Internationalizing Terroir Products Today: Focus on Tunisian Olive Oil and Swiss La Tête de Moine AOP Cheese

Abstract

This study investigates the export strategies of agri-food SMEs through two terroir products: La Tête de Moine AOP from the Bellelay region and Tunisian olive oil from the Sfax region. Grounded in the resource-based view (RBV), it explores how firm-level and territorially embedded resources shape export performance. A two-stage qualitative design combining semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions was employed in both contexts. Analysis reveals that the La Tête de Moine AOP sector stands out from the olive oil sector due to certain resources and capacities, which are collective reputation, product traceability, cooperative management, forecasting, and long-term planning systems, centralized knowledge management, shared brand, financial advantages, and territorial social capital. Tunisian olive oil export strategy differs from the cheese sector through market responsiveness, upstream integration, and product innovation. The findings highlight the critical role of territorial capital and collective organization in enhancing sustainable competitiveness and reveal how distinct resource configurations shape SME internationalization in developed versus emerging economies. Practical recommendations are proposed to create a more relevant resources–capabilities collection, aiming at creating a sustainable competitive advantage for SMEs exporting terroir food.

1. Introduction

Market globalization has prompted small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) to pursue international opportunities and develop their international strategies [1,2]. Agri-food SMEs seeking to integrate effectively into global agro-value chains must contend with intense competitive pressures in a more complicated and uncertain environment [3] due to market liberalization, the dominance of international supermarket chains, a growing demand for traceability and high quality, and the increasing marginalization of small firms from regions with poor infrastructure [4]. Particularly, SMEs that produce terroir items frequently have challenges in breaking into new long-distance markets, which are frequently brought on by insufficient production and marketing plans [5]. A terroir product is the result of a unique location with distinctive qualities that are bestowed by that specific geographic area and its distinct and irreproducible features [6]. Increasingly, the valorization of these products is relied on for the promotion of sustainable agri-food systems and the support of local sustainable development [7,8].

A large pool of literature has been produced to shed light on factors that explain the international survival of agri-food SMEs, such as managerial gender in the case of Spanish agri-food SMEs [9] or value chain structures in the case of Italian SMEs in the tomato industry [4]. The Uppsala internationalization process model was applied to show that partnerships with domestic clustered networks can significantly accelerate the internationalization trajectory of agri-food SMEs [10]. However, as the Uppsala approach describes internationalization as a series of steps [11], its application may not be relevant to “born global” firms [12] that adopt an international outlook from the outset [13].

The internationalization of SMEs is often interpreted through the lens of the RBV, which emphasizes the strategic importance of firms’ internal resources and capabilities in facilitating entry into foreign markets [14,15]. Previous research posits that firms with greater resource endowments are better equipped to exploit international opportunities [10]. Several researchers advocated for the application of the RBV to enhance the understanding of export activities [16,17,18], given its adaptability to the informal and resource-constrained environments in which many SMEs operate [19]. However, notable gaps remain in our understanding of SMEs and the role their resources play in driving export outcomes [20].

In the terroir product sector, a specific body of literature has applied the RBV to wine clusters, aiming to identify cluster resources and analyze their role in generating competitive advantage for firms within these clusters [21,22]. These studies underscore terroir as a fundamental RBV component driving wine export performance [21,22]. Despite their valuable contributions, the applicability of their findings to other terroir product contexts remains limited due to their exclusive focus on local wine production. Moreover, by adopting the cluster as the unit of analysis rather than the individual firm [21], these studies may overlook a broader set of tangible and intangible firm-specific resources, as well as the mechanisms through which other SMEs producing different terroir products exploit their resources in international markets [23].

Within this context, artisanal cheese occupies advantageous positions within an increasingly competitive and expanding global market [24,25] La Tête de Moine AOP, a Swiss cheese, set new export records during the year 2024, with a total of 79,268 tons of Swiss cheese (+7.9%) valued at CHF 748.4 million, according to the annual report of the Tête de Moine interprofessional organization, which was published in October 2025. This premium cheese has garnered international acclaim due to its rich heritage, exceptional quality, unique flavor profile, and its strict consumption by scraping with a “Girolle” to create a rosette [26]. It is made using a traditional recipe based on premium, high-fat raw milk from cows that are fed only non-silage hay and graze in the high pastures of the Jura region (Cantons of Berne and Jura) [26].

In contrast, Tunisian olive oil, one of the nation’s most significant export industries [27,28], is mostly exported in bulk and blended with other European olive oils without identifying where they come from, leaving significant gaps in added value [29,30]. The authenticity of Tunisian olive oil and its conformity to chemical and organoleptic characteristics, such as Bitterness and acidity, are influenced by the agro-climatic conditions and territorial specificities, cultivar, stage of maturity, and extraction system [27]. Indeed, previous comparative studies have indicated that oils from warmer regions such as Tunisia and Greece tend to display lower oleic acid levels, while Italian oils are often richer in stearic acid and minor fatty acids [27].

From a comparative management perspective, culture is conceptualized as an exogenous variable that shapes a firm’s management philosophy and development processes [31]. This suggests that a management strategy effective in one sociocultural context may not yield the same results in another [32]. Accordingly, it is plausible that the determinants identified by the RBV and the influence of territoriality differ across national contexts. In light of this, the present study’s analytical framework will concentrate on the export activities of two emblematic terroir products: Tunisian olive oil and the Swiss cheese “La Tête de Moine AOP”.

Against this backdrop, this study aims to examine the key resources and capabilities mobilized by Tunisian olive oil and Swiss cheese exporters in support of their internationalization plans.

This study contributes to the existing literature by offering a novel application of the RBV within the context of agri-food SMEs’ internationalization, with a particular emphasis on territorial capital as a sustainable resource. By examining two distinct products from countries at different stages of economic development, Tunisia as an emerging economy and Switzerland as a developed economy, this research provides a valuable benchmark for understanding how territorial capital translates into competitive advantage in global markets. Furthermore, the comparative analysis of these terroir products, which share similar inherent characteristics, sheds light on how divergent international market positioning can arise from differences in strategic approaches. Ultimately, the practical insights derived from this study aim to enrich knowledge on effective and sustainable internationalization strategies and offer actionable lessons to assist other SMEs in the terroir sector that aspire to expand internationally.

To achieve this, this study adopts a mixed-methods approach, combining qualitative insights from interviews and focus groups. This approach was chosen for its suitability in capturing in-depth insights into SME internationalization processes and in exploring the underlying mechanisms involved. The paper is structured to first provide a conceptual and theoretical background on territorial capital and SME internationalization, followed by a detailed presentation of the methodology. Subsequent sections discuss the empirical findings and their implications for practice and policy, before concluding with reflections on limitations and directions for future research.

2. Literature Review

2.1. The Resource-Based View (RBV) Theory

The resource-based view (RBV) has become a key theoretical framework in the strategic management literature [33]. This theory serves as an explanation of how to enter foreign markets, as well as the pace and prerequisites needed for the internationalization process to thrive [34]. A resource is “anything which could be thought of as a strength of a given firm” [35]. Productive activity demands “cooperation and coordination from teams of resources” [36]. Thus, resources are those “assets controlled by the firm that are used as inputs in organizational processes”, while capabilities represent “the firm’s ability to combine, develop, and use its resources to create competitive advantage” [36]. Resources provide the foundation of a company’s capabilities, which are also essential instruments for creating or preserving a competitive advantage [37].

Barney [38] introduced the resource’s heterogeneity and immobility tenets to develop the concept of sustainable competitive advantage (SCA). The SCA results from the creation of a collection of abilities and attributes that are difficult for present and prospective rivals to negotiate, copy, replace, or apply concurrently, and that makes it challenging for rivals to access or duplicate the company’s internal resources [35,38,39].

The existing RBV literature contains a number of firm resource categories [22]. A meta-analysis of 129 empirical studies using the RBV reveals 230 resources and 211 capabilities that could be categorized into nine (R–C) pairs [33].

An organizational R–C pair mainly involves firm-specific characteristics, such as the firm’s size and age [40], strategic orientation, structural resources, reputational resources, export planning/strategy capabilities, and others [35]. Entrepreneurial and international orientation are the two key components of strategic orientation [33]. Entrepreneurial orientation implies the managers’ attitudes regarding external market opportunities [41,42], while the international orientation describes the firm’s involvement in export activities [43]. An export orientation, one of the main organizational strategic assets for international performance, emphasizes the value of a firm’s overall competitive direction in exporting [33]. To be export-oriented, a company needs to be or become international-market-oriented and prioritize foreign commerce [44]. A production and technological R–C pair covers R&D resources, physical production resources, product quality, and the firm’s technological orientation [45]. A managerial R–C pair includes the manager’s outlook, management commitment, and management know-how and philosophy on what matters in an organization, including group dynamics, motivation, and cohesiveness [46]. An experiential R–C pair involves the total export experience based on many factors, such as the years of export activity or the number of export markets served [47]. Scholars argued that SMEs need a certain amount of experience to effectively penetrate new international markets [48]. The firm acquires knowledge and develops routines and processes for dealing with foreign marketing through accumulated experience [49]. There are two main categories of experience [50]. The first type is geographical experience, and it refers to the firm’s familiarity with foreign markets [50]. The second one is industry experience and concerns the firm’s familiarity with industry standards and practices [50]. A relational R–C pair primarily consists of networks and the quality of relationships [33]. In line with the strategic networking approach [51], companies, especially SMEs, need to create and preserve enduring connections with external stakeholders [37] to gain knowledge and overcome limitations related to their size and “resource poverty” [52]. Relational resources improve the RBV concept’s explanatory power by bridging the internal–external gap [53]. A network can be categorized into three types: an institutional network, such as private commercial banks and transport companies; a governmental network, such as a chamber of commerce; and a research network, namely university professors and research institutes [54]. A knowledge-based R–C pair encompasses informational resources and information gathering, usage, and dissemination [47]. Accumulating market knowledge that is uncommon, valuable, and hard to replicate can boost a company’s global competitive advantage [55]. Five subprocesses for knowledge acquisition can be identified within an organization: using knowledge from the firm’s founding; learning from experience; learning by watching other firms; acquiring firms or individuals who possess the knowledge required by the firm; and observing or looking for information about the firm’s environment [56].

For marketing R–C pairs, researchers have taken into consideration, for example, market orientation, brands, marketing personnel, and product innovation [57,58]. Specialized marketing capabilities focusing on product adaptation, distribution, communication, and pricing are an important part of this category [33]. Finally, financing R–C refers to the financial resources of the exporting firm as a whole and its ability to receive financial support [33,59,60].

2.2. Application of the RBV to the Internationalization of Agri-SMEs

The agri-food sector worldwide is defined by a significant number of micro-, small, and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) [61]. Using the RBV and micro-level data from the German agri-food sector, a company’s international success was explained by the following factors: technology and production, market analysis, retail closeness and consumer relationship quality, bargaining power, product innovation, foreign market engagement, and staff qualifications [62]. For American agricultural SMEs (agri-SMEs), international expansion requires internal resources, such as social and ethnic networks [63]. Social networks include both formal and informal connections between agri-SMEs and their foreign partners, while ethnic ties involve the shared ancestry, language, and cultural identity in the foreign market [63]. In addition, product innovation through matching the local consumers’ tastes was mentioned as being important for the international competitiveness of agri-food businesses [61].

For example, using innovative packaging has increased traditional Italian wineries’ sales overseas [64].

Previous research focusing on wine products has emphasized the value and uniqueness of terroir-based goods and demonstrated how these characteristics relate to the firm’s RBV. The distinctiveness, heritage, and tradition of Canary Islands wines constitute a valuable commercial resource [65]. The main factors influencing the export intensity of Italian wineries include their degree of innovation, investment in advertising and promotion, international experience, language proficiency, and managers’ educational levels [66]. Likewise, the export performance of French wine SMEs is influenced by firm-specific qualities, such as export competencies, export commitment, and the manager’s willingness to seek new international business opportunities [44].

2.3. Territorial Resources and the Internationalization of Agri-SMEs

Agri-SMEs exporting a terroir product are characterized by a product that arises from a unique place, defined by “the soil, the climate, the general environment, and by the cultural methods and/or particular transformations” [6]. The concept of terroir can frequently be misinterpreted as the territory [67]. The territory constitutes a field of natural and cultural resources, on which a terroir can then be expressed [67]. Local agricultural production enhances these resources, creating specific technical, economic, and sociocultural effects that define a terroir [67]. Territorial resources refer to the material and immaterial components of the land and how they might be used as leverage in business [68]. A material component refers to the aspects of the natural environment, such as landscape features, soil, flora, and fauna. Meanwhile, immaterial components can be understood as the anthropogenic environment, such as historical figures and the traditions of the area [68]. The interdependence and connections among various types of territorial resources make it difficult to duplicate using similar qualities in other places [23]. As origin products are embedded in the territorial food system [69], the growth of agri-food firms is positively impacted by the territory’s intangible resources [70]. These resources are important to the food sector because of consumer preferences towards food items that represent a region’s identity, history, heritage, and culture [71]. The so-called territorial heritage is made up of the unique characteristics of the region, its customs, and its social and cultural institutions, which generate value and reputation [70,72].

According to specific studies, the territory has a large impact on the competitiveness of terroir-based companies in the global market [70,73,74,75]. For example, terroir agri-food SMEs in France’s Languedoc-Roussillon region are more dynamic in international markets and have greater export success than non-terroir SMEs [74]. Likewise, terroir was presented as a cultural and symbolic resource that helps build sustainable international identities for micro and small Italian wineries [20]. An empirical analysis of ten French wine companies has shown that some emerging factors have not been highlighted by previous studies on SME internationalization, namely their distinctive competitive attributes: their link to the terroir, their specialization image, and the history of the producer [76]. Therefore, the terroir is transformed from an origin designation to a strategic asset under the RBV [22,76].

2.4. Territorial Capital and Local Development

Territorial capital constitutes a system of cultural elements, shared values, and locally embedded practices that shape territorial identities and give meaning to local structures [67].

Tangible and intangible territorial elements represent specific determinants that can significantly enhance business success in international competition, local services, and context-specific skills [73]. Therefore, an open system of relationships emerges as a key factor in fostering local employment and shaping the entrepreneurial dynamics within the territory [73].

A territorial anchor for the manufacturing process may generate economic activity in marginal areas for small businesses involved in production and for employees (such as female workers) [8]. Previous research highlighted a series of implications for sustainable rural development thanks to products embedded in a territorial capital. Through the articulation of tourism and origin-based products, the Gozo Cottage company in Malta cooperates with the local producers of Gozo Island to offer a variety of products to tourists, such as olive oil and wine, providing producers with additional revenue, governance influence, and access to knowledge [69]. In Tunisia, differentiation strategies oriented toward niche and higher-value export markets for olive oil enable small farmers to improve income stability and the quality of employment [30].

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Data Collection Procedure

Employing a qualitative methodology is particularly beneficial for enhancing our comprehension of SME internationalization and exploring the mechanisms involved [77]. We used methodological triangulation, namely the ‘within’ method, which recommends combining at least two data-gathering techniques to guarantee the richness of the data [78]. A two-stage protocol was employed: firstly, individual semi-directive interviews were conducted, during which the interviewees were asked to express themselves in an extensive manner, guided by an interview guide. The average duration of these interviews was around 90 to 240 min. Secondly, a sample of interviewees from the previous analysis were invited to two roundtable discussions dedicated to discussing the results of the exploratory survey on the two sectors. The roundtables were held in Tunisia on 18 October 2023, and in Switzerland on 28 November 2023. The research findings were presented at the start of every session, giving everyone plenty of opportunity to openly share their opinions on each subject. On the basis of the information acquired during a half-day discussion, recommendations were developed.

3.2. Interview Guide

The interview guide is a booklet that summarizes the essential elements of an interview; it is not a strict set of questions, but rather a framework that can be used to help in interviews [79]. Its objective is to offer points of reference that direct the discussion [79]. The interview guide, which is divided into four stages and is shown in

Table 1. Interview guide structure.

Phase	Content
Introduction Phase	Presentation of the study and its objectives in order to approach the respondent
Centering Phase	Get the respondent to talk about the reality of the sector and their general knowledge of the sector’s activities
In-depth Phase	Theme 1: Organizational characteristics Theme 2: Management strategy and export marketing Theme 3: Export levers (knowledge and relational networks)
Conclusion Phase	The aim is to close the interview while prompting the respondent to add further information

, is made up of thematic components drawn from the literature, study goals, and the interviewer’s observations [80].

3.3. Sample Size and Description

The sample of stakeholders we interviewed was selected on a purposive basis. For the olive oil sector, we interviewed olive oil producer–exporters and exporters. We followed the principle of theoretical saturation, and in our case, we noticed that data began to repeat from the ninth interview onwards, leading us to conclude after nine interviews. All interviewees were either CEOs or export marketing managers located in the Sfax region in central-eastern Tunisia. The Sfax region is a major hub for olive oil production in Tunisia. This region has a long history and a distinctive terroir that is ideal for olive trees, especially the Chemlali variety.

Regarding La Tête de Moine AOP, we interviewed with various key players within the sector. The choice of interviewees was selected in collaboration with the interprofession of La Tête de Moine AOP to ensure coverage of the entire sector. We interviewed milk producers, cheesemakers, cheesemaker–refiners, and retailers, along with various organizations and associations responsible for promoting the sector internationally.

Table 2. Sample description of the Tunisian olive oil sector.

Informant	Status of the Informant	Field of Activity	Number of Employees	Storage Capacity	Destination Markets
Informant 1	Agriculture–Olive Grower–Producer–exporter	Bulk and packaged—Conventional	20 permanent employees	5000 tons	Argentina, Brazil, North America, Japan, Gulf Countries, Japan, Australia
Informant 2	Olive Grower–Exporter–producer	Packaged—Organic	10 permanent employees and around 10 seasonal workers	200 tons	China, Japan, Russia, Nordic countries
Informant 3	Agriculture–Olive Grower–Producer–exporter	Packaged—organic, conventional	15 permanent employees in the oil mills and around 20 seasonal workers	700 tons	England, Switzerland, Italy, Spain
Informant 4	Producer–exporter	Bulk—conventional	5 employees	1500 tons	Italy, Spain
Informant 5	Agriculture–Olive Grower–Producer–exporter	Packaged—organic, conventional	23 direct employees	-	10 countries in 4 continents, including Singapore and Libya
Informant 6	Producer–Exporter	Packaged—organic, conventional	25 permanent employees	-	Bulk: Canada, Spain, Italy Packaged: Africa, France, Middle East, Bahrain, South Korea, Cambodia
Informant 7	Producer–Exporter	Bulk—Packaged, conventional	20 qualified employees and 20 workers	22,000 tons	Italy, USA, Canada, United Arab Emirates, Iraq, Bahrain, France Italy Portugal
Informant 8	Exporter	Bulk—conventional	6 employees	10,000 tons	Canada, US, Italy, Spain
Informant 9	Exporter	Packaged—bulk	15 employees	12,000 tons	USA, France

and

Table 3. Sample description of La Tête de Moine AOP.

Informant	Structural Typology	Field of Activity	Interviewee’s Hierarchical Position	Typical Professional Profile of Employees
Informant 1	Association	Brand protection, Marketing and Promotion	Manager	Master cheesemakers, agricultural engineers, commercial employees, and a few multi-skilled people
Informant 2	Company	Marketing and Promotion	Project Manager	Marketing and communications professionals, economists, agronomists
Informant 3	Company	Marketing and Promotion	Manager	Scientific collaborators
Informant 4	Association	Services and defense of interests	Manager	Sales staff, marketing and communications professionals, economists, and agricultural engineers
Informant 5	Association	Services and defense of interests	Chairman	Master cheesemakers, agricultural engineers, commercial employees, marketing technicians
Informant 6	Association	Services and defense of interests	Chairman	Farmers
Informant 7	Company	Cheesemaker–refiner and retailer	Export Manager	All professional profiles from production to sales of dairy and vegetable products
Informant 8	Company	Cheesemaker–refiner and retailer	Sales Manager	Master cheesemakers, dairy technologists, apprentices, multi-skilled people used to working with food, agricultural engineers
Informant 9	Company	Cheesemaker	Cheesemaker	Dairy technicians, salespeople, multi-skilled workers
Informant 10	Company	Farmer (milk producer)	Milk Producer	Farmers
Informant 11	Company	Farmer (milk producer)	Milk Producer	Farmers
Informant 12	Company	School of agriculture, consulting, and project development center	Project Manager	Agricultural engineers and economists

present the composition of the semi-structured interview samples for the two sectors.

3.4. Data Analysis

In order to process the qualitative data, thematic content analysis was used. Using verbatim excerpts and focusing more on themes than words, thematic analysis involves dissecting the interviewees’ discourse into units of meaning to identify the underlying themes [79]. A theme is “a pattern in the information that at least describes and organizes the possible observations and at maximum interprets aspects of the phenomenon” [81]. Laurence Bardin’s stages [82] were followed in our thematic analysis. All interviews were thoroughly transcribed as part of our pre-analysis of the information corpus in order to choose and arrange the dataset for analysis. We then proceeded to the stage of encoding. We identified the theme as the recoding unit at this point. Inductive and deductive approaches were used to create the recoding units [83]. In order to arrange the material for future interpretation, we started with an a priori codebook or template of codes [84]. This codebook was created using the theoretical framework and our research questions, primarily the RBV theory in relation to the export behavior of agri-SMEs [83]. These codes and sub-codes were converted into the interview guide’s theme questions in order to elicit pertinent information from the respondents (see Appendix A). Additional themes have emerged directly from the data using the inductive coding approach [81] (see Appendix A,

Table A2. Emerging codes from interviews.

Emerging Codes	Emerging Sub-Codes	Example of Data from Interviews
Territorial capital
	Social resource	Cheesemakers may compete, but when it comes to decision-making, we collaborate, discuss, and reach solutions that satisfy everyone
	Identity resource	We really emphasize the most important values: raw milk, milk quality, the artisanal production, the origin, the region, the PDO
	Historical resource	The La Tête de Moine AOP sector has the potential to sustain its 800-year tradition
	Cultural resource	It’s an inheritance from our great-grandparents. My father bought the surrounding plots to expand his estate. We wanted to honor these centenarian olive trees
	Natural resource	We use cultivation techniques specific to the Sfax region, relying on the Chemlali variety, which is remarkably well adapted to the arid climate
Reputation	Sector reputation	You have to be careful, you have to maintain an image.
	Firm reputation	The biggest unforeseen event was COVID-19. From one day to the next, everything was closed, everything was blocked. And I would say that we were able to overcome all of this thanks to our reputation

). In order to proceed to interpretation, we next classified the entire corpus according to the set of record units (the codes). Data flow and RBV categories were continuously compared as part of an iterative methodological procedure. The various resource–capability dimensions taken from the RBV framework are covered by the codes we used, as well as those that surfaced during analysis.

The process of thematic analysis was reflective and iterative, involving constant cooperation between researchers and sectoral experts. In this way, we were able to ensure two methodological rigor criteria [85]: credibility (comparable with internal validity) and dependability (comparable with reliability), by combining the results of the qualitative survey with focus groups with stakeholders from the La Tête de Moine AOP and Tunisian olive oil sectors and academic experts. Credibility is the fit between respondents’ opinions and how the researcher presents them [86]. This is made possible by the extensive conversation we had with interviewees during the roundtable, which enabled us to ask them about any possible causes of distortion. Dependability was also respected because of the academic experts in management and economics, specifically in international business development and marketing, who represented the audit trail and looked at the data, methods, and final result documentation [86].

4. Results and Discussion

The results reveal huge differences and commonalities between the olive oil and the La Tête de Moine AOP export strategies when looking at several resource–capability (R–C) pairs.

4.1. Organizational R–C Pair

Both sectors exhibit a strong export-oriented mindset, characterized by an active and continuous search for international opportunities. This orientation is reflected in informants’ statements such as: “For me, the international market is an opportunity to seize and maintain, not just a desire” (Informant 3, La Tête de Moine AOP) and “Export opportunities don’t fall from the sky. We have to go and find them” (Informant 4, olive oil). Such perspectives align with the notion of export orientation, whereby managers perceive the world as a unified marketplace and proactively engage with foreign partners to identify and exploit international growth opportunities [42].

Furthermore, reputational resources appeared in the analysis as the second organizational resource. La Tête de Moine AOP strives to uphold a reputation of a genuine regional product that honors traditional knowledge according to the protected designation of origin (PDO), as Informant 1 stated, “There are limits to increase volume at any cost, you have to be careful, and you have to maintain an image”. Thus, the La Tête de Moine sector’s reputation serves as a strategic asset that provides its participants with a long-term competitive edge on a global scale that they try to maintain and control, as reflected in this participant’s discourse, “it is a consumer panel, it is therefore a demoscopic study which allows us to evaluate from year to year the evolution of notoriety and credibility” (Informant 5, La Tête de Moine AOP).

Similarly, for some olive oil exporters, their brand has a reputation for handling certain crisis scenarios or issues, such as delays or COVID-19; therefore, they can gain more tolerance without losing their markets, as explained by Informant 7, “The biggest unforeseen event was COVID-19. Everything was closed and blocked. And I would say that we were able to overcome all of this thanks to our reputation. Our customers knew that we always work within compliance measures and that we can manage the situation without affecting the quality of our oil”. Others are able to benefit from paying in advance because of their good reputation with foreign customers: “they respect us enormously, sometimes they even take into consideration the lack of means. There are even customers who pay us 100% when ordering; they trust us and they can pay us in full, that’s magnificent” (Informant 5, olive oil). The prominence of reputation as an intangible organizational asset in the participant’s international activities is consistent with prior research, which identifies reputation as a critical source of competitive advantage that fosters commitment, loyalty, trust, and enhanced financial performance [87]. However, we cannot presume that the two industries mobilize the same kind of reputation. In the case of olive oil, it is the firm’s reputation, which refers to the shared image of a given company [88]. For La Tête de Moine AOP, it is rather the reputation of the sector, which concerns the entire value chain: the producers, processors, institutions, and collective rules that structure La Tête de Moine AOP as a product. Previous empirical research, in line with the theory of collective reputation [89], claims that a collective reputation becomes particularly determinant in a company’s export success and can override firm-specific reputations [90].

4.2. Production and Technological R–C Pair

La Tête de Moine AOP is traditionally produced 365 days a year. The interprofession oversees both the annual production quantity and the quality of the cheeses. After calculating the annual forecasts for the upcoming period, the interprofession discusses these figures with cheesemakers, cheesemaker–refiners, and retailers at the annual volume allocation meeting. These forecasts are then reviewed during the monthly meetings with stakeholders: “Each cheesemaker then organizes the production of their allocated quantity of Tête de Moine PDO over the given period” (Informant 8, La Tête de Moine AOP). However, this distribution is fairly flexible within the sector: “cheesemakers, makers–refiners, and retailers are able to organize themselves together in the event of surplus stock at one. If one has too much, we can organize ourselves together to distribute production or stock volumes” (Informant 8, La Tête de Moine AOP).

In Tunisia, the olive season lasts between 30 and 40 days during low production periods and 90 and 120 days during high production periods. Olive oil processing involves a specific process (leaf removal, crushing, and kneading) that must begin within 24 h of harvesting to prevent fermentation. Taste and acidity analyses are conducted to classify the olives into oils of consistent quality. Producers are accustomed to estimating harvests based on climatic conditions, as Informant 3 stated: “We were able to see firsthand what the next olive harvest would look like while visiting the grove” (Informant 3, olive oil).

For Tête de Moine AOP, traceability is evident throughout the value chain. Milk producers regularly take samples, and those using milking robots receive daily analyses, allowing them to trace each cow’s milking history to identify any issues. Once the cheeses have matured and are ready for marketing, a commission conducts “taxation” (quality control and validation) at the cheesemaker–refiners and retailers. They assess the cheeses based on certain criteria, such as aesthetics, smell, taste, and texture. If the cheese passes this assessment, it can be marketed as La Tête de Moine AOP.

In discussions with olive oil producer–exporters and exporters, the emphasis on quality and certification highlights their commitment to ensuring high-quality products that meet international food safety standards through production process monitoring and food safety certifications. As one exporter noted: “We conduct pesticide analyses and follow IOC standards; we are IOC certified” (Informant 2, olive oil). The same point was also mentioned by some exporting cheese: “Last year, we invested heavily in quality assurance. We are IFS (International Food Standard) certified; it’s the latest high-level certification for food safety” (Informant 11, La Tête de Moine AOP).

Additionally, the advantages of upstream integration are evident in the olive oil sector. Most participating companies have their own packaging units or analysis laboratories. “We are fully equipped in our laboratory in Tunis, where we conduct all analyses “(Informant 4, olive oil). This level of integration enhances strategic flexibility, enabling companies to better meet specific customer requirements globally. The majority of Tunisian interviewees invest in cutting-edge technology and modern equipment for their crushing processes: “We have an Alfa Laval pressure machine, it’s an Italian brand among the most expensive” (Informant 6, olive oil). In addition, optimizing storage activity appears to be a key element of success for some olive oil producer–exporters and exporters, leading to the use of preventive devices and techniques designed to maintain and guarantee the finesse, freshness, and optimal taste of their oils: “We added a nitrogen storage depot by injecting nitrogen into the oil to preserve quality” (Informant 4, olive oil). Technological advancements were also noted by the cheesemaker–refiners, such as cow-milking robots for milk producers and maturing robots. These advancements guarantee the preservation of animal welfare while pointing to less stressful and physically demanding working conditions for animals. Thus, both sectors are eager to improve their value chain production process by utilizing more advanced technologies, which supports earlier research on the significance of technological advancement in the global development of agri-food SMEs [44,54,91].

4.3. Managerial R–C Pair

La Tête de Moine AOP’s international expansion is overseen by the interprofession, with a degree of decentralization carried out by cheese refiners and traders, as well as the Switzerland Cheese Marketing (SCM). Olive oil producer–exporters and exporters work independently, adhering to the regulations of the international olive oil market. This industry is distinguished by its extremely intricate institutional structure, which includes several organizations devoted to export promotion but that report to three distinct ministries, frequently leading to overlapping roles.

The La Tête de Moine AOP industry has a careful and methodical approach to its global growth. A relatively strict planning system is an example of this careful approach: “We have a monthly quantity management session and… each cheese dairy has the right to produce certain quantities” (Informant 6, La Tête de Moine AOP); “We have defined a 2020–2026 strategy, with an annual quarterly and monthly review. We see the goal we would like to achieve by the end of 2026, and we conduct regular reviews to really make sure we are still on track “(Informant 7; La Tête de Moine AOP). Alongside planning systems such as ERP (enterprise resource planning), La Tête de Moine AOP seems to act proactively by anticipating international customer needs and demands: “We still decide with the estimation of demands and needs. We have ERP, we have Excel lists and graphs, and we make estimates of the storage curves of demand and needs. They give us figures every month, it is the master cheesemaker who prepares all the figures and we all look at them together and we make a decision to know how much to produce” (Informant 6, La Tête de Moine AOP). The planning process observed within the La Tête de Moine AOP industry closely echoes the approach adopted in Kenya’s horticulture export sector, where they employ a range of forecasting techniques, with a predilection for quantitative approaches [92].

In the case of olive oil, forecasting systems depend heavily on the ability of entrepreneurs to anticipate market developments and their seasonal outlook. “Every morning, I call farmers, traders, olive growers, and intermediaries in various regions, such as Sidi Bouzid and Chrarda, to get production estimates. These estimates allow us to plan for the next season” (Informant 2, olive oil). For Tunisian exporters, forecasting and long-term planning may be challenging to implement due to the instability caused by the increasing environmental impact of climate change in the Mediterranean basin, which affects the quantity and quality of olive production [93].

Lastly, we found that both sectors have a high commitment to exports, indicating a broad willingness to spend the resources required for export development [42]. This managerial attitude enhances the likelihood of capitalizing on international opportunities and competing effectively [44]. Most Tunisian companies exporting olive oil demonstrate high levels of commitment, making substantial investments to support their foreign operations: “The owner has invested heavily in the laboratory, with an investment of 1 billion Tunisian dinars” (Informant 7, olive oil). Participation in trade and promotional events, such as trade fairs and international competitions, is frequently highlighted in most speeches: “One of the most important results we achieved in the beginning was the Los Angeles competition in 2010” (Informant 1, olive oil). Likewise, Swiss exporters display relatively significant effort for their international trade: “We regularly travel to Europe (4–6 times a year) and to the USA and Canada (2–3 times a year). We always try to really meet, not only colleagues, but also third-party partners during trade fairs, exhibitions, and visits to our own companies, to also have an exchange with the people who work there” (Informant 7, La Tête de Moine AOP). The definite readiness to invest the funds necessary for export growth expresses the high export commitment of the participants of both sectors and is consistent with earlier research suggesting that companies with this capacity are more equipped to take advantage of international possibilities and participate in lucrative competitions, which improves export success [94].

Furthermore, analysis has revealed that, whereas olive oil management has more of an individual mindset, La Tête de Moine AOP’s international management is governed by a collective framework called the interprofession. These remarks could be explained by cultural factors. In the management literature, there has been a proliferation of research on how national culture affects managerial practices [95,96].

A Hofstede cultural comparison between Tunisia and Switzerland reveals a significant difference in power distance, with Switzerland scoring 34 and Tunisia 70 [97]. Power distance reflects the extent to which less powerful members of a society accept hierarchical order and centralized authority. Research suggests that SMEs operating in low-power-distance environments benefit from faster decision-making, more transparency, and a collaborative organizational culture [98]. In Switzerland, this cultural context likely facilitates flexible and participatory decision-making processes in agri-food SMEs, such as those managing La Tête de Moine AOP, supporting their ability to adapt and compete in international markets [8,75].

In contrast, Tunisia’s high power distance indicates a preference for hierarchical and centralized decision-making. In SMEs, this may result in slower decision processes and limited participation of employees or small producers in strategic choices. Such centralized structures can pose challenges in responding to market opportunities, implementing innovations, or coordinating complex tasks across the firm. In the Tunisian olive oil sector, for example, managerial control is often concentrated in the hands of a few decision-makers, potentially reducing organizational flexibility. Understanding these cultural differences is essential for interpreting SME behavior, management practices, and strategic choices in different national contexts.

4.4. Experiential R–C Pair

The international experience of Tête de Moine AOP began in 1983, following the invention of the girolle. For olive oil, the international experience of exporters ranges from 2 to 25 years. Until 1994, the export of Tunisian olive oil was exclusively managed by the Oil National Office (ONH). It was only with the 1994 Investment Promotion Code that private companies began exporting Tunisian olive oil.

Concerning geographical experience [50], La Tête de Moine AOP is exported to 44 countries and mainly sold in countries that have the same cheese culture as the Swiss: Germany, France, and Benelux. For olive oil, although the United States and the European Union remain Tunisia’s main customers, over the past decade, exporters have diversified their markets, reaching regions and countries such as China, Brazil, Japan, Singapore, Canada, the Gulf region, the Middle East, and Russia. To acquire industry experience [50], some respondents consider that diversifying their export markets has enabled them to accumulate export knowledge: “For us, the choice to enter Gulf market was relevant insofar as it enabled us to make our initial investments profitable, to learn, gain greater experience, and acquire international know-how“ (Informant 3, olive oil). In fact, previous studies have highlighted the Tunisian strategy from 2013 to diversify export destinations to reach more than 57 new markets, including gulf countries, America, Canada, Japan, and China [29]. The international expansion experience of La Tête de Moine AOP is mainly based on the international experience of other Swiss cheeses, such as Gruyère, Emmentaler, or Appenzeler: “Tête de Moine AOP broadens the range of Swiss cheeses. It can rely on Gruyère, Emmentaler, or Appenzeler for export” (Informant 5, La Tête de Moine AOP).

4.5. Relational R–C Pair

La Tête de Moine AOP’s network is very extensive. These include a school of agriculture, consulting, and project development center, the PDO association, which acts as an intermediary between the PDO food sectors, the markets, politics, the Marketing and Promotion Organization of Swiss Cheeses SMC, and the Federal Office for Agriculture FOAG, which helps safeguard the interests of Swiss cheeses at national and international levels. Additionally, the interprofession facilitates numerous meetings and information exchanges among its members, including milk producers, cheesemakers, cheesemaker–refiners, and retailers. These interactions also extend to associations, organizations, federal offices, other key players in the dairy industry, and other cheese interprofessions, such as Gruyère: “We are trying to enrich the range by contacting Gruyère or other companies. For example, we invited Raclette du Valais to the Tête de Moine festival, which exports much less, and last year it was the Vacherin fribourgeois” (Informant 6, La Tête de Moine AOP).

This network is created in a more individualized manner in the olive oil sector. Stakeholders have emphasized the importance of building personal networks to identify new opportunities and stay informed of the latest knowledge: “The more relationships you have, the more information you have” (Informant 7, olive oil). They discussed the crucial role of institutional networks [55], including private banks, transporters, communications companies, and distributors: “We have quite strong relationships with banks” (Informant 3, olive Oil). They also highlighted the importance of connections with government agencies, such as the Export Promotion Center and the Chamber of Commerce: “You have to be up to date and have a lot of contacts with the Chamber of Commerce, and the ministries” (Informant 7, olive Oil). Additionally, the research network [54] was mentioned by the two sectors: “Of course we did not cut the relationship with the Olive Tree Institute. They have a more competent team to work better together and collaborate better” (Informant 2, olive Oil); “We developed with the research institute of agronomy (Agroscope) in Liebefeld-CH the traceability of the La Tête de Moine rosette” (Informant 3, La Tête de Moine AOP).

The importance of networking in both sectors aligns with the strategic networking approach [51] and anterior studies outlining the importance of social networks in the international expansion of agri-food SMEs [52,63].

4.6. Knowledge-Based R–C Pair

Discussion with the two sectors demonstrates a proactive international orientation involving information generation, information dissemination, and information responsiveness [44]. For example, olive oil exporters rely on their distribution partners to provide valuable field data, as one respondent added: “Our main partners provide us regularly with field information, including weekly photos of shelves in supermarkets and organic stores” (Informant 5, olive oil). These efforts include market studies, contacts with partners abroad, collecting market data, monitoring market behavior, regulations, certification requirements, etc.: “I personally conducted a study in the Netherlands, spending a week in an olive oil department asking customers about their purchases” (Informant 6, olive oil). Participants also cited a variety of auxiliary information sources, including trade shows, business-to-business (B2B) discussions, and digital resources, including e-magazines such as Olimerca and specialized websites such as Poolred and Infoliva. In the case of La Tête de Moine, market information is gathered and centralized by the Switzerland Cheese Marketing (SCM) organization, which has operated for 25 years and is active in 22 countries. It has branches in key markets, such as Germany, France, Italy, Benelux, Spain, and the Nordic countries. This organization measures the economic fragility index of countries and conducts analyses of both existing and new markets. Likewise, cheese exporters demonstrate a complementary capacity to produce and mobilize key information on foreign markets by combining regular field observation and in-depth strategic analyses to assess the cultural and structural fit of the target market: “Every year we conduct a study to see if these messages are being understood in our different countries. The results vary from country to country, but overall, we achieve good results” (Informant 10, La Tête de Moine AOP).

The crucial role of knowledge in international activity relies on the concept of openness [99]. This openness reflects open search techniques commonly analyzed along two important dimensions: search depth and search breadth [100]. “Search breadth” describes the variety and scope of external information sources [99,100], such as Swiss Marketing Cheeses SMC and the Federal Office for Agriculture FOAG for La Tête de Moine AOP, or the Export Promotion Center and the Chamber of Commerce for Tunisian olive oil. Search depth refers to the level of engagement and relational embeddedness with certain partners, as well as the quality and intensity of the contact with chosen external sources [99,100]. The importance of knowledge openness was highlighted as a strategic tool that gives SMEs the skills they need to create cutting-edge goods that will appeal to global consumers [99].

4.7. Marketing R–C Pair

The marketing and communication strategies of La Tête de Moine AOP and Tunisian olive oil exporters reflect two contrasting logics. La Tête de Moine AOP cheese is commercialized under a shared brand name called “Tête de Moine AOP, Fromage de Bellelay”. The shared brand guarantees that the cheese comes from the region of origin (Jura Arc) and is produced with the specifications of the PDO. A shared brand is a single brand and an identity for two or more partner companies that pledge to uphold the established agreements [101]. The management of this shared brand must be carried out by an independent entity that represents and responds on behalf of the brand [101]. The Association for the Services and Defense of Interests of La Tête de Moine and the interprofession represent the entities that manage the brand. In accordance with the RBV, previous studies have concluded that shared or collective brands, notably the controlled denomination of origin (DOC), can be seen as a source of sustained competitive advantage, fulfilling the conditions that form the VRIA model proposed by [38]: valuable, rare, imperfectly imitable, and association [102]. For example, the collective reputation of the DOC has a positive effect on the level of internationalization of the Rioja wine sector [49].

The specifications of PDO requirements can be described as rigid and very strict regarding product adaptation to international preferences. Indeed, La Tête de Moine AOP is strictly consumed by scraping the cheese loaf with a girolle to create a rosette. Focus group discussion with Swiss actors reveals that potential innovations, such as adding an ingredient like pepper to the cheese, cannot be considered without first consulting the entire industry and submitting an application to the Federal Office for Agriculture FOAG. This observation contradicts the previous literature suggesting that product innovation is important for the international competitiveness of agri-food businesses [61].

Communication is centrally coordinated by the interprofession and the national cheese promotion body, with adaptations limited to packaging and language rather than the product itself: “we can’t alter the product itself, but we can adapt the labeling such as translating into different languages or adding a logo” (Informant 8, La Tête de Moine AOP). The Association for the Services and Defense of Interests of La Tête de Moine, in coordination with the interprofession, oversees the La Tête de Moine AOP brand book and approves the flyers and advertisements that SMC plans to release in different markets. Additionally, the SMC offers sommelier courses to local cheese dairies abroad to raise awareness of Swiss cheeses and equip them with the knowledge needed to become Swiss cheese ambassadors. Generally speaking, consumers can be seen as “Trojan horses: when they go home, they bring back cheese or their tasting experience” (Informant 2, La Tête de Moine AOP).

In contrast, Tunisian olive oil exporters operate with individual olive oil brands. Without strict regulatory constraints, they adapt their products’ variety, taste, packaging, and labeling to suit foreign consumer preferences in terms of olive oil variety, sensory quality, packaging, and labeling: “The German and English markets prefer sweet oils to bitter ones, so we have two methods to reduce the bitterness of olive oil, but it’s not easy and it costs us a lot of money“ (Informant 1, olive oil).

For the two sectors, communication strategies focus on international competitions and trade fairs to gain credibility and visibility: “The medals won during these competitions are prominently featured on our websites and social media platforms (such as Facebook, Instagram, etc.)” (Informant 3, olive oil). Likewise, the cheesemakers and cheesemaker–refiners and retailers of La Tête de Moine AOP participate in various events such as shows, competitions, and fairs, both in Switzerland and abroad: “Competitions are an opportunity to raise the profile of la Tête de Moine AOP and showcase the best cheesemakers” (Informant 12, La Tête de Moine AOP).

4.8. Financing R–C Pair

Since 2007, La Tête de Moine AOP has taken advantage of a free trade regime between the European Union (EU) and Switzerland (CH) to lower export costs and gain greater flexibility in export operations: “We can maneuver as we please” (Informant 5, La Tête de Moine AOP). The marketing and promotion organization of Swiss cheeses and the Federal Office for Agriculture FOAG, through the Confederation’s PR agency, receive an annual operating budget. This budget is funded equally by the industry’s own resources and the State through the Promotion of Agricultural Products. In contrast, the majority of exporters in the olive oil sector rely on their own funds: “We’re fighting for financial advantages, but so far it’s been a personal effort “(Informant 5, olive oil). Some claim that bulk exports are a support activity for packaged olive oil: “The bottled olive oil is similar to a newborn that requires assistance from a more lucrative activity such as bulk sale” (Informant 3, olive oil). In 2006, Tunisia created the Fonds de Promotion de l’Huile d’Olive Conditionnée (FOPROHOC), which is financed by a 0.5% parafiscal tax levied on the customs value of bulk olive oil exports, and whose main objective is to finance generic promotion programs in target markets in the form of premiums. However, during focus groups with the Tunisian exporters, the majority of participants stated that they are unable to take advantage of this aid due to certain administrative constraints and a lack of transparency in the management of this fund.

4.9. Territorial R–C Pair

The thematic analysis demonstrates that territorial capital constitutes a foundational resource shaping the internationalization trajectories of both sectors, albeit through distinct configurations and degrees of institutionalization. While the La Tête de Moine AOP sector exhibits a highly formalized and collectively governed territorial system, the olive oil sector relies on more fragmented and firm-level mobilizations of territorial attributes.

In the case of La Tête de Moine AOP, territorial capital is explicitly embedded within a robust institutional and regulatory framework. Since its registration as a Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) by the Swiss Federal Office for Agriculture (FOAG) in 2001, production has been governed by stringent specifications monitored by the Intercantonal Certification Organization (OIC). These requirements define precise geographical boundaries, livestock grazing practices, feeding regimes, fodder storage conditions, milk storage temperatures, and processing timelines. Such codification illustrates how natural assets are systematically integrated into production processes in alignment with the surrounding environment and landscape [103]. Milk production takes place in the mountainous canton of Vaud, where climatic conditions, pasture composition, and topography directly affect milk quality and, consequently, the sensory attributes of the cheese. This configuration reflects a “direct and voluntary” relationship between product characteristics and territory [104], reinforcing the authenticity and credibility of the PDO designation in international markets.

Beyond natural capital, the international competitiveness of La Tête de Moine AOP is underpinned by dense social and institutional capital. Actors across the value chain engage in structured cooperation and collective decision-making, even within a competitive context. As articulated by one informant, “Cheesemakers may compete, but when it comes to decision-making, we collaborate, discuss, and reach solutions that satisfy everyone” (Informant 9, La Tête de Moine AOP). This collaborative dynamic translates into strong regional social capital [105], reinforced by regional institutions that actively support internationalization through administrative coordination and financial assistance. Consistent with prior research, such institutional capital facilitates innovation, reduces transaction costs, fosters trust and transparency, and accelerates the accumulation of complementary territorial resources [106].

Cultural capital further amplifies the reputation and differentiation of La Tête de Moine AOP in global markets. The historical narrative linking the cheese to the monks of Bellelay Abbey in the 12th century constitutes a powerful symbolic resource. As emphasized by the head of the interprofession, “We have a product that has a very long history… a product with an 800-year history, which is protected” (Informant 6, La Tête de Moine AOP). This long-standing heritage reinforces product authenticity and supports reputation-building, positioning cultural capital as a strategic branding asset that enhances international competitiveness. In contrast, within the olive oil sector, territorial capital is present but less systematically structured. Cultural capital is primarily mobilized by small, family-owned exporters who emphasize intergenerational continuity and ancestral know-how as markers of authenticity. Several informants highlight inheritance and long-term stewardship of olive groves as central to their export identity, as illustrated by the statement: “It’s an inheritance from our great-grandparents. Our family has been cultivating olives for four generations” (Informant 2, olive oil). This narrative reflects a localized and heritage-based form of cultural capital that contributes to differentiation but remains weakly institutionalized.

Natural territorial resources also feature prominently in exporters’ discourse, particularly through the valorization of region-specific olive varieties and cultivation techniques. Exporters emphasize the adaptation of local cultivars, such as the Chemlali variety in the Sfax region, to arid climatic conditions and traditional farming practices (Informant 2, olive oil). Branding strategies further reinforce territorial signaling through the use of origin-evoking labels, such as “Domaine”, which aim to convey authenticity and geographical embeddedness. However, unlike the Swiss PDO system, these practices lack collective governance and enforceable standards, limiting their ability to generate strong and credible reputation effects at the sectoral level. These findings contribute to the export literature by highlighting reputation as a critical yet underexplored strategic resource in the internationalization of terroir-based products [33,54]. The comparison between the two sectors reveals that reputation emerges not solely from product quality, but from the collective orchestration of natural, cultural, social, and institutional dimensions of territorial capital. While the Swiss case illustrates how formalized governance structures transform territorial resources into sustainable competitive advantage, the Tunisian olive oil sector remains constrained by the absence of a comparable ecosystem.

In line with this observation, the lack of an established framework analogous to PDO specifications constitutes a structural barrier to the sector’s international expansion. Evidence from other contexts, such as Spanish wineries, demonstrates that Denomination of Origin Regulatory Councils play a decisive role in supporting export performance [107]. Accordingly, the formal delineation of geographical production areas for region-specific Tunisian olive varieties, such as Oueslati, Zalmati, Zarrazi, Gerboui, and Sayali, could enable exporters to better exploit the country’s rich genetic and varietal heritage [94] and develop a sustainable competitive advantage in international markets [38]. Although such an institutionalization process would require significant financial and temporal investments, the establishment of strict and transparent specifications would enhance traceability, reinforce credibility, and increase value creation along the export value chain.

In light of the discussion above, the specific collection of resources and capabilities (R–C) shaping the international strategies of both sectors is, respectively, illustrated in Figure 1 and Figure 2. These illustrations mainly include elements that have a favorable effect on the development of their international strategies.

5. Conclusions

This study examined the managerial export strategies for Tunisian olive oil and Swiss cheese La Tête de Moine AOP based on the resource-based view (RVB) and through incorporating the competitive advantage of the territory. The findings reveal differences between the two sectors due to both structural and cultural differences. The interview findings demonstrate how each sector has a unique combination of resources that make up its international development. In the case of La Tête de Moine AOP, territorial aspects are routinely and significantly tied to each other. For olive oil, non-collaborative management and weak social capital impede the profitable exploitation of inherited territorial resources.

Our work has several limitations. The sample interviewed is not statistically representative of the population studied; it is a sample of convenience that reflects the diversity of the population studied. Future research should involve larger samples to enhance the findings. Furthermore, the RBV theoretical framework mobilized in this study assumes that exporting firms possess a stock of individual assets and skills [2]. However, previous research suggests that it is the synergistic effects of resource and capability combinations, particularly their dynamic interaction, that determine the development of competitive advantage [33]. Therefore, it would be interesting to highlight the interaction between the resources and capabilities identified in the two sectors and examine how this dynamic affects their international performance. A promising avenue for future research is to examine how collective reputation interacts with technical innovation to create competitive advantage for small producers and SMEs.