption.

1. Introduction

Although sustainability has emerged as a significant global megatrend over the past few decades, sustainable fashion consumption warrants a more comprehensive and in-depth investigation for several compelling reasons. According to reporting by the UN Environment Programme (2025) [1], sustainable fashion is valued at approximately $1.7–2.4 trillion and employs millions of people worldwide, highlighting the industry’s substantial economic impact. However, the fashion industry is also responsible for almost 2–8% of the greenhouse gas emissions, the annual consumption of 215 trillion liters of water, and 9% of microplastic pollution in the oceans [1]. Consumers, on the other hand, seem to embrace a more sustainable lifestyle [2], with reduced consumption, purchasing secondhand products, buying clothing made from organic and recycled materials, returning unwanted fashion to stores [3], and resisting a throw-away fashion attitude [4].

The cross-cultural literature highlights that cultural traits (i.e., collectivism vs. individualism) constitute significant drivers of sustainable fashion consumption, impacting consumers’ attitudes, intentions, and behaviors [5,6,7,8]. Specifically, elaborating on the continuum of collectivism/individualism, Khan et al. (2024) [7] demonstrate that collectivism is the primary driver of sustainable fashion consumption. Along this vein, several studies have shown that altruistic, pro-environmental, and collectivist values influence both attitudes and purchasing behaviors towards green products [9,10,11]. However, fashion constitutes an artifact that serves as a way of both self-expression and aligning one’s identity with societal trends [12,13,14]. In other words, consumers might use fashion, typically consumed publicly, as a means of signaling status, assuming that the sophistication and innovation associated with new trends will enhance their prestige and social approval. Aligned with this rationale, another stream of research supports the idea that self-directed, individualistic cultures (i.e., the U.S.), being more fashion- and style-driven, use sustainable fashion to express their status, uniqueness, and distinctiveness [15]. According to Kilsheimer (1993) [16], status-driven consumers are usually socially aware, investing in social relationships and interaction. This social orientation drives their pursuit of the right fashion choices to increase their prestige and power [17].

Alongside cultural values, consumption values (i.e., emotional and social) influence sustainable fashion consumption too [18,19]. It is noteworthy that consumption values operate as catalysts in the relationship between cultural traits and sustainable behaviors. Specifically, in the context of fashion, individuals choose sustainable products either to feel good about their pro-environmental actions [20,21], express their personal taste and self-identity [12], or demonstrate their status [22] and confirm their social identity through similarity or differentiation from others.

Gender constitutes another essential driver of green fashion consumption [23], with women expressing an increased tendency towards eco-friendly actions [24]. Relying on social identity theory [25] and gender identity maintenance [26], both genders try to maintain their gender identity through green consumption choices. Past studies [26,27,28] support that greenness and sustainable behavior are highly interrelated with femininity. As such, due to stereotypical gender constructs, men are afraid of jeopardizing their masculine identity and thus avoid sustainable fashion consumption, while, on the contrary, women, seeking to validate the norms regarding their emotional and social selves, consume sustainably [28]. It is noteworthy here that in the past few decades, women have experienced dramatic changes, including increased wages, educational opportunities, and reduced household labor. These changes have led to the enhancement of women’s self-esteem, confidence, and social role, which, in turn, along with their timeless caring and loving nature [29,30], has impacted their sustainable fashion product consumption [31].

Although consumers’ motivations for sustainable fashion consumption, such as broader, cultural traits and deeper and personal consumption values [18,19,32], as well as the role of gender in consumers’ sustainable fashion choices [23,30,33], have been prevalent areas of research, to the best of our knowledge only limited and fragmented studies have attempted to provide an integrated approach to explain the influence of both cultural traits and consumption values on sustainable fashion product decisions in light of gender’s impact on the above relationships.

The current study centers on the theory of cultural dimensions [34], the social identity theory [25], and the theory of consumption values [35] to shed light on the interaction effect of culture and gender on sustainable consumption through the prism of deeper emotional and social values. It is argued that U.S. women and U.S. men, as compared to Greek women and Greek men, respectively, will report enhanced sustainable fashion consumption attitudes and behaviors that allow them to communicate who they are, what they do, and their morality and value system [31] to feel proud of themselves and be accepted by others. On the other hand, Greek women, although less so, are still affected by emotional and social values and will exert positive attitudes and purchase behaviors to validate their emotional and social self. However, considering that gender roles are deeply entrenched in Greek society, Greek men avoid purchasing sustainable fashion, for fear of expressing the caring and social side of their character [26].

The objectives of this study are the following: First, building on cultural traits [34] between the two countries in relation to their sustainability approaches, this research seeks to investigate the effect of country on purchase behavior towards sustainable fashion products, via emotional and social consumption values, which in turn affect attitudes towards sustainable fashion products. Notably, the current study suggests that examining culture alone (i.e., elaborating on the bipolar dimensions provided by Hofstede) is not enough to provide a deep understanding of how sustainable fashion consumption is shaped in the two countries. However, consumption values further explain that sustainable fashion is associated with the need to do something good for society and the environment, and also with the need to express oneself, one’s inner values (i.e., emotional values), status, power, and the need to be accepted by society (i.e., social values).

Second, this study focuses on a very specific context, the fashion industry. Notably, fashion constitutes a product category whose consumption is either self- or/and peer-driven, having emotional and social consequences for the consumers [10,12,14,15]. The current research suggests that sustainable fashion consumption does not merely rely on the continuum of collectivism/individualism, but rather it is shaped by individual consumption values (i.e., need for expressing one’s power and status or need to do something good and feel good about it). Put differently, this study is a timely response to the broader discourse on sustainability issues in the fashion industry, by showing that sustainable fashion consumption is not confined to a single dimension but encompasses multiple facets, reflecting its complex and dynamic nature.

Third, the present paper examines the U.S. and Greece as two distinct and multidimensional cultural contexts to shed light on how discrepancies in cultural traits and personal and consumption values might influence sustainable fashion consumption. Elements like divergent living and education standards, economic circumstances, and exposure to social media, in regard to each country, are also discussed (but not directly measured in the model), serving as potential explanations for the outcomes of the study.

Fourth, building on social identity theory [25], the theory of consumption values [35], and gender identity maintenance [26], this study explores the serial mediating effect of country on emotional and social consumption values and, in turn, of attitude and purchase behaviors toward sustainable fashion products, with the moderation effect of gender. The study adds to the broader discourse on the phenomenon of gender gap between and within the countries, and places it in the context of sustainability [26,36,37]. This paper emphasizes that men and women, trying to maintain their gender identity [28], may be led to express divergent attitudes and behavioral patterns towards sustainable fashion consumption.

Overall, the present study contributes to and extends prior research [28,36] by developing a consolidated and integrated framework that investigates the synergy of cultural traits, gender, and consumption values at the same time, in the prism of sustainable fashion consumption. Although prior research has examined these constructs in isolation, the current paper offers a context-specific understanding of how consumers from the two countries behave towards sustainable fashion. Integrating all of these dynamics into an inclusive model allows us to provide academics and practitioners with comprehensive insights regarding the boundary nature of socio-cultural traits and gender in the formation of sustainable fashion consumption, also considering the mediating role of emotional and social consumption values.

2. Literature Review and Research Hypotheses

2.1. The Theory of Cultural Values and Sustainable Consumption

The individualism/collectivism continuum, as introduced in Hofstede’s theory of cultural dimensions [34], has been extensively examined in marketing research [38,39], despite the ongoing criticism that this approach simplifies dynamic, cultural environments. Even though this limitation is widely acknowledged, Hofstede’s theory provides a framework for investigating cultural differences. Elaborating on the above assumption, traditionally, people in individualistic cultures are self-driven and seek to express themselves and their own personal values [31], whereas in collectivist cultures, people mainly prioritize the needs of their loved ones, family, peers, and society [7,40]. Research on sustainable consumption supports the idea that collectivism constitutes a cultural trait that leads individuals to care for their ethical responsibilities towards groups’ needs and the harmony of society [41]. In this vein, Hoelscher & Chatzidakis (2021) [42] define sustainable consumption communities as “groups of individuals who come together to forge new modes of consumption that are ecologically sustainable and socially just” (p. 293). Sustainable consumption is a social phenomenon that flourishes in social environments, social rules, institutionalized practices, and relationships [43,44]. Among others, one of the fundamental characteristics of sustainable consumption is group consciousness, which stands for shared social responsibility [45] and opposes individualistic phenomena, such as overconsumption and the accumulation of wealth and materials [46].

2.2. The Theory of Consumption Values: Emotional and Social Consumption Values

According to Kluckhohn (1951, p. 395) [47], “value is a conception, explicit or implicit, distinctive of an individual or characteristic of a group, of the desirable of an individual or characteristic of a group, of the desirable which influences the selection from available modes, means, and ends of action”. Further, Kluckhohn & Strodtbeck (1961) [48] support the idea that values cannot be isolated from a culture and group, and they are not restricted to the sphere of morality.

Similarly, Kahle (1983) [49] developed a List of Values (LOV), which included self-respect, warm relationships with other people, self-fulfillment, the sense of accomplishment, and so forth, to identify and evaluate the cultural values that drive consumer behavior. Schwartz (1992) [50] determined ten distinct types of values, accompanied by relevant motivational goals. Among others, hedonism, conformity, defining power, and achievement constitute some of the driving and highly influential values related to motivations such as social status, prestigiousness, universalism, and appreciation of the welfare of other people and nature. In this line, the theory of consumption values by [35] posits that buying behaviors are affected, among others, by emotional and social consumption values. In the prism of marketing, past research shows that consumers appraise products and services via emotional, as well as social, values, which significantly predict beliefs, attitudes, purchasing intentions, and behaviors [51].

Emotional value: According to Sweeney & Soutar (2001) [52], emotional value refers to the utility that is exerted by the feelings or the emotional states that a product or service creates. Past studies have emphasized the relationship between emotional consumption value, attitudes, and purchase behaviors and sustainable products [53,54]. Particularly, positive emotions are associated with altruistic and moral orientation [20], and this is also the case with more self-centered motivations, such as receiving rewards for engaging in a benevolent act [55]. On all occasions, the higher the emotional value, the more enhanced the sustainable behavior [56].

Social value: Similarly, according to the theory of consumption values [35], social consumption value is defined as “the perceived utility acquired from an alternative’s association with one or more specific social groups” (p. 161). Social value drives the consumption of highly visible products, such as clothing, and products that can be shared with others. In this consensus, social value is interrelated with conspicuousness, symbolic consumption, and interpersonal communication. Social value refers to consumers’ susceptibility to social pressures and interpersonal influencers [57,58] that help them manifest their social image to conform and to enhance their popularity and social approval [22]. Additionally, social value is associated with an individual’s need for self-presentation, driving their attitudes, intentions, and behaviors towards green purchases [54,59,60].

2.3. The Paradox of Sustainable Fashion Consumption Through the Lens of Cultural and Consumption Values (H1 and H2)

Fashion constitutes a vehicle that helps individuals to reflect their personal ideals, values, qualities, self-esteem, and individuality, while at the same time operating as a mechanism to stand out, conform with a group, and gain social approval [31,61]. Through the prism of cultural dimensions theory [34], previous studies reveal that collectivist cultures consume sustainable fashion driven by social norms, collective judgements [19,62], social justice, and human rights [31]. Notably, people in individualistic cultures are driven by personal motives, such as self-expression, self-actualization, self-confirmation, the need for uniqueness, and their need to feel good, proud, and comfortable through their choice of sustainable fashion products [31]. Interestingly, Lundblad & Davies (2016, p. 168) [18] mention: “They gain self-fulfillment through their sustainable fashion consumption and enjoy acting as a database for interested parties. But they are far from activists trying to dictate behavior to others. It is a very quiet revolution!” Similarly, Hartmann et al. (2017) [63] refer to warm-glow benefits, which are the pleasure and the emotional gratification one feels for contributing to a good cause, that are generated by prosocial behavior. It is noteworthy that warm-glow benefits that stem from one’s satisfaction from knowing that their act is moral and ethical can be more essential than altruistic motivations for green behavior [63].

At the same time, in addition to cultural dimensions and consumption values, environmental movements and living standards, affected by national levels of wealth and education, constitute key drivers of sustainable behavior [64]. Along this vein, Hurth (2010) [65] suggests that “affluent people in western societies are shown to be very willing to act environmentally and engage in green consumption”.

Thus, building on the theory of cultural values [34] and the theory of consumption values [35], we hypothesize that consumption values operate as antecedents of attitudes and purchase behaviors. Put differently, emotional and social consumption values that are interrelated with cultural traits of the two nations can influence consumers’ product evaluations and their final consumption decisions. Moreover, extending the above rationale and building on the theory of planned behavior [57], we expect that the attitudes shaped towards sustainable fashion will be projected in consumers’ purchase behaviors.

Elaborating on the above, we assume that U.S. vs. Greek individuals (with individualistic vs. collectivist cultural traits, respectively) will exert more positive attitudes towards sustainable fashion, which in turn will increase purchase behaviors via emotional consumption value. Particularly, we argue that people with individualistic cultural traits will purchase sustainable fashion driven by their need to express their morality [20] and their need to validate their inner values, their sense of achievement, and their sense of integrity for doing the “right thing” [30]. Consequently, U.S. individuals, who are more individualism-oriented, are expected to buy sustainable fashion to feel good through making a strong statement about their personality, expressing their individuality, and being rewarded for being themselves and being green [63]. As a result of the above, we hypothesize the following:

Hypothesis 1.

Emotional value mediates the relationship between country and purchase behavior towards sustainable fashion, such that U.S. consumers experience stronger emotional value, leading to more positive attitudes and, in turn, purchase behavior than Greek consumers.

Currently, consumers are used to exposing themselves and their purchase decisions in public to communicate their “green self” and enhance their sense of belonging to an aspirational group [19] as a means to create a social identity [66]. Both the need for social compliance as well as for signaling one’s prestige and financial prosperity constitute exogenous drivers of green consumerism [67]. It is noteworthy that consumption of sustainable products creates ethical and responsible consumers who become social agents that urge the rest of the people to embrace sustainable purchase behavior, while they themselves are often motivated by their need for social approval [68]. Peers and group members are essential for sustainable fashion consumption since they drive consumers’ social image formation and manifestation [48,68,69]. With respect to the fashion industry, individuals are driven by social expectations and are very sensitive towards conspicuous consumption, which is largely influenced by their intensified exposure to social media and interaction with green influencers [28,70,71].

Consequently, centering on the theory of cultural dimensions [34] and the theory of consumption values [35], we argue that U.S. vs. Greek consumers’ cultures will choose sustainable fashion to display themselves in public and receive social payoffs (i.e., social approval) for cultivating a social identity with communal purposes [72]. Therefore, the following is suggested:

Hypothesis 2.

Social value mediates the relationship between country and purchase behavior towards sustainable fashion, such that U.S. consumers experience stronger social value, leading to more positive attitudes and, in turn, purchase behavior than Greek consumers.

2.4. The Social Identity Theory: Gender Identity Maintenance

Tajfel (1978) [25] introduces the social identity theory, according to which people determine themselves as well as other people via groups, discovering similarities and differences, with respect to their values and the values of the groups. Moreover, the social identity theory acknowledges that there are various characteristics that help people understand if they belong to certain groups or not and, in turn, assist them in complying with certain behaviors to gain social approval and enhance their self-respect. Along a similar vein, the concept of social identity stands as a mechanism through which people understand their belonging. It defines the way individuals perceive themselves and how they are seen by other people. This sense of belonging is related to the emotional connection with group members with identical traits relevant to social assets and prestige [25]. Notably, individuals strive to maintain their social identity to sustain this sense of belonging. Consequently, people imitate the behaviors of favorable, aspirational groups and, at the same time, try to avoid behaviors of dissociative groups [73,74].

Gender constitutes one such identity. Gender identity—such as masculinity and femininity—is a socially developed construct that relies on gendered stereotypes, values, and roles [75,76], that in turn affect individuals’ self-concept [26], possessions, and actions [73]. In cases where gender identity is endangered, people seek to stick to behaviors that are gender-consistent to preserve their image, self-esteem, and social adherence [26,28,77].

Regarding men and women, the literature showcases that men become more susceptible to sustaining their gender identity and adhering to the gender norms [28,78]. According to Lamarche et al. (2024) [74], masculinity is highly determined by stereotypical behaviors, and thus, when men feel that their gender identity is threatened and, in turn, face social consequences for deviating from social expectations [78], they may seek ways to preserve the congruity between themselves and their masculine role [76]. Along this vein, the literature [79] unveils that men experience strict psychological damage when demonstrating inconsistencies with their gender.

Remarkably, Eagly (1987) [80] supports that women, adhering to social norms, behave in a more nurturing and loving manner, and they more profoundly express their sensitivity and consciousness towards others. Similarly, McCright and Sundström (2013) [81] underlined that the eco-gender gap is highly associated with social status and power. Women try to be more altruistic and protective [82], whereas men’s nature is linked to dominance, independence, and strength [80]. Several studies demonstrate that women are more interdependent, as compared to men, who seek to express their status and power [83].

2.5. The Interaction Effect of Country and Gender on Sustainable Fashion Consumption Through the Prism of Consumption Values (H3 and H4)

Through the lenses of sustainable consumption, previous studies indicate that women consume more sustainably than men [28,84]. An explanation for this phenomenon is the strong relatedness between femininity and greenness [26]. The literature highlights that there are social expectations according to which women’s emotional and social traits associated with femininity are validated via sustainable consumption choices, while men’s aggressiveness, strength, and status are undermined when engaging in sustainable behaviors [27] because the latter tend to experience sustainability in the prism of social norms [85].

Therefore, building on the distinct cultural characteristics between the U.S. and Greece, the theory of cultural dimensions [34], the social identity theory [25], and gender identity maintenance [26], we expect that men, as compared to women, will purchase fewer sustainable fashion products since they believe that sustainable actions are more feminine [26,28] and therefore might jeopardize their masculinity. Moreover, it is anticipated that both U.S. women and U.S. men, as compared to Greek women and men, respectively, will be highly motivated to exert sustainable behaviors that are aligned with their identity, value system, and gender roles, since sustainability plays a key role in shaping and showcasing their sense of self and identity. In other words, U.S. women and men (vs. Greek women and men, respectively) will consume more sustainably, seeking to validate their sense of accomplishment and sense of pride for being themselves by doing the “right thing” [31] and to get emotional and social rewards for such actions and product choices (Figure 1). Therefore, we hypothesize the following:

Hypothesis 3.

Emotional value mediates the moderating effect of gender on the relationship between country and purchase behavior towards sustainable fashion, such that: (a) U.S. women experience stronger emotional value, leading to more positive attitudes and in turn purchase behavior than Greek women, and (b) U.S. men experience stronger emotional value, resulting in more positive attitudes and purchase behavior than Greek men.

Hypothesis 4.

Social value mediates the moderating effect of gender on the relationship between country and purchase behavior towards sustainable fashion, such that: (a) U.S. women experience stronger social value, leading to more positive attitudes and in turn purchase behavior than Greek women, and (b) U.S. men experience stronger social value, resulting in more positive attitudes and purchase behavior than Greek men.

3. Methodology

3.1. Context I: Sustainable Fashion Consumption in the U.S. and Greece

Sustainable fashion in the U.S. market has experienced significant growth (valued at USD 7805.5 million, with a forecast of reaching approximately USD 40,000 million by 2032) due to a general shift towards ethical consumption. More and more brands apply sustainable practices under robust regulatory frameworks that reinforce sustainable production and retailing practices [86,87]. Also, the U.S. welcomes a variety of investors who emphasize sustainable and ethical fashion initiatives, such as collaborations with non-profit organizations or well-established fashion brands, startups, and technology companies that seek to produce more sustainable fabrics and materials. It is noteworthy that such initiatives are most often supported by the U.S. government via increased funding, tax regulations, etc. [86,88].

Notably, in addition to the robust infrastructure and the stability of the U.S. economy, the rise in digital platforms, social media, and e-commerce has facilitated the increase in knowledge and education of consumers, driving their demand for sustainable apparel and clothing. U.S. consumers are highly exposed to sustainable brands and products via the increased use of social media and integrated communication [87]. Also, the U.S. hosts a variety of sustainable fashion events that promote collaboration between designers, brands, and individuals [89,90].

Sustainable fashion in Greece reached a market share of USD 28.49 million in 2024 [24,89], especially due to a lack of knowledge over sustainability-related issues in the fashion industry. Sardianou et al. (2024) [24] demonstrate that most Greeks rarely recycle clothes and prefer to donate their used clothes to friends and family, signaling the social dimension of sustainable product decisions, while only a small percentage (5.5%) use recycling bins in stores, which are very rare. This signals that corporate practices that inspire ecological actions are weak in Greece. Yet, research suggests that the adoption of a new mentality demands a shift in socioeconomic models, cultural contexts, and institutional frameworks to support innovative, ecological initiatives. Alexander (2024) [91] suggests that social media, if used with transparency and authenticity, can play a significant role in shaping Greek consumers’ opinion and behavior towards sustainable fashion, since Greeks use social media for a variety of reasons, such as information, entertainment, and product recommendations. Overall, despite sustainable fashion seeming to be an upcoming trend in the Greek market, there exists an overall lack of a circular mindset and ecological lifestyle, which underlines the need for green initiatives from the scope of companies, accompanied by robust infrastructure and systematic actions by the government [24].

3.2. Context II: Binary Gender

Although gender is approached as a much more complex framework than a binary one in the contemporary era, this current paper examines gender from a traditional perspective by shedding light merely on the binary gender identity, thus, men and women. In this consensus, the present paper considers that there exists an interplay of cultural, situational, societal, physiological, and social-psychological drivers for any discrepancies detected between the two genders [28,78,92].

3.3. Design and Sample of the Survey

An online, quantitative survey was conducted in January 2025 to test the research hypotheses of the current paper. The questionnaire was developed in Google Forms and distributed to both samples through the Prolific platform. This online channel allows us to predefine filters regarding the country and age/generational cohort of the participants. Their participation was voluntary, and they were aware from the beginning of the questionnaire about the anonymity of the study and that the outcomes would be used only for research purposes. The participants were allowed to complete the questionnaire only once. Each participant on Prolific holds a unique code, which is used to verify that the participant answers the study only once. Moreover, to avoid response bias, attention-check items were included in the questionnaire, resulting in 15 excluded responses. Overall, the questionnaire resulted in a sample of 171 U.S. participants (52% women, 41% Generation Y, and 59% Generation Z) and 157 Greek participants (51% women, 56% Generation Y, and 43% Generation Z). The generational composition appears to be satisfying, yet not totally even across the two countries. For this reason, we further examined the tested model, also considering generation (Gen Y vs. Gen Z) as a potential covariate, which appeared to have no statistically significant impact on the tested model. Also, the sample size of 328 was deemed to be appropriate, relying on statistical power analysis and using the G*Power 3.1 software tool [93]. With the number of predictors being defined as five (country as the independent variable, emotional consumption value, social consumption value, and attitude towards sustainable fashion, as mediators, and generational cohort as covariate), the minimum required sample size is 92. Therefore, the sample size of 328 was found to be appropriate.

3.4. Questionnaire

The questionnaire consisted of four sections: the first one included questions about the samples’ demographics; the second included questions about participants’ consumption behavior towards sustainable fashion; the third one included questions about consumers’ motivations for sustainable fashion; and the fourth one investigated participants’ attitudes towards sustainable fashion. Also, at the beginning of the questionnaire, each participant was required to write his/her unique Prolific code to verify that he/she will respond to the questionnaire only once. The items for each variable of this research were measured on a 5-point Likert scale. We used a 2-item scale for purchase behavior towards fashion products adjusted on the scale provided by [94], a 3-item scale for attitude towards sustainable clothing provided by [95], a 4-item scale for social value, and a 3-item scale for emotional value adopted by [96] (Appendix A). All measures satisfied Cronbach’s Alpha criterion (α > 0.7). Since purchase behavior is a construct measured with only two items, the high loadings and adequate internal consistency add to the robustness of the outcomes (

Table 1. Cronbach’s Alpha, average variance extracted (AVE), and construct reliability (CR) scores for internal reliability and convergent validity for each scale.

Variables	Items	Standardized Estimations of Factor Loadings	AVE	CR	Cronbach’s Alpha
Emotional value [96]	Buying green products instead of conventional products would feel like making a good personal contribution to something better. Buying green products instead of conventional products would feel like the morally right thing. Buying green products instead of conventional products would make me feel like a better person.	0.899 0.912 0.896	0.817	0.931	0.93
Social value [96]	Buying the green product would help me to feel acceptable. Buying the green product would improve the way that I am perceived. Buying the green product would make a good impression on other people. Buying the green product would give its owner social approval.	0.875 0.854 0.900 0.898	0.781	0.935	0.93
Purchase behavior towards fashion products [94]	How often did you shop for sustainable fashion products in the previous month? (1 = Never…5 = In every chance). How much money did you spend on sustainable fashion products in the previous month? (1 = I spent no money…5= I spent a lot of money).	0.904 0.825	0.751	0.858	0.86
Attitude towards sustainable clothing [95]	Generally, I have a favorable attitude towards the sustainable version of clothes. I am positive-minded towards buying sustainable clothes. I like the idea of buying sustainable clothes instead of conventional clothes to contribute to environmental protection.	0.789 0.458 0.830	0.508	0.737	0.73

). The questionnaire was originally developed in Google Forms, in English, and distributed to the U.S. participants. Then, before sending it to Greek participants, we applied a forward–backward translation process, recruiting two independent bilingual experts. Furthermore, the Greek version was also tested in order to ensure clarity as well as semantic adaptation.

JASP 0.18.3 software was employed to conduct (CFA) to assess the discriminant and convergent validity of the measures of the total sample. The findings unveiled that, for all tested variables, CR ≥ 0.70 [94], AVE ≥ 0.50 [97], and CR > AVE [98] (Table 1). Notably, CFA was not applicable to the purchase behavior two-item scale construct. Also, the model determines an acceptable or a good fit to the data (x2/df = 2.46, CFI = 0.976, TLI = 0.968, AGFI = 0.945, RMSEA = 0.067, and SRMR = 0.038). Moreover, all standardized coefficients were significant, ranging from moderate to strong estimates (0.46 to 0.90) [99] (Table 1). To test the discriminant validity, we checked the heterotrait–monotrait ratio of correlations (HTMT) criterion [100]. The HTMT value was below 0.85 for all the estimated measures, and thus, the discriminant validity was established for the model (

Table 2. Heterotrait–monotrait (HTMT) criterion—discriminant validity.

	Social Value	Emotional Value	Attitude Towards Sustainable Clothing
Social value	1.000
Emotional value	0.577	1.000
Attitude towards sustainable clothing	0.605	0.720	1.000

). Furthermore, we applied correlations between the variables (

Table 3. Correlation matrix.

	Social Value	Emotional Value	Attitude Towards Sustainable Clothing	Purchase Behavior Towards Sustainable Fashion Products
Social value	1.000	0.540 **	0.495 **	0.631 **
Emotional value		1.000	0.614 **	0.394 **
Attitude towards sustainable clothing			1.000	0.405 **
Purchase behavior towards sustainable fashion products				1.000

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

). To examine the appropriateness of the suggested model, we ran the tolerance and variance inflation factor (VIF) to shed light on whether there is severe multicollinearity among explanatory variables. The analyses proved that VIF was below 4 and tolerance was above 0.25 for all the tested variables, and as such, there exists no collinearity (

Table 4. Collinearity diagnostics.

	Collinearity Statistics
	Tolerance	VIF
Social value	0.781	1.197
Emotional value	0.817	1.139
Attitude towards sustainable clothing	0.508	1.451

Dependent variable: Purchase behavior towards sustainable fashion products.

). Also, the Harman single-factor technique [101] showed that when all measures are loaded onto a single factor, they do not explain more than 50% of the variance. Yet, since the first factor accounts for 49.591% of the total variance (below, yet almost 50%), common method bias is possible but does not appear as a serious threat, and thus the outcomes should be explained with caution (

Table 5. Results of common method bias.

Total Variance Explained
Component             Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings
	Total	% of Variance	Cumulative %
1	5.951	49.591	49.591

).

4. Results

First, an ANOVA reveals the direct effect of country on emotional and social consumption value, attitude, and purchase behavior towards sustainable fashion. Particularly, it is demonstrated that the U.S. (vs. Greek) participants reported more favorable attitudes (MU.S. = 3.88, SD = 0.86; MGR = 3.57, SD = 0.83) (p < 0.001), purchase behaviors to SF (MU.S. = 3.05, SD = 1.16; MGR = 2.26, SD = 0.87) (p < 0.001), emotional value (MU.S. = 3.80, SD = 1.04; MGR = 3.52, SD = 1.23) (p = 0.034), and social consumption value (MU.S. = 3.31, SD = 1.11; MGR = 2.15, SD = 1.01) (p < 0.001) (

Table 6. Analysis of variance.

	Emotional Value	Social Value	Attitude to SF	Purchase Behavior to SF
	M      SD	M      SD	M      SD	M      SD
The U.S.	3.80      1.04	3.31      1.11	3.88      0.86	3.05      1.16
Greece	3.52      1.23	2.15      1.01	3.57      0.83	2.26      0.87
	F	Sig (p-value)
Emotional value	4.510	0.034
Social value	96,592	<0.001
Attitude to SF	11,619	<0.001
Purchase behavior to SF	48,306	<0.001

).

Second, two serial mediation analyses (model 6 with 5000 bootstrap samples) were applied [102]. Country was the independent variable (the U.S. was coded as 0 and Greece as 1), emotional and social value and attitude towards sustainable fashion were the mediating factors, and purchase behavior towards sustainable fashion products was the dependent variable. In support of H1 and H2, the outcomes of the study reveal that country has a significant effect on attitudes and purchase behavior towards sustainable fashion, through emotional value (β = −0.03, SE = −0.02, and BC 95% CI [−0.077, −0.001]) and social value (β = −0.07, SE = −0.03, and BC 95% CI [−0.138, −0.012]) (

Table 7. Direct effects in mediation model and bootstrap 95% confidence intervals for indirect effects of country on purchase behavior to SF with emotional value and attitude to SF as mediating factors.

	Emotional Value	Attitude to SF	Purchase Behavior to SF
	β      t (326)	β      t (325)	β         t (324)
Country	−0.267 *   −2.12	−0.19 **   −2.65	−0.65 ***      −6.12
Emotional value		0.45 ***   13.76	0.23 ***      3.90
Attitude to SF			0.27 ***      3.44
Mediation		Index	LLCI    ULCI
Country -> Emotional value -> Purchase behavior to SF		−0.06	[−0.1343, −0.0024]
Country -> Attitude to SF -> Purchase behavior to SF		−0.05	[−0.1117, −0.0099]
Country -> Emotional value -> Attitude to SF -> Purchase behavior to SF		−0.03	[−0.0769, −0.0012]

* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001.

and

Table 8. Direct effects in mediation model and bootstrap 95% confidence intervals for indirect effects of country on purchase behavior to SF with social value and attitude to SF as mediating factors.

	Social Value	Attitude to SF	Purchase Behavior to SF
	β      t (326)	β      t (325)	b      t (324)
Country	−0.1.16 *   −9.83	0.11      −1.21	−0.18      −1.71
Social value		0.37 ***   9.61	0.48 ***    9.63
Attitude to SF			0.17 ***    2.61
Mediation		Index	LLCI    ULCI
Country -> Social value -> Purchase behavior to SF		−0.56	[−0.7395, −0.3981]
Country -> Attitude to SF -> Purchase behavior to SF		−0.02	[−0.0144, +0.0683]
Country -> Social value -> Attitude to SF -> Purchase behavior to SF		−0.07	[−0.1379, −0.0123]

* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, and *** p < 0.001.

). The coding of country, with Greece as 1 and the U.S. as 0, justifies and explains the negative indirect coefficients found in the above analyses. Notably, the negative coefficients signal that the indirect effects via consumption values are more pronounced for the U.S. sample as compared to the Greek one.

Third, an ANOVA reveals that the interplay of country and gender impacts attitude and purchase behavior. Interestingly, women in the U.S. and Greece exhibit no statistically significant differences in attitude to sustainable fashion (MU.S. = 3.98, SD = 0.83; MGR = 3.95, SD = 0.72), yet U.S. (vs. Greek) women exhibit more positive purchase behavior (MU.S. = 3.05, SD = 1.24; MGR = 2.44, SD = 0.87). Also, the outcomes reveal that U.S. (vs. Greek) women express lower levels of emotional value (MU.S. = 3.91, SD = 0.95; MGR = 4.28, SD = 0.67), but higher levels of social value (MU.S. = 3.36, SD = 1.09; MGR = 2.50, SD = 0.1.06). As for men, the analyses show that U.S. (vs. Greek) men exert a more positive attitude towards sustainable fashion (MU.S. = 3.78, SD = 0.89; MGR = 3.14, SD = 0.74), enhanced purchase behavior (MU.S. = 3.06, SD = 1.08; MGR = 2.05, SD = 0.82), higher levels of emotional value (MU.S. = 3.67, SD = 1.11; MGR = 2.70, SD = 1.17), and higher levels of social value (MU.S. = 3.25, SD = 1.14; MGR = 1.77, SD = 0.80) (

Table 9. Analysis of variance with gender as moderating variable.

Country	Gender	Emotional Value		Social Value		Attitude to SF		Purchase Behavior to SF
		M	SD	M	SD	M	SD	M	SD
U.S.	Men	3.67	1.11	3.25	1.14	3.78	0.89	3.06	1.08
	Women	3.91	0.95	3.36	1.09	3.98	0.83	3.05	1.24
Greece	Men	2.70	1.17	1.77	0.80	3.14	0.74	2.05	0.82
	Women	4.28	0.67	2.50	1.06	3.95	0.72	2.44	0.87
Gender × Generation	F	Sig
Emotional value	36,845	<0.001
Social value	7.236	0.008
Attitude to SF	11,848	<0.001
Purchase behavior to SF	3.155	0.077

).

Fourth, two moderated serial mediation analyses (model 83 with 5000 bootstrap samples) were conducted. Country was the independent variable, emotional value, social value, and attitude to sustainable fashion were the mediating variables, purchase behavior was the dependent variable, and gender was the moderating factor. The analyses unveiled that country influences purchase behavior regarding sustainable fashion, via emotional value (β = 0.16, SE = 0.02, and BC 95% CI [0.058, 0.298]) and via social value (β = 0.04, SE = 0.03, and BC 95% CI [0.003, 0.085]), which in turn impact attitudes moderated by gender (

Table 10. Moderated serial mediation analysis with emotional value and attitude as mediating factors.

	Emotional Value	Attitude to SF	Purchase Behavior to SF
	β       t(324)	β      t (325)	β       t (324)
Country	−2.30 ***   −6.57	−0.20 **     −2.65	−0.65 ***  −6.12
Gender	−1.09 **     −3.17
Country × gender	1.33 ***    6.07
Emotional value		0.45 ***   13.75	0.23 ***   3.90
Attitude to SF			0.27 **    3.44
Moderated mediation		Index	LLCI    ULCI
		0.16	[0.0583,   0.2982]

* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, and *** p < 0.001.

and

Table 11. Moderated serial mediation analysis with social value and attitude as mediating factors.

	Emotional Value	Attitude to SF	Purchase Behavior to SF
	b        t(324)	b     t (325)	b     t (325)
Country	−2.10 ***     9.22	0.11     1.21	−0.18     −1.71
Gender	−0.51       −5.74
Country × gender	0.62 **      2.69
Social value		0.37 ***   9.61	0.48 ***   9.63
Attitude to SF			0.16 **      2.61
Moderated mediation		Index	LLCI    ULCI
		0.04	[0.0032,   0.0853]

* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, and *** p < 0.001.

). Thus, as a result of the above, H3 and H4 are supported (Figure 2). It is noteworthy that we also applied the two moderated serial mediation analyses, considering generation (with Gen Y coded as 2 and Gen Z as 3) as a covariate. Generation was found to have no statistically significant impact on the tested model (p = 0.18).

5. Discussion

5.1. Theoretical Implications

The present paper seeks to investigate the synergistic effect of country and gender on attitude and purchase behavior regarding sustainable fashion, in light of emotional and social consumption values. Although there are several studies that have partially examined the impact of cultural traits [19], gender [25,29], and consumption values [31] on sustainable product choices, based on our current knowledge, a few fragmented studies have tried to shed light on the synergistic effect of culture, consumption values, and gender on sustainable fashion consumption.

This study outlines significant theoretical implications. First, the current research adds to the existing literature on the context of sustainable fashion consumption. It extends prior research that fragmentarily focuses either on a single demographic variable [62], cultural divergence between various countries [19], or consumption values [19,31] by demonstrating that there lies a significant interaction between country and gender, which affects attitude and purchase behavior regarding sustainable fashion, through emotional and social consumption values. Notably, U.S. individuals appear to form enhanced attitudes and purchase behaviors toward sustainable fashion products, as compared to Greeks. Building on the theory of cultural dimensions [34] and the theory of consumption values [35], the current study demonstrates that the U.S. (vs. Greek) consumers shape more favorable attitudes and purchase behaviors toward sustainable fashion through emotional and social consumption values. Importantly, the current research proposes that U.S. (as compared to Greek) consumers, who might express more individualist behavioral patterns and tendencies, might be triggered by a broad range of factors, such as moral values and the need for self-expression and fulfillment through good actions, or by their need to be socially accepted and approved for their sustainable product choices. Further, we argue that since fashion constitutes a product category that is publicly consumed and enhances self-expression and conspicuousness [59], we suggest that U.S. consumers feel that their moral choices can be demonstrated, get rewarded, and be accepted by others.

Furthermore, the proposed model validates the hypothesis that gender moderates the serial indirect effect of country on purchase behavior, via emotional and social consumption values, and in turn on attitude to sustainable fashion. Interestingly, the current research shows that U.S. (vs. Greek) women report higher levels of social value that lead them to sustainable fashion consumption. As mentioned above, U.S. consumers, and especially women who extensively use social media [71] and are susceptible to social interactions [83], indulge in their need to show their product choices, with the purpose of conforming to and being accepted by others. At the same time, U.S. consumers adopt progressive, expensive product choices, while for many Greeks, consuming green fashion can be more costly and, therefore, more difficult to access.

Importantly, Greek (vs. U.S.) women report higher levels of emotional value. The current research contributes to the extant literature by showing that, although the U.S. is a more individualistic culture, Greek women tend to stick to their emotional and social self, emphasizing more their moral, nurturing, and altruistic self [80,82] and engaging in sustainable fashion consumption due to their need for emotional fulfillment, in a communal context. Importantly, we argue that a possible reason for this might lie in the gendered roles, stereotypes, and expectations that are entrenched in Greek society, according to which women are expected to internalize green consumption as an expression of their nurturing and caring nature. Therefore, women in Greece, when they purchase green fashion, might feel emotionally rewarded for aligning their personal values with an ethical and socially responsible action. Also, women in both countries demonstrate no significant differences with respect to their attitudes to sustainable fashion, while it is unveiled that U.S. women purchase more SF as compared to Greek women. This implies that there is an enhanced eco-gap in Greece, and therefore, a divergence between women’s attitudes and purchase behaviors. This phenomenon might be attributed to cost considerations, weak infrastructures, and a lack of knowledge, interest, and concern with respect to green issues.

It is noteworthy that U.S. men (vs. Greek men) form more positive attitudes and behavioral patterns toward sustainable fashion, driven by emotional and social consumption value. Trying to elucidate this outcome, we rely on prior studies according to which sustainability is highly associated with femininity [26,27], and thus, men, in fear of jeopardizing their masculinity [28], consume less sustainably. Additionally, centering on the higher gender inequality that Greece faces, as compared to the U.S., we argue that Greek men demonstrate much lower attitudes and purchase behaviors because they do not want to express their empathetic nature, but rather their dominance over the environment [81], in order to justify the gender stereotypes cultivated in Greece that expect men to be more powerful and independent. At the same time, Greek men report that they are less affected by social consumption value, and therefore, their sustainable fashion choices are less influenced by others’ opinions and approval. Importantly, building on prior research [26,27], we posit that Greek men think that buying a sustainable fashion product would not improve their social image, but it would rather harm their macho profile. Moreover, we argue that this phenomenon is enhanced in the case of sustainable fashion, a product category that is publicly consumed to be self-expressed and appreciated by others.

Overall, the significance of this research lies in the argument that the drivers of sustainable consumption are not always identical to those of sustainable fashion consumption. Put differently, this study contributes to the discourse among studies and extends it [10,11,12,13,14] by positing that sustainable fashion consumption among different cultures is not influenced merely by cultural traits, but also by emotional and social consumption values, which operate as catalysts in the above relationship and further elucidate the paradox of sustainable fashion consumption. Therefore, on the one hand, U.S. consumers who are traditionally driven by individualistic traits may be more prone to purchase sustainable fashion to express their morality, their inner self, and personal values, whereas on the other hand, although being less collectivists than Greek consumers, U.S. consumers purchase sustainable fashion to express their identity, prestige, and power to other people. Consequently, the present research contributes to prior studies [36] by delving into the impact of both emotional and social consumption values, which urge consumers to shape positive attitudes and purchase behaviors regarding sustainable fashion to do something good in order to feel good, or to express their social identity as a way to conform or differentiate themselves from others.

5.2. Practical Implications

The current research addresses significant managerial implications. Sustainable fashion constitutes a global trend whose adoption faces local restrictions based on the extent of its progress and evolution in each geographical area. Therefore, marketers must consider adjusting their strategies and communication practices. On the one hand, sustainable practices prevail in developed countries (i.e., the U.S., Scandinavian countries, and so forth), and yet emerging countries (i.e., countries in Eastern Europe) are starting to flourish gradually. So, marketers need to consider that there might be completely different abilities, opportunities, and motivations that would encourage a consumer to embrace sustainable fashion behavior [103]. For instance, in developed countries, individuals who are driven by their self-oriented facets, such as the need for uniqueness and status demonstration, tend to buy sustainable fashion to help them differentiate themselves from others. Thus, marketing strategies should emphasize satisfying such desires and motivations for conspicuousness, social approval, and the need to express one’s personal identity.

Moreover, marketers should account for the attitude–behavior gap in sustainable consumption, which might be due to products’ high pricing, as well as lack of knowledge and awareness on green issues. Put differently, while for individuals in stronger economies sustainable fashion is already a trend that needs to be preserved in their preferences and lifestyle, for individuals in weaker economies, sustainable fashion needs to be positioned not just as another luxurious option and a meaningless, financial burden, but rather as an investment in a more ethical and sustainable way of life. Therefore, marketers should emphasize the “new consumerism”, thereby highlighting the importance of consuming transparently, ethically, and sustainably. In this sense, it is suggested that marketers utilize the dynamics of content marketing, social media, and influencers that could spread the news for sustainable practices of brands around the world, attract consumers’ attention, and trigger their eco-consciousness [104].

6. Limitations and Further Research

The current research has some limitations. First, we emphasize the U.S. without considering and analyzing the diverse subcultures in the country, as well as the underlying dimensions that may influence their sustainable choices of fashion products. Therefore, we suggest that future researchers could delve into these subcultures, their values, and their motivations to consume sustainably, while also increasing the number of participants to enhance the generalizability of the findings.

Second, another significant limitation of the current study is its argument that the two countries’ discrepancies heavily rely on cultural traits, and specifically on the bipolarity of individualism/collectivism, which was not directly measured in the questionnaire. However, we acknowledge that the theory of Hofstede faces some limitations, especially because it simplifies the criteria according to which a country is categorized as individualistic or collectivist. Therefore, future researchers are advised to examine the countries’ potential divergence using a specific scale.

Third, beyond elaborating on the cultural dimensions of the two countries, the current research reports evidence regarding the countries’ divergence on behavioral patterns, green consumption choices, social media usage, and so forth, which reflect their consumption values as well as sustainable product choices. However, these elements are not measured with a specific scale but are rather based on official reports from institutions or prior literature. Therefore, future research could incorporate validated measurements to provide an in-depth analysis of the two countries.

Fourth, future researchers could broaden the sampling pool by focusing on the LGBTQ+ community, both in Greece and the U.S., and not merely on a binary gender framework. Third, we established our research hypotheses by building on the individualism/collectivism continuum. However, we propose that it would be of high academic value to consider other cultural dimensions, such as long-/short-term orientation (i.e., China vs. the U.S., respectively) or femininity/masculinity (i.e., Sweden vs. the U.S., respectively) that could also affect sustainable product decisions.

Fifth, purchase behavior towards sustainable consumption was measured using a 2-item scale. Although this scale was adapted from prior research and it clearly defines and reflects specific purchasing tendencies, we posit that a scale with more items would be more highly preferred in SEM and further incorporated in PROCESS analyses. Thus, future researchers are advised to replicate this study, incorporating a different scale for measuring purchase behavior to further validate the construct’s validity.

Another potential limitation regarding the construct of purchase behavior is that it relies on self-report measurements, which may not reflect real behaviors due to social desirability bias. Prior studies extensively use self-report measures when investigating purchase behavior [105]. At the same time, the participants were reassured about the anonymity of their answers. However, participants’ responses regarding their sustainable fashion consumption might have been exaggerated, and therefore, the outcomes should be interpreted with caution. Also, it is advised that future research could potentially use physiological measures to enhance the validity and generalizability of the findings.

Sixth, running Harman’s single-factor test, the single-factor model demonstrated poor fit, thus suggesting that common method bias is not likely to occur in the observed factor structure. Yet, Harman’s single-factor test alone is not sufficient to fully rule out common method bias, since we use self-report measures and cross-cultural data. Furthermore, while the current research provides significant insights regarding cross-cultural differences, it does not test the measurement invariance between the two national samples. Even though the measurement model shows an acceptable fit for the total sample, this outcome does not reflect whether there exists an invariance about measurement constructs or true country variation. Consequently, future research should consider addressing this issue to further validate the outcomes of the country comparison.

On a final note, another drawback of our study is that we emphasized only emotional and social consumption values. However, the theory of [35] also incorporates functional, epistemic, and conditional values, which could also provide fruitful insights with respect to the motivations that drive consumers’ green consumption.