Analysis of the Life Cycle and Circular Economy Strategies for Batteries Adopted by the Main Electric Vehicle Manufacturers
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. The Influence of Regulation on CE and LCA Practices in the Sector
- Transparency and Traceability
- Extended Producer Responsibility
- Minimum Recycled Content Standards
- Collection and Recycling Targets
- Innovation and Sustainable Design
- Social and Environmental Impact of Mining
- Compliance and Enforcement
- General Implementation of the Regulation
3. Impacts of the New Regulation on Manufacturers
- Accelerated Investment in Recycling
- Redesign of Products and Processes
- Formation of Strategic Partnerships
- Transparency and Traceability Initiatives
- Regulatory Impact
- Post-Regulation Research and Development
4. Methods
- (a)
- Selection of Companies and Data Sources:
- (b)
- Content analysis procedure:
- (c)
- Data collection:
- (d)
- Categorization and coding:
- Battery recycling;
- Sustainable design;
- Carbon reduction targets;
- Implementation of second-life practices for batteries.
- (e)
- Data validation:
- (f)
- Metrics and Comparative Analysis:
- (g)
- Limitations:
Matrix of Categories for Content Analysis
5. Circular Economy and Life Cycle: Manufacturers’ Strategies
- Decarbonization of the battery supply chain
- Innovation in Battery Technologies
- Analysis of Key CE and LCA Practices
- Circular Economy Strategy
- Battery Recycling and Reuse
- Sustainable Supply Chain Management
- Technological Innovation and Product Development
- Analysis of Key CE and LCA Practices
- Circular Economy and Use of Recycled Materials
- Decarbonization and Life Cycle Management of Batteries
- Innovation in Battery Technologies and Recycling
- Analysis of Key CE and LCA Practices
- Integration of the Circular Economy
- Battery Life cycle Management
- Innovation and Reuse
- Analysis of Key CE and LCA Practices
- Circular Economy and Battery Recycling
- Battery Life cycle Management
- Innovation and Sustainability
- Analysis of Key CE and LCA Practices
- Establishing a Virtuous Battery Circulation System
- Carbon Goals and Reducing Environmental Impact
- Technological Innovation and Sustainability
- Strategic Partnerships and Global Expansion
- Analysis of Key CE and LCA Practices
- Implementation of a Circular Economy System
- Sustainability Goals and Technological Innovation
- Collaboration and Supply Chain Responsibility
- Analysis of Key CE and LCA Practices
- Circular Economy and Material Recycling
- Battery Life cycle Management
- Innovation and Sustainability
- Analysis of Key CE and LCA Practices
- Reducing Carbon Footprint
- Recycling and Reusing Materials
- Strategic Partnerships and Technological Development
- End-of-Life Management and Design for Circularity
- Analysis of Key CE and LCA Practices
- Circular Economy in Battery Management
- Goals and Strategies for 2030
- Implementation and Strategic Partnerships
- Analysis of Key CE and LCA Practices
6. Key Practices Adopted by Companies
7. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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No. | Descriptions |
---|---|
1 | Transparency and traceability |
2 | Extended producer responsibility |
3 | Minimum recycled content standards |
4 | Collection and recycling targets |
5 | Innovation and sustainable design |
6 | Social and environmental impact of mining |
7 | Compliance and enforcement |
8 | General implementation of the regulation |
Date | Action |
---|---|
2024 | Traceability System and Digital Passport: Companies are required to implement a digital passport system for batteries, which must be fully operational by the end of 2024. This system will encompass detailed information regarding the origins of raw materials, battery composition, production history, and performance data. |
2027 | Recycled Content: Starting in 2027, batteries sold within the European Union must contain a minimum percentage of recycled materials. This percentage, determined by various critical materials such as lithium, cobalt, and nickel, will undergo periodic reviews and may increase over time. |
2030 | Recycled Content: By 2030, the minimum recycled content requirements will be elevated, reflecting the growing capacity of the industry to recycle and reuse materials efficiently. |
2025 | Collection and Recycling Targets: By 2030, the recycled content requirements will be heightened to reflect the industry’s growing capacity to recycle and reuse materials efficiently. |
2030 | Collection and Recycling Targets: More ambitious collection and recycling targets are to be met, necessitating a higher percentage of used batteries to be collected, and minimum recycling rates for critical materials such as cobalt, lithium, and nickel must be achieved. |
2025 | Sustainable Design and Innovation: Sustainable design guidelines must be fully implemented, including requirements for easier battery disassembly and recycling. Companies are required to modify their design and production processes to adhere to these new standards. |
2025 | Extended Producer Responsibility: By 2025, extended producer responsibility must be fully realized. From this year forward, manufacturers will bear full responsibility for the entire life cycle of their batteries, encompassing collection and recycling at end of life. |
2025 | Sustainable Mining and Human Rights: By 2025, companies must demonstrate adherence to sustainability and human rights standards in their raw material mining practices. This involves implementing responsible practices within supply chains to ensure minimal social and environmental impacts. |
2030 | Regulation Reviews and Updates: The regulation mandates periodic reviews, with a significant review scheduled for 2030. These reviews will assess progress and adjust goals and requirements as necessary to ensure the achievement of sustainability objectives. |
Description | Data |
---|---|
Foundation | 2023 |
Ownership | Tesla is a publicly traded company with the ticker symbol TESLA, listed on the Nasdaq. Major shareholders include Elon Musk, Baillie Gifford & Co., and Vanguard Group [34] |
Market value | USD 840 billion [34] |
Headquarters | Palo Alto, CA, USA |
Factories | 8 (Freemont, Nevada, New York, Texas, Shanghai, Berlin, Kato, and Lathrop) [35] |
Annual revenue | 2022: USD 81.5 billion [34] |
Market share | 2023: USD 100 billion [34] |
Vehicle sales volume | Approximately 20% of the global electric vehicle market [24]. 2023: 1.3 million units [18] |
Number of employees | Approximately 290,000 (2023) [35] |
No. | Description |
---|---|
1 | Circular economy and battery recycling |
2 | Decarbonization of the battery supply chain |
3 | Innovation in battery technologies |
Description | Data |
---|---|
Foundation | 1995 |
Ownership | BYD is a publicly traded company with the ticker 1211.HK, listed on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange. Major shareholders include Wang Chuanfu (founder and CEO) and Berkshire Hathaway [36]. |
Market value | USD 125 billion [36]. |
Headquarters | Shenzhen, China [37]. |
Factories | More than 30 worldwide [37]. |
Annual revenue | 2022: USD 57.4 billion [36]. 2023: USD 70 billion [36]. |
Market share | Approximately 18% of the global electric vehicle market (2023) [24]. |
Vehicle sales volume | 2022 Electric vehicles: 911,000 units. Hybrids: 946,000 units [38]. 2023 Electric vehicles: 1.3 million units. Hybrids: 1.2 million units [38]. |
Number of employees | Approximately 290,000 (2023) [37]. |
No. | Description |
---|---|
1 | Circular economy strategy |
2 | Battery recycling and reuse |
3 | Sustainable supply chain management |
4 | Technological innovation and product development |
Description | Data |
---|---|
Foundation | 1937 |
Ownership | Volkswagen AG is a publicly traded company with the ticker symbol VOW3, listed on the Frankfurt Stock Exchange. The majority of its shares are held by Porsche Automobil Holding SE, controlled by the Porsche and Piëch families [40]. |
Market value | EUR 70 billion [40]. |
Headquarters | Wolfsburg, Germany |
Factories | Approximately 120 factories worldwide [41]. |
Annual revenue | 2022: EUR 279.2 billion [42]. 2023: EUR 290 billion [42]. |
Market share | Approximately 10% of the global electric vehicle market (2023) [24]. |
Vehicle sales volume | 2022 Electric vehicles: 572,100 units. Hybrids: 310,000 units. Internal combustion engine: 7.42 million units [42]. 2023 Electric vehicles: 720,000 units. Hybrids: 340,000 units. Internal combustion engine: 7.20 million units [42]. |
Number of employees | Approximately 675,000 (2023) [43]. |
No. | Description |
---|---|
1 | Circular economy and use of recycled materials |
2 | Decarbonization and life cycle management of batteries |
3 | Innovation in battery technologies and recycling |
Description | Data |
---|---|
Foundation | 1916 |
Ownership | BMW AG is a publicly traded company listed on the Frankfurt Stock Exchange under the ticker symbol BMW. Major shareholders include Stefan Quandt and Susanne Klatten [44]. |
Market value | Approximately EUR 95 billion |
Headquarters | Munich, Germany. |
Factories | 31 factories across 15 countries [45]. |
Annual revenue | 2022: EUR 142.6 billion [46]. 2023: EUR 150 billion [46]. |
Market share | Approximately 3% of the global electric vehicle market (2023) [24]. |
Vehicle sales volume | 2022 Electric vehicles: 215,755 units. Hybrids: 433,000 units. Internal combustion engine: 1.75 million units [46]. 2023 Electric vehicles: 275,000 units. Hybrids: 450,000 units. Internal combustion engine: 1.70 million units [46]. |
Number of employees | Approximately 149,000 (2023) [45]. |
No. | Description |
---|---|
1 | Integration of the circular economy |
2 | Battery life cycle management |
3 | Innovation and reuse |
Description | Data |
---|---|
Foundation | 1908 |
Ownership | General Motors is a publicly traded company listed on the New York Stock Exchange under the ticker symbol ‘GM’. Major shareholders include Vanguard Group, BlackRock, and Capital Research Global Investors [47]. |
Market value | Approximately USD 50 billion |
Headquarters | Detroit, MI, USA. |
Factories | Approximately 122 factories in 30 countries [48]. |
Annual revenue | 2022: USD 156.7 billion [49]. 2023: USD 162 billion [49]. |
Market share | Approximately 4% of the global electric vehicle market (2023) [24]. |
Vehicle sales volume | 2022 Electric vehicles: 387,000 units. Hybrids: 240,000 units. Internal combustion engine: 4.05 million units [49]. 2023 Electric vehicles: 500,000 units. Hybrids: 260,000 units. Internal combustion engine: 4 million units [49]. |
Number of employees | Approximately 167,000 (2023) [48]. |
No. | Description |
---|---|
1 | Circular economy and battery recycling |
2 | Battery life cycle management |
3 | Innovation and sustainability |
Description | Data |
---|---|
Foundation | 1967 |
Ownership | Hyundai Motor Company is a publicly traded company listed on the OTC Market under the ticker HYMTF. Major shareholders include Hyundai Motor Group and other institutions [51]. |
Market value | Approximately USD 50 billion (August 2024) [51]. |
Headquarters | Seoul, Republic of Korea |
Factories | 34 factories across 10 countries [52]. |
Annual revenue | 2022: USD 105.8 billion [53]. 2023: USD 112 billion [53]. |
Market share | Approximately 7% of the global electric vehicle market (2023) [24]. |
Vehicle sales volume | 2022 Electric vehicles: 320,000 units. Hybrids: 450,000 units. Internal combustion engine: 3.1 million units [53]. 2023 Electric vehicles: 380,000 units. Hybrids: 470,000 units. Internal combustion engine: 3.0 million units [53]. |
Number of employees | Approximately 280,000 (2023) [52]. |
No. | Description |
---|---|
1 | Establishing a virtuous battery circulation system |
2 | Carbon goals and reducing environmental impact |
3 | Technological innovation and sustainability |
4 | Strategic partnerships and global expansion |
Description | Data |
---|---|
Foundation | 1903 |
Ownership | Ford Motor Company is a publicly traded company listed on the New York Stock Exchange under the ticker “F.” The Ford Family maintains significant control through shares with special voting rights [55]. |
Market value | Approximately USD 60 billion [34]. |
Headquarters | Dearborn, MI, USA. |
Factories | 65 factories worldwide [56]. |
Annual revenue | 2022: USD 158.1 billion [20]. 2023: USD 165 billion [20]. |
Market share | Approximately 5% of the global electric vehicle market (2023) [24]. |
Vehicle sales volume | 2022 Electric Vehicles: 150,000 units. Hybrids: 300,000 units. Internal combustion engine: 3.9 million units [20]. 2023 Electric vehicles: 200,000 units. Hybrids: 320,000 units. Internal combustion engine: 3.8 million units [20]. |
Number of employees | Approximately 183,000 (2023) [57]. |
No. | Description |
---|---|
1 | Implementation of a circular economy system |
2 | Sustainability goals and technological innovation |
3 | Collaboration and supply chain responsibility |
Description | Data |
---|---|
Foundation | 1899 |
Ownership | Renault S.A. is a publicly traded company listed on the Euronext Paris stock exchange under the ticker RNO. Major shareholders include the French government, Nissan, and Daimler AG [58]. |
Market value | Approximately EUR 13 billion (August 2024) [59]. |
Headquarters | Boulogne-Billancourt, France. |
Factories | 38 factories in 15 countries. |
Annual revenue | 2022: EUR 46.2 billion [59]. 2023: EUR 50 billion [59]. |
Market share | Approximately 4% of the global electric vehicle market (2023) [24]. |
Vehicle sales volume | 2022 Electric vehicles: 170,000 units. Hybrids: 300,000 units. Internal combustion engine: 2.1 million units [59]. 2023 Electric vehicles: 200,000 units. Hybrids: 320,000 units. Internal combustion engine: 2.05 million units [59]. |
Number of employees | Approximately 111,000 (2023) [60]. |
No. | Description |
---|---|
1 | Circular economy and battery recycling |
2 | Battery life cycle management |
3 | Innovation and sustainability |
Description | Data |
---|---|
Foundation | 2021 |
Ownership | Stellantis N.V. is a publicly traded company listed on Euronext Paris, the New York Stock Exchange, and the Italian Stock Exchange under the ticker STLA. Major shareholders include Exor N.V., Bpifrance, and Dongfeng Motor Corporation [61]. |
Market value | Approximately EUR 55 billion [62]. |
Headquarters | Amsterdam, The Netherlands |
Factories | 102 factories across 30 countries [63]. |
Annual revenue | 2022: EUR 179.6 billion [62]. 2023: EUR 185 billion [62]. |
Market share | Approximately 5% of the global electric vehicle market (2023) [24]. |
Vehicle sales volume | 2022 Electric vehicles: 300,000 units. Hybrids: 450,000 units. Internal combustion engine: 5.9 million units [62]. 2023 Electric vehicles: 400,000 units. Hybrids: 470,000 units. Internal combustion engine: 5.8 million units [62]. |
Number of employees | Approximately 280,000 (2023) [63]. |
No. | Description |
---|---|
1 | Reducing carbon footprint |
2 | Recycling and reusing materials |
3 | Strategic partnerships and technological evelopment |
4 | End-of-life management and design for circularity |
Description | Data |
---|---|
Foundation | 1937 |
Ownership | Toyota Motor Corporation is a publicly traded company listed on the Tokyo Stock Exchange and the New York Stock Exchange under the ticker symbol TM. Major shareholders include Vanguard Group, BlackRock, and Toyota Industries Corporation [64]. |
Market value | Approximately USD 240 billion [65]. |
Headquarters | Toyota City, Aichi, Japan. |
Factories | 67 factories in 28 countries [66]. |
Annual revenue | 2022: JPY 31.3 trillion (approximately USD 240 billion) [65]. 2023: JPY 33 trillion (approximately USD 250 billion) [65]. |
Market share | Approximately 9% of the global electric vehicle market (2023) [3]. |
Vehicle sales volume | 2022 Electric vehicles: 400,000 units. Hybrids: 2.8 million units. Internal combustion engine: 7.6 million units [65]. 2023 Electric vehicles: 500,000 units. Hybrids: 2.9 million units. Internal combustion engine: 7.5 million units [65]. |
Number of employees | Approximately 370,000 (2023) [66]. |
No. | Description |
---|---|
1 | Circular economy in battery management |
2 | Goals and strategies for 2030 |
3 | Implementation and strategic partnerships |
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Cintra, R.S.; Avila, L.V.; Schvartz, M.A.; Filho, W.L.; Anholon, R.; Moraes, G.H.S.M.d.; Siluk, J.C.M.; Lisboa, G.d.S.; Khaled, N.N.D. Analysis of the Life Cycle and Circular Economy Strategies for Batteries Adopted by the Main Electric Vehicle Manufacturers. Sustainability 2025, 17, 3428. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17083428
Cintra RS, Avila LV, Schvartz MA, Filho WL, Anholon R, Moraes GHSMd, Siluk JCM, Lisboa GdS, Khaled NND. Analysis of the Life Cycle and Circular Economy Strategies for Batteries Adopted by the Main Electric Vehicle Manufacturers. Sustainability. 2025; 17(8):3428. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17083428
Chicago/Turabian StyleCintra, Rodrigo Sampaio, Lucas Veiga Avila, Marceli Adriane Schvartz, Walter Leal Filho, Rosley Anholon, Gustavo Hermínio Salati Marcondes de Moraes, Julio Cezar Mairesse Siluk, Gustavo da Silva Lisboa, and Nisrin Naiel Dib Khaled. 2025. "Analysis of the Life Cycle and Circular Economy Strategies for Batteries Adopted by the Main Electric Vehicle Manufacturers" Sustainability 17, no. 8: 3428. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17083428
APA StyleCintra, R. S., Avila, L. V., Schvartz, M. A., Filho, W. L., Anholon, R., Moraes, G. H. S. M. d., Siluk, J. C. M., Lisboa, G. d. S., & Khaled, N. N. D. (2025). Analysis of the Life Cycle and Circular Economy Strategies for Batteries Adopted by the Main Electric Vehicle Manufacturers. Sustainability, 17(8), 3428. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17083428