Zero Waste for All? Sustainable Practices in a Small-Scale Zero Waste Community from a Universal Design Perspective

Abstract

Since 2003, Kamikatsu in Japan has established a sustainable zero-waste practice that has achieved a recycling rate exceeding 80%. By exploring how the community has shaped itself around the zero-waste concept, this paper aims to enhance our understanding of zero waste in practice from a universal design perspective. Interviews and photo documentation were used to gather data. The zero-waste concept was not driven by technical solutions. Instead, the results highlight what initiatives contributed to the design of the zero-waste concept. Key themes presented include fostering a lifestyle shift, changing norms, creating co-located experiences, establishing an incentive system, and developing self-awareness routines. The paper also addresses the challenges and opportunities from a universal design perspective when applying zero waste, emphasizing the importance of designing for diverse needs while promoting long-term environmental sustainability. This research contributes to the understanding of zero waste practices, combining the ecological dimension with the social dimension of sustainable development.

1. Introduction

Waste is among the most challenging and complex environmental problems that society faces. Municipal solid waste significantly contributes to pollution, posing threats to cornerstones of sustainable development such as ecosystem health, human health, and food security [1]. The environmental impact of waste ranges from soil and water pollution to the emission of greenhouse gases and airborne pollutants. In order to reduce waste generation, production and consumption patterns need to be transformed [2]. Overconsumption, linear production systems, rapid urbanization, and unsustainable lifestyles have resulted in the exponential growth of global waste generation [3]. Today, the relationship between the earth system and human society is unsustainable due to lifestyles that are based on linear resource use [4].

Zero waste (ZW) is a concept aimed at sustainable communities, lifestyles, and activities that mimic natural cycles and redirect resource flows in an environment to minimize waste [5,6,7]. The most critical aspect of creating a zero-waste community is the shift toward a circular economy, i.e., a society where materials never become waste and natural resources are regenerated [8]. For the zero-waste concept to have a significant impact, it must be accessible, utilized, and understood by everyone. In communities striving for zero waste, the citizen’s role is an essential aspect of [9]. Consequently, zero-waste concepts should be designed to meet the needs of people using them. In this context, Universal Design (UD) is introduced as a perspective and process to design functional and attractive environments for all people [10,11].

Today, sustainability has emerged as a crucial response to environmental degradation, social inequality, and economic instability [12]. To address these challenges, the ecological, social, and economic domains of sustainable development can be considered. These domains are claimed to connect as three separate spheres, although not enough attention is paid to social and environmental aspects as economic factors have taken over decision-making processes [12]. Integrating ZW and UD may ensure that sustainable development can move beyond the economic dimension to enhance the quality of life and that sustainability efforts are ecologically sound, socially just, and universally beneficial. The broader implication for sustainable societies is the premise that waste connects to everything [13] and universal design relates to everyone [11]. Sustainability movements, such as zero-waste concepts, require widespread participation for successful transformation.

Cappanori in Italy and Flanders in Belgium have adopted zero waste goals as part of their waste management strategies. In Japan, Kamikatsu was the first municipality to make a zero-waste declaration in 2003. The Japanese community, which has dedicated two decades to achieving the goal of producing zero waste, is located in the mountains, an hour’s drive from central Tokushima and about 40 miles south of Tokyo. By striving to become a circular city that minimizes waste and maximizes efficiency, the municipality achieved an 80% recycling rate in 2021 [14]. Kamikatsu’s model has received global attention, and the municipality continues to roll out new projects aimed at further reducing waste [15]. This can be seen to be in contrast to Japan’s national average of 20% [16].

Today, it is one of Japan’s leading municipalities in efforts to achieve zero waste, which makes the Kamikatsu case relevant to study from a universal design perspective. This case study draws upon a field trip to Kamikatsu in October 2024, exploring the phenomenon of zero waste in a real-world context:

• The aim of this paper is to contribute to an enhanced understanding of zero waste in practice through the lens of universal design by exploring how Kamikatsu has shaped itself around the concept of zero waste. The research questions are:
• What initiatives have contributed to the design of the zero-waste concept in Kamikatsu?
• What are the opportunities and challenges of applying the zero-waste concept in practice from a universal design perspective?

2. Theoretical Aspects of Zero Waste and Universal Design

This study draws on an interdisciplinary perspective by exploring zero waste in practice from a universal design perspective. The prominent social science foundation in UD is significant, as previous studies have described ZW as a new sustainability paradigm that requires a long-term commitment and active participation from all [9]. Thus, the guiding principles and action plans for visions and goals toward circularity are essential to illuminate views that concern both the environment and society.

While several studies have examined zero waste (ZW), fewer have addressed its intersection with universal design (UD). Some research highlights include Kamikatsu’s ZW challenges [3], circular cities in Japan [14], and the need for more behavior-focused ZW practices [17]. This study strives to fill this gap by contributing to the limited research on ZW and UD, supporting sustainable societal planning. Engaging with UD in interdisciplinary contexts revitalizes basic values of citizenship and equal opportunities [18].

In research, ZW is presented as a visionary concept for confronting waste problems in society [19,20]. The ZW concept aims to eliminate waste and challenge traditional thinking, gaining popularity as an effective approach [5].

The term was introduced in 1973 by Palmer [21] as a principle of reusing goods and materials instead of discarding them. A misconception is that it is synonymous with recycling. Recycling is only one part of it; zero waste goes further than recycling by encouraging people to reduce consumption, reuse products, and only then recycle [22]. Communities across the global spectrum of socio-economic development demonstrate the importance and benefits of recycling, and “recycling citizenship” is now well established [23]. However, despite the social and environmental opportunities attributed to recycling, researchers highlight that “the world can’t recycle its way out of waste” ([23], p. 3).

The ZW concept is used in the design field; however, very few studies address zero-waste design [20]. The goal of zero-waste design is to unite a holistic approach, considering aesthetics and function simultaneously [24], and is thus related to cradle-to-cradle design principles that eliminate waste during the production phase [7,20]. Cradle-to-cradle design is, by that means, an important part of the zero-waste design philosophy [7].

Societies applying ZW can be seen as creative environments that balance the need to maintain the integrity of the concept with the creative freedom essential for driving the innovation required to tackle waste issues [23].

In practice, the implementation of ZW in a municipal context has been framed in many ways. The model of “The Ten Steps” [19] includes, for example, systems for making it convenient for door-to-door collection and to make it easy to reuse and repair, better design of products and services, economic incentives, source separation of waste, and interim landfills. Another model used is “The Three Phases”. The first phase’s goal is to make it easy and convenient for everyone to participate by designing an equitable and universal zero-waste system that includes social activities and education for all. The second goal is an infrastructure for reuse and repair facilities for all residents. The third long-term goal aims to reduce resource consumption through larger cultural and economic systems [25]. The method of the 3Rs—Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle—is also common practice [14].

Currently, the movement for ZW promotes a shift from a linear resource flow to a circular economy that is regenerative by design. This approach integrates the needs of society with those of nature, recognizing that all forms of life are interconnected and interdependent [26]. Central to the concept of ZW and UD is thus the mutual relationship between society and all species to create resilient and sustainable environments.

Universal Design (UD) is described as “a design process that enables and empowers a diverse population by improving human performance, health and wellness, and social participation” ([27], p. 11). The research field of UD is not limited to people with disabilities but a vast number of people. For example, as people age, they often face multiple challenges—such as reduced hearing, vision, and mobility—making daily life more difficult [28]. UD can be used as a strategy to improve equal access for people, and spatial planners, architects, designers, and politicians must promote accessible environments for citizens [18].

In research, UD has been connected to the origins of symbolic interactionism, focusing on how individuals, groups, and societies interact and confront differences. These constructions can be social, physical, or systems [27]. Even social participation patterns can be designed, reflecting the society that created them. For example, people in a community interact with each other and the world and adjust their relationships with each other and the world accordingly.

Over time, this collective learning results in practices that reflect our social relationships. This is one of the cornerstones of the community of practice theory, introduced by Lave and Wenger in 1991 [29]. From this point of view, the residents in a society such as Kamikatsu can be reflected upon as a group of people who share a concern or a passion for something they do and learn how to do it better as they regularly interact. For it to function, it must generate a shared collection of ideas, commitments, and memories. It also depends on developing various resources such as documents, routines, vocabulary, and symbols that somehow carry the accumulated knowledge of the community. In other words, it involves shared ways of doing and approaching things. According to Wenger [29], a community of practice defines itself along three dimensions: What (it is about), How (it functions), and What (is produced). For example, a zero-waste concept could be about producing no waste through everyday activities. More recently, this is further explained as a combination of a domain, a community, and a practice [30,31]. The domain can be an idea that creates common ground. The community makes the social structure that facilitates learning through relationships about the idea. The practice is the shared resources that include, for example, documents, symbols, experiences, and workshops. All people should have the right to enjoy universal service [32], i.e., the practice must be accessible and usable for everybody in a way that is non-discriminatory. In any community, full social participation is a fundamental part of human rights [33]. Based on this, actors in a municipality should guarantee access for all citizens, regardless of, for example, age, functional limitations, or socioeconomic status. It is through social participation that the most important outcome of universal design is realized [27]. Through a focus on this issue, the connection between UD and ZW concepts for everyone becomes evident. Designing for social participation in communities permeates all eight goals of UD, adapted from Steinfeld and Maisel [27]:

• Body fit—a designed environment must welcome different body sizes and abilities.
• Comfort—a designed environment should ensure comfort.
• Awareness—information must be designed to be easily perceived.
• Understanding—the use of a design solution must be intuitive.
• Wellness—the design should contribute to health promotion.
• Social Integration—a design should ensure that it treats all with dignity and respect.
• Personalization—it should incorporate opportunities for individual preferences.
• Cultural Appropriateness—any design must respect and reinforce the social and environmental contexts [27].

The three goals focusing on social participation (Social integration, Personalization, and Cultural Appropriateness) are related. For example, cultural aspects have an impact on designed environments, affecting opportunities for individual needs and preferences and social integration. Correspondingly, the ecological, economic, and social dimensions of sustainable development are intrinsically connected [34]. To establish an ecologically sustainable society that respects the boundaries of our ecosystems, cultures need to be fair and inclusive. Although there are rational reasons to integrate these dimensions, they are often treated as separate issues. Therefore, it is essential to adopt a more nuanced approach to sustainable development that prioritizes both human well-being and environmental sustainability [12]. To do this, an integrated approach to sustainability needs to be adopted in which these different domains are conceptualized as parts of a system.

This article is one of the first attempts to combine zero waste and universal design. To expand the scope of zero-waste concepts for all, further concerns about aging and disabilities must be identified to guarantee environments, products, and services that are accessible and attractive to the broader population.

3. Materials and Methods

In order to gain new knowledge on zero waste in practice, a case study was performed in Kamikatsu in October 2024 [35]. A preliminary web search and reading on zero-waste societies and associated terms provided a basis for identifying Kamikatsu as a significant case, being the first municipality in Japan to present a zero-waste declaration in 2003. The case was selected because the municipality had shaped the concept for over two decades, and the work on reducing waste began long before. Before the field trip, further reading on the municipality’s and associated organizations’ web pages was made. This information gave insights into relevant persons to contact for meetings and interviews to explore initiatives contributing to the design of this long-term zero-waste concept and the opportunities and challenges of applying it in practice. Kamikatsu, a rural town with approximately 1470 inhabitants, is located in the southern part of the Tokushima prefecture [36]. The older generation dominates the demographics as younger people move after high school. Vast forests, mountains, the Katsuura River, and rice terraces characterize the municipality. Farming, fishing, and handicrafts are common activities. In recent years, this area has also become known for its tea cultivation business and seasonal leaves and flowers sold as decorations for restaurants and kitchens across Japan. This case study must be understood within a cultural context, as the presentation of the municipality’s efforts toward ZW may differ from that of another country with varying institutional conditions. A ZW concept cannot be implemented identically in other places for reasons related to the stakeholders in the waste management systems and the community, and environmental, social, economic, and political factors. However, this study can serve as inspiration and generate insights for discussions on sustainable concepts that may be modified or scaled up, as the municipality has refined the concept over time.

3.1. Interviews with Photo Documentation

In this case study, open-ended interviews were conducted on-site, following the recommendations of Yin [35]. The selection criteria aimed to capture perceptions of the zero-waste concept at three levels: (1) citizens, (2) the municipality, and (3) executive organizations. Respondents were selected using referral sampling, which involved the first participant helping to identify additional respondents [37]. More specifically, initial contact was made via email with a representative from the Zero-Waste Center, who then recommended interviewees from the Town Hall and among local residents. This process led to a total of seven interviews, which included five citizens, one manager at the Town Hall responsible for zero-waste initiatives in the municipality, and one manager from the Zero-Waste Center.

To strengthen the validity, the study was supplemented with information material from the municipality and follow-up email correspondence. Photo documentation was used to make images visualizing the zero-waste concept during the interviews. A shooting script with research questions shaped the selection of photographs produced. The images thus intend to complement the interviews by capturing phenomena on the spot, for example, expressions of design at the Zero-Waste Center and zero-waste concepts in a home environment context.

3.2. Analysis Strategy and Process

The material was transcribed and processed through thematic analysis to identify patterns by coding and describing themes [38]. The steps in the research-proven analysis of Braun and Clark [39] have been used in the analysis of the data material. The first step was to discover the data and transcribe the material. The second step was to highlight the initial codes in a coding table. For example, the code “R1 39” signifies respondent 1 and code 39 [38]. During this process, meaningful units were coded systematically and categorized based on similar content, for example, R1 39 and R7 108. The third step was to search for themes, and categories were grouped based on similar content. Initially, many categories emerged, and these data were sorted into overarching themes. The fourth step was to review each theme: these were checked for consistency with codes and categories in an iterative process. The fifth step was to define the themes and name them. Lastly, the sixth step was to present the result chapter with themes and quotations from interviews. The analysis strategy is inductive and empirically driven, i.e., themes emerged from the collected data. Finally, a theoretical perspective has been used to discuss the results and explain the study’s findings.

4. Results

At Kamikatsu, the zero-waste concept has been applied since 2003. Recently, the recycling rate has exceeded 80% [14]. The concept was not based on technical solutions. Instead, the design of the zero-waste concept was based on a lifestyle shift, changing norms, co-location experiences, an incentive system, and a self-awareness routine. The results indicate that all residents and visitors in the municipality are expected to be part of the zero-waste concept, but in practice, there are challenges. The following five themes highlight initiatives that contributed to the design of the zero-waste concept in Kamikatsu, and the opportunities and challenges that arise when implementing this concept from a universal design perspective.

4.1. Design for a Lifestyle Shift

The first result of this study is Design for a Lifestyle Shift. Shaping a zero-waste concept included several different initiatives that aimed to change society. In the past, people in Kamikatsu used to live self-sufficiently. After World War II, there was an increase in plastic and other inexpensive industrial goods. Residents began burning waste in their gardens and at the landfill, where the Zero-Waste Center is now located [36]. Environmental concerns and legal restrictions eventually made this practice unsustainable. During the interviews, it was raised that new ways of thinking, organizing, and developing opened up the possibility of change, for example, the relationship between the individual, society, and the environment. The participants in this study highlighted how the previous norm involved burning waste in open areas and burying household waste underground. The burned waste produced ash, black soot, and smoke that caused pollution and health problems. Today, waste management has moved from a fire barrel on the property and incinerators at the landfill to sorting at home. One of the residents described the previous challenges:

When I moved to the house, there was a large barrel in the backyard where everything was burned. There was a lot of ash and smoke. I remember it smelled so bad, especially all the plastic burning. Respondent 3.

During the interviews, it was described how household packages were washed and dried at home to avoid bringing dirty materials to the Zero-Waste Center (Figure 1). For example, a plastic bottle had to be stripped of its label and lid, and glass had to be sorted by color. Biodegradable waste was composed at home.

The lifestyle shift was described as a way to make the younger generation want to stay and get new residents to move in (respondents 2, 3, 4, and 5). The municipality’s initiative for change aimed to ensure that future generations could live in an environment with clean air, clean water, and fertile soil. To make this possible, the municipality decided to reduce waste significantly, a process that had already started before the initiative for the zero-waste declaration. In December 2000, the mayor of the town decided to close incinerators and further increase sorting. By that time, 55 villages were visited to communicate the new situation to the residents, and in April 2001, there were 33 categories for sorting.

Part of the shift was also that one of the founders of zero waste, Professor Paul Connett, visited Kamikatsu in July 2003. During the visit, Connett gave a talk about zero waste to the residents, and in September of the same year, the municipality presented Japan’s first zero-waste declaration. Zero Waste in Kamikatsu would mean a society that focuses on not generating waste instead of focusing on how garbage should be managed. Since the declaration’s introduction, waste was not collected in the municipality. Instead, residents were expected to take the sorted household waste to the Zero Waste Center. One of the municipality’s residents said:

It is time to change our needs and our lifestyles. Zero waste is starting something new and seeing where it takes us. Respondent 5.

During the interview at Town Hall, an updated version of the Zero-Waste Declaration for 2030 was presented. This new version emphasized zero-waste education and how to decrease the remaining 20% of materials that were not reused or recycled. Also, promoting a more fun zero-waste lifestyle and reducing the burden on residents were in focus.

However, interviewees expressed that the municipality should widen its perspective on sustainability to further transition toward a more sustainable and equitable community. Mobility, energy, and food were examples of areas where a zero-waste concept could be applied (respondents 6 and 7).

Design for a Lifestyle Shift can be summarized as initiatives to create a common vision and goals. Key components were to:

• Identify a common idea of change.
• Formulate goals to improve the living environment.
• Arrange meetings with the residents and communicate the new situation.
• Inspire residents by inviting a famous role model.
• Introduce a zero-waste declaration.

4.2. Design of Norm Change

To achieve a lifestyle shift, design can be used as a catalyst to change norms. In 2005, the Kamikatsu Government established the Zero-Waste Academy volunteer organization to promote zero waste. The organization instructed the residents of Kamikatsu on how to reduce waste in the first step, but also how to reuse and recycle. The Zero-Waste Academy also helped residents who had obstacles taking their waste to the Zero-Waste Center. Since 2020, the municipality’s planning environment has been responsible for including all residents in the concept. Transport assistance was offered once every two months for residents who could not drive to the Zero Waste Center themselves. This service became a way of taking care of the residents and resulted in meetings between people:

It’s not just about picking up garbage, it is about ensuring everyone’s well-being. Respondent 2.

During the interviews, the importance of community and resourcefulness was emphasized. By that means, zero waste offered a comprehensive approach to sustainability:

Zero waste can be expressed by “mottainai”, a concept Japanese people use in daily life to express the important value something holds (…) a chance to reflect on our consumption patterns, life design, and interaction with our natural surroundings. Respondents 6 and 7.

The concept of zero waste was seen as a way to foster a culture of cohesion and commitment within the community. As noted by respondent 1, it helped create a sense of community, while respondent 3 suggested that if everyone contributed to helping one another, community involvement could grow even further. During one of the interviews, a brochure was presented outlining a suggested ZW lifestyle for families with children in the municipality. An example of this lifestyle was as follows: 07:00 wake up, 08:30 take the children to preschool, 09:00 arrive at work, 18:15 prepare dinner, 19:00 eat dinner, 20:00 take a bath, 21:00 engage in an activity, and 21:30 go to bed. Zero waste was also described as a pair of glasses that allows individuals to consider who produces a product and why, which fosters a sense of responsibility and engagement (respondent 1). This engagement contributed positively to the local community, as mentioned by respondent 4. Additionally, respondent 3 highlighted the idea that something beneficial for the city, such as a zero-waste concept, was beneficial for everyone. The municipality also established a Zero-Waste Council that organized monthly workshops to promote the initiative. However, not everyone followed the zero-waste concept. During the interviews, it emerged that approximately 20 percent was unsorted household waste at the Zero-Waste Center. One way to convince the residents who were not part of the norm was to have staff on-site talking to the residents.

In the municipality, it is like a rule to sort and follow the system. Respondent 1.

We create a system that makes it possible for people to learn about zero waste and environmental issues. Respondent 2.

A spokesperson from the municipality presented a survey that was carried out among the municipality’s residents, which showed that there were challenges with sorting in the home environment. During the interview, it was mentioned that a zero-waste plan was to reduce residents’ workload. The respondent reflected upon the challenges, for example, if it was difficult to wash and handle the packages at home, if it took too much time to sort, or whether a more developed point system was needed. One of the residents clarified (Figure 2):

If everything were sorted at home, it would end up in 43 categories. That is why some categories are mixed at home to make it possible to bring everything in the car to the Zero Waste Center. Respondent 4.

Design of norm change can be summarized as initiatives to create a culture and structure supporting changes in attitude and behavior. Key components were to:

• Define principles for residents to live by.
• Outline a suggested ZW lifestyle.
• Design and implement a supportive structure.
• Appoint an organization to promote measures to achieve zero waste.
• Provide care to the residents participating in the concept.

4.3. Design of Co-Located Experiences

The municipality had formed itself around the zero-waste concept by embodying the principles of ‘reduce, reuse, and recycle’. The Zero Waste Center was located on the site of the former landfill. It featured a sorting station, stockyard, kuru-kuru shop, learning center, public hall, office, collaborative laboratory, laundromat service, restrooms, and hotel accommodation (Figure 3). The design of the co-location reflected the values of the zero-waste community by visualizing the importance of education and communication, revitalizing the community, and enhancing the region. The learning center and public hall had books about zero waste and other sustainable lifestyle topics. A letterpress had printed “WHY?” on consumption-inciting newspapers to reevaluate consumer society. In one of the corners were music equipment and toys made from recycled plastic sorted in Kamikatsu.

The hotel allowed visitors to experience living the zero-waste concept. On one side of the facility, there were grass fields, a river, a vast forest, and mountains. On the other side was the sorting station and stockyard. The results also indicate that the concept was aimed at attracting tourists and possible new residents moving into the municipality. One of the interviewees mentioned:

I have heard that people have moved here because of zero waste, but also because of the leef industry, the Big Eye company, and the hotel WHY, which might attract a younger generation. Respondent 4.

The Zero Waste Center was designed as a question mark made of material donated by manufacturers and residents in the municipality. The design was also noted during the interviews:

It is a chance to reflect on our consumption patterns, life design, and interaction with our natural surroundings. Respondent 7.

The material consisted of, for example, bricks, tiles, and fabrics that would otherwise have been disposed of. Reused farming equipment was transformed into fixtures and signage, and farming harvest containers were used as bookshelves. The photo documentation illustrates how reused glass from old houses in Kamikatsu was used as window sections (Figure 4). The patchwork was created from fixtures gathered from the residents.

Pottery shards from broken tableware were used as flooring. The tiles of different colors and shapes were arranged in a pattern so that various chairs could be placed stably (Figure 5). The facility did not have thresholds.

It is about a mindset of ‘let’s not waste’—that relates to how we live life (respondent 7).

The design of co-location experiences can be summarized as initiatives to create a physical practice of the concept. Key components were to:

• Design a facility as a multimodal experience of the concept.
• Use visibility, such as signs and visual identity, to manifest the zero-waste concept.
• Design with reused items from the region to show waste as a resource.
• Visualize the significance of education and communication in sustainability issues.
• Position co-location as a marketing idea to attract national and global attention.

4.4. Design of an Incentive System

The municipality also had an incentive system called the “Chiritsumo points scheme”. Points earned by recycling, for example, paper, accumulated points. Participants in the study described how this initiative aimed to influence residents’ interest in sorting and recycling activities (respondents 1 and 2). Also, through a subsidy from the municipality, residents had the opportunity to buy compost for food waste at an 80% discount.

Everyone who moves to the municipality receives a grant to buy an electric garbage disposer. The price is 10,000 yen instead of 50,000 yen.Respondent 2.

The points system was made possible by selling “waste” from the municipality to recycling companies. During the interviews, it emerged that metal and paper were easier to recycle, so recycling companies mainly bought those materials. The money earned annually through selling recycled materials like metal and paper was the basis of the points system. Points cards were distributed to residents who could collect points mainly in three ways:

• Bulk sale: residents brought their own cans to the local stores.
• No plastic bags: residents brought their own bags.
• Optimized sorting: residents received points depending on how they sorted.

At the sorting station at the Zero-Waste Center, each container had a sign with information on disposal costs, purchase prices, waste destination, and recycling information (Figure 6). These signs communicated what these items would be recycled into, where in Japan this would take place, and how much it would cost the municipality per kilogram to process. Residents received different points depending on what categories were used for recycling. There were 43 categories in total, divided into 9 sections. For example, paper and plastic were sorted in several ways, and these sorting categories earned more points than mixed materials that were difficult to recycle (

Table 1. Example of three sorting categories and sub-categories.

Paper	Plastic	Bottles
Newspapers Cardboard Magazines Paper packs (white) Paper cups Paper packs (silver) Hard paper cores Shredder paper Unrecyclable paper	Plastic packaging Other plastic Pet bottles Plastic caps	Transparent bottles Brown bottles Other colored bottles Beer bottles

).

The collected points could be saved for value checks, for example, 25 points could be exchanged for a cap for primary school or chips for organic waste disposal machines. The municipality was in charge of the circular business model and the point system, and the Zero Waste Center was in charge of operations in the recycling environment. In 2017, zero-waste accreditation was launched as an incentive for local stores, producers, and restaurants to be part of the circular system. Businesses in Kamikatsu could earn accreditation by training employees in reducing waste and packages and setting measurable goals.

The point system aims to encourage sorting and to reduce incinerated and landfilled waste. Respondent 2.

The transition to a more circular system had not been completely easy:

On the first day, Town Hall introduced 18 categories. I followed that instruction. The first day, I brought easy material to sort, paper, and combustible material. From the beginning it was a lot to learn, all the different categories. Respondent 4.

One participant described how she and her husband had a routine of going there once a week and how they increased the number of bins at home as the number of sorting categories increased at the Zero-Waste Center sorting station.

We have bins in every room at home, totally 20. Respondent 3.

Over the years, the initiatives that contributed to the design of the zero-waste concept in Kamikatsu were developed collaboratively: (1) the administration formulated various policies together with residents and experts, (2) the residents put the concept into practice in their daily lives through sorting and new ideas, and (3) companies, stores, and restaurants endorsed the concept and put measures into practice. The following result is a brief timeline outlining the development of the concept during a two-decade journey since the introduction of the Zero-Waste Declaration, although the foundation was established before its introduction:

2003 Zero-Waste declaration was presented.

2005 Zero-Waste Academy was launched.

2006 The reuse shop Kurukuru opened.

2007 The remake shop opened.

2008 Rental of reused tableware started.

2011 Selling by weight was introduced.

2012 Return to residents measurements started.

2013 The Chiritsumo Point Campaign was introduced.

2016 Sorting into 45 categories (it changed to 43 categories in 2023).

2016 A recycling rate above 80% was achieved for the first time.

2017 Cloth diapers commenced.

2017 Zero-Waste certification started.

2018 No plastic bags campaign started.

2020 The design and construction of the Zero-Waste Center were completed.

Various incentives were part of the municipality’s effort to develop zero waste through reduce, reuse, and recycle:

Reduce: The municipality and voluntary organizations worked with companies and residents to reduce waste. Residents were encouraged to avoid single-use items and choose products that could be reused or easily recycled.

Reuse: In the municipality, the practice was to reuse items. Additionally, food waste was reused as compost in gardens to enrich the soil.

Recycle: At the Zero-Waste Center, the sorting categories were presented as recyclable and income-producing resources. Some categories generated income, for example, paper, metal, glass, and plastic were marked as ‘generates income’ because they were of interest to recycling companies. Other categories were marked as ‘cost money,’ like diapers and sanitary products. Residents paid for certain items to be brought to the center, such as tires and fire extinguishers. Also, companies took care of hard-to-recycle materials in a recovery program, such as plastic from toothpaste tubes, brushes, and electronics.

In summary, the results indicate that the Design of an Incentive System was about motivating residents to participate. In this process, the key components were to:

• Make a plan for reduce, reuse, and recycle.
• Design a structure for a reward system.
• Create incentives to nudge residents.
• Reward sustainable behavior and sorting.
• Communicate clear and accessible messages on measurement.

4.5. Design of a Self-Awareness Routine

The results show how a self-awareness routine was part of the concept to create awareness around lifestyle. Experiencing waste management on-site was a moment for learning about reducing waste and consumption. It included pedagogical methods such as various workshops and learning activities. For example, visitors to the hotel sorted their waste and brought it to the sorting area (Figure 7a). After the visit, the visitors also received visual feedback on their composting of food waste. This feedback took place via photographs of the compost sent via email.

All hotel visitors were asked to estimate how much soap they would use during their stay (Figure 7b). The same approach was used when visitors had to assess how many cups of coffee and tea they would drink during their stay (Figure 7c). A mandatory tour of the sorting area at the Zero Waste Center was also included.

This was somewhat manifested at the hotel’s entrance, where the Kurukuru shop with various second-hand items and garments was located. The idea of the shop was based on exchanging products instead of buying new ones. Residents and visitors had to weigh all products to calculate the waste saved by reusing instead of throwing things away (Figure 8a). They also had to write down how and where the reused product was going to be used. The shop’s fitting room was designed with recycled velvet drapery in red and wallpapers with the letters WHY in black and white (Figure 8b). A variety of materials were reused as an interior finish. For example, the reception near Kurukuru was built on drink trays, and the lobby was lightened up by a crystal chandelier made from recycled bottles.

At the hotel, guests sorted their waste and used a compost system. Visitors also checked into the zero-waste concept by checking into the hotel next to the sorting area. Through their experience of the Zero Waste Center, the visitors should start questioning their lifestyle. The hotel’s name, WHY, was also consistent with this, encouraging self-reflection. Recycled materials and furnishings were used in the design of the hotel. Design of the self-awareness routine thus also meant creating awareness of the waste as a resource.

That relates to the way we live life and to the garbage that is produced … to understand that there is no such thing as waste, only resources. Respondents 6 and 7.

The photo documentation during the interviews illustrates the design idea of the circle-shaped building (Figure 9). This was the story of a dragon drawn on a temple that came to life and flew off into the sky when the last dot of ink was applied to its eye. It was visualized on the floor of the hotel’s entrance as an eye made of stones from the Kamikatsu River to symbolize the community and nature as part of the global society.

The design of a self-awareness routine can be summarized as an initiative to strengthen self-awareness through learning. Key components were to create:

• Learning moments for self-esteem.
• Hands-on activities to reflect upon lifestyle.
• Social learning teams for common reflection.
• Storytelling on sustainable development on-site.
• Hotel accommodation as a test site for the zero-waste concept.

5. Discussion

Concepts shaped in a community tend to dissolve after a while because they fail to attract enough participants, and many communities fall apart soon after their initial launch because they lack the energy to sustain themselves [30]. Kamikatsu, Japan’s first municipality to announce a zero-waste declaration, has shaped itself around the concept since 2003. This section is structured from the community of practice’s terminology of ‘domain’, ‘practice’, and ‘community’ [31]. Each section below discusses initiatives contributing to the design of the zero-waste concept in Kamikatsu, and the opportunities and challenges of applying the concept in practice from a universal design perspective.

5.1. The Domain: Zero Waste as Evolution—A Norm Driven Change

By exploring the phenomenon as a community of practice [31], it is clear that the domain, over time, has been the common area of interest to reduce waste to improve the environment and increase the number of residents in the municipality. The primary initiative for shaping the domain involved establishing a shared vision for change and setting objectives to improve the living environment. Following that, the zero-waste declaration was implemented, along with efforts to inspire the community by inviting role models to give lectures on the topic.

Major social changes throughout history often arise from various initially small phenomena that coincide and reinforce one another [40]. In Kamikatsu, various incentives have been implemented over the years, reflecting a norm-driven change in the evolution of society. A supportive structure was part of the concept from the beginning, with initiatives such as the Zero-Waste Academy and community engagement with workshops and information meetings together with residents. A local government representative visited 55 villages in Kamikatsu, promoting the benefits of the concepts to as many residents as possible. All residents were encouraged to participate and be part of the concept but were not forced to do so.

Successively, the zero-waste concept generated job opportunities and was considered beneficial to the municipality through tourism, migration, and business.

Kamikatsu’s participatory model for cooperation between residents, the local administration, and businesses can be discussed as a key initiative for the design of the zero-waste concept and its domain. This collaborative approach aligns with the UD goal of Social Integration, treating all residents with dignity and respect [27]. From a UD perspective, these innovative approaches to thinking and organizing have created opportunities for change, particularly in the dynamics between the individual, society, and the environment.

The circular system was built upon the norm that the residents were responsible for their waste management. The residents washed and dried their packages before they brought them to the Zero-Waste Center. This can be discussed as an application of the zero-waste principles where waste minimization is part of everyday life [5,6,7]. Making waste management visible through sorting stations at home and the social interactions around it can strengthen commitment and awareness of consumption patterns. It can also be linked to how different terms were involved in shaping the standard of zero waste. One such term is ‘mottainai,’ which reflects a cultural value where the wasting of resources is seen as negative. This further strengthens zero waste as a norm in Kamikatsu. In accordance, the municipality aimed to make the lifestyle enjoyable for residents and presented a proposal for how a family can live a good ZW life in its marketing. This ambition aligns with the UD goal of Wellness and design initiatives supporting health, well-being, and safety [27], and the UD perspective emphasizing that all people should have the right to enjoy universal service [32].

The domain can be discussed as having created a strong identity, with the residents portrayed as pioneers in sustainability. People who find it time-consuming or inaccessible may feel alienated; this might lead to a belief that belonging is defined in terms of “us versus them” [31]. To meet these challenges, one plan of the municipality was to reduce residents’ workload and further develop the circular economy through partnerships with business organizations manufacturing products. For example, beverage producers recently started to buy back plastic bottles collected by the town government to make new ones. However, increasing the recycling rate does not provide an adequate incentive to reduce the amount of waste produced [14]. Residents’ ideas about a further transition toward a more sustainable and equitable community by incorporating mobility, energy, and food into the zero-waste concept are similar to systems thinking and regenerative design approaches integrating both human and ecological needs and recognizing that all forms of life are interconnected and interdependent [26].

In this study, the domain refers to the shared area of interest within the community regarding reducing waste, improving the environment, and increasing the municipality’s population. Over time, the domain has evolved, reflecting cultural values and reinforcing sustainability as a social norm. It has developed a strong identity for the community, though challenges like accessibility and workload remain. Based on the results, a comprehensive approach that simultaneously addresses transformative changes and enhances well-being appears to be central to the continued evolution of the domain. The findings reflect previous discussions by Isaksson and Hagbert [41], arguing that the local municipality is an important arena for developing and implementing such initiatives for a transition to long-term sustainable development.

5.2. The Practice: Zero Waste as Excitement—Incentives for Motivation

Practice is the knowledge and practical method that is developed and shared [31], in this case, about ZW. From a UD perspective, the practice must be usable for individuals of different ages and with different physical, mental, and cognitive impairments [18]. When planning for practice, the UD goals of Awareness and Understanding are relevant to consider [27]. Applying this approach in ZW communities ensures that the information provided to members of the community is easily perceived and understandable regardless of practical experience.

Kamikatsu’s approach to sharing knowledge centers on the practice of first reducing and reusing, and then recycling. Zero Waste for Excitement can thus be discussed as incentives that go beyond recycling. This aligns with earlier research suggesting that societies cannot recycle their way out of waste [23]. The municipality’s points system exemplifies how financial and practical incentives would contribute to compliance with the zero-waste concept. The two key practices implemented were (1) a reward system for motivation, which provided points for sustainable everyday choices, and (2) fostering local circularity, where the municipality reinvested revenues from recycling back into the incentive system. This was mainly “easy to recycle” materials such as paper, metal, and glass. Lately, there has been an agreement with one of the large plastic bottle producers in Japan interested in plastic material. The municipality worked with local manufacturers to reduce waste and advised residents to avoid single-use items or to buy products that could be disposed of easily.

A challenge from a UD perspective is that residents were required to bring their clean household materials to the sorting station at the Zero-Waste Center. This process of managing waste logistics can be discussed as a deterrent to excessive consumption.

The practice also involved learning how to sort waste into 43 categories. This could be complex and require continuous learning, which could be challenging for beginners or people with cognitive impairments [27]. Also, new immigrants or tourists from cultures without a strong recycling culture may find it difficult to adopt the concept. An opportunity, seen from this point of view, was the local method for supporting knowledge production through experience, guidance, and collaboration. These educational methods were formed over time to guide residents and visitors to reflect on their consumption and waste generation. It included moments for self-awareness through practical tasks. For example, visitors to the hotel had to estimate their own consumption of soap and coffee, as well as sort their waste and compost. This initiative could create a direct connection between consumption and waste, but also how the concept is part of the surrounding nature [7,26]. Weighing and documenting reused items in the designed Kurukuru shop could have contributed to concrete and measurable incentives for motivation.

Furthermore, Zero Waste as Excitement can be discussed as enabling a deeper understanding of zero waste through experiences. The design of the hotel accommodation and recycling center on a dump is an example of a zero-waste concept transformed into a living practice. Visitors at the Zero Waste Center were engaged by actively participating in sorting, reflection, and conscious consumption choices. This, in turn, can contribute to a stronger connection between the individual’s choices and the impact on the environment.

By reusing building materials, furniture, and textiles, a physical manifestation of zero waste was designed, which can strengthen the message that waste should be seen as a resource. This can be discussed as an expression of zero-waste design, uniting a holistic approach and considering aesthetics and function simultaneously [24].

However, this study indicates that the practice of sharing knowledge must incorporate universal design principles of accessibility and comprehensibility. To achieve this, methods such as the 3Rs should emphasize knowledge exchange through workshops and policy development that actively involve individuals outside the norm, for example, people with disabilities sharing their experiences. By engaging individuals with diverse abilities and conditions, innovative solutions based on many perspectives can be developed.

5.3. The Community: Zero Waste as Aliveness—A Construction for Interaction

This part of the discussion focuses on how a community can revitalize the zero-waste concept by creating opportunities for interaction between people.

A community needs to invite the interaction that makes it alive. In practice, it is about designing for social participation, which is seen as one of the cornerstones of a society that enables and empowers a diverse population [27]. The physical site for interaction was an important part of the ZW concept in Kamikatsu. The Zero Waste Center was a place where residents met in their everyday activities and shared information. That form of co-location enabled interaction at the recycling center, in the lobby, at the hotel, in the shop, in the public hall, in the laundry room, at the compost, or when workshops were held. However, it assumed that the residents had their own cars and could get to the place.

Seen from a UD perspective, a number of situations can thus limit the development of a zero-waste concept for everyone. Here, the discussion is deepened by reflecting on the physical environment in relation to the universal design goals [27]. The first goal, Body Fit, can be discussed as the Zero-Waste Center was physically accessible with wide aisles and clear signs. There were staff to help those who had difficulty sorting or carrying waste. However, the concept was based on residents physically transporting their waste to the center, which can be difficult for the elderly or people with disabilities. Another challenge was that the hotel’s rooms were located on two floors, meaning that only guests who could use the stairs could stay overnight. As a result, this study highlights a discrepancy between policies like the CRPD [33] and the actual design practices in place. It emphasizes the importance of accessibility as a fundamental aspect of interaction. Regarding Comfort, the Zero-Waste Center had a well-organized structure with clear instructions, and residents were supported through training and guidance on-site. However, the 43 sorting categories can be burdensome and complicated.

Concerning the UD goal of Awareness, there were signs, workshops, and information materials to spread knowledge about zero waste. There were also supporting organizations, e.g., the Zero-Waste Academy, which functioned as a knowledge platform. People with cognitive impairments, temporary or permanent, may, on the other hand, have difficulty understanding the system and the principles. To create Understanding, signs, color coding, and symbols were used to make sorting easier in the recycling environment. There was both verbal and written guidance that would teach residents the system gradually. However, the system can be perceived as complex and overwhelming. Wellness can be discussed as zero waste primarily reducing the amount of polluted waste and burning, which improves air quality. The fact that reused products were shared in a local circular system can be seen as having an impact on social cohesion. However, the system can be perceived as stressful and time-consuming. Regarding Social Integration, educational workshops and the physical site of the Zero Waste Center can be seen as catalysts that strengthened social integration. In this case study, expectations were expressed that all residents would participate on equal terms, which may have contributed to a ZW community. On the other hand, those who did not participate in the concept deviated from the prevailing norm. The UD goal of Personalization can be reflected upon as this study shows that there were some individual solutions, e.g., the opportunity to get help sorting correctly at the Zero Waste Center. Likewise, the incentive system can be seen as having contributed to residents being able to get involved based on their needs. The possibility to exchange points for various selectable products based on individuals’ needs, such as school uniforms or rain covers, can also be seen as an opportunity for personalization. From a more critical point of view, the system can be discussed as having a strictly uniform structure, such as the sorting of waste, which may be difficult for some groups to participate in.

Reflecting on the goal of Cultural Appropriateness, also presented by Steinfeld and Maisel [27], it was clear that the zero-waste concept was linked to local values of environmental awareness and cooperation. Stories of the local community came to life at the hotel through storytelling and design. The different colors and shapes can be discussed as an expression of diversity and co-existence and a concrete example of applied UD principles in a ZW community. ZW is not only an individual act but also a collective process. Cooperation between residents, businesses, and administrative bodies was an important part of the concept. The community built over time in Kamikatsu has been made up of people committed to improving the environment and creating growth in the community. Over the years, various stakeholders have been involved, including residents, decision-makers, businesses, and enthusiasts who have gathered around challenges, shared experiences, and developed new solutions together. However, how people with different physical, mental, and cognitive impairments have been involved in building and developing the concept is more vague.

6. Conclusions

In conclusion, this case study clearly shows that a society striving for sustainable development must integrate social sustainability with ecological sustainability. However, there seems to be tension between society’s ZW initiatives aimed at improving the living environment and the challenge of ensuring that everyone, regardless of age or disability, can actively participate in these efforts. Research by Hariram et al. [12] highlights similar tensions between sustainable development’s ecological and social dimensions, noting that these aspects are often treated as separate fields.

It may not be a radical stance to assert the necessity of a sustainability transition, but the key question is how such a change can happen [41]. The design of the zero-waste concept is not a single initiative. In Kamikatsu, it is the result of an extensive system that evolved over time. Several initiatives worked together to establish the concept as a norm-driven, participatory, and culturally integrated lifestyle while also addressing challenges in accessibility and usability. The initiatives share common factors: circular system thinking, co-creation involving residents, businesses, and local government, education and knowledge sharing, incentive systems, and the design of spaces for experiencing the concept.

This case study also highlights that while the zero-waste concept offers significant opportunities for the sustainable development of a community, it also presents challenges related to physical access, cognitive demands, and social expectations. A potential area for communities implementing a zero-waste concept is to engage in co-design with diverse groups, particularly those who might be marginalized. The practical implications of this study for policymakers and practitioners indicate that a UD perspective is essential for recognizing that sustainability movements require broad participation to be successful. Consequently, concepts like ZW must be accessible, usable, and enjoyable for a wide range of individuals, regardless of age, ability, or background. Communities striving for zero waste should not only reduce waste but also ensure that resources and infrastructure are designed based on social equity to serve all residents fairly. Combining principles of ZW (such as reduce, reuse, and recycle) and UD goals in community planning could strengthen resilient, livable societies that minimize environmental harm while maximizing accessibility and well-being.

In future research, implementing universal design goals in the process of developing zero-waste concepts could contribute to a fair and inclusive culture in a community that prioritizes human well-being and respects ecosystem boundaries. As a universal design lens may overlook the political situation, economic resources, or cultural attitudes necessary to replicate such a system elsewhere, this could be an issue to consider in studies to come. For example, one could analyze the economic feasibility of scaling up or environmental trade-offs, e.g., transportation emissions for centralized sorting. Future research should be motivated by an ambition to learn more about the potential to develop such human–environment-centered perspectives on sustainability, that is, perspectives that emphasize the need to develop concepts that allow as many people as possible to be part of the circular transformation of society, such as zero waste. This work could involve studies focusing on the environment, well-being, and norms and visions for the future with a focus on small municipalities.