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Article

The Effect of Waste Organic Matter on the Soil Chemical Composition After Three Years of Miscanthus × giganteus Cultivation in East-Central Poland

by
Elżbieta Malinowska
* and
Paweł Kania
Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, University of Siedlce, Konarskiego 2 Str., 08-110 Siedlce, Poland
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2025, 17(6), 2532; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17062532
Submission received: 23 January 2025 / Revised: 28 February 2025 / Accepted: 12 March 2025 / Published: 13 March 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Quality and Innovation in Agriculture: Dynamics, Indicators, and Sustainability)
Versions Notes

Abstract

The circular economy practice of using waste to fertilize plants should be more widespread. It is a means to manage natural resources sustainably in agriculture. This approach is in line with organic and sustainable farming strategies, reducing the cultivation costs. Organic waste dumped into a landfill decomposes and emits greenhouse gases. This can be reduced through its application to energy crops, which not only has a positive impact on the environment but also improves the soil quality and increases yields. However, organic waste with increased content of heavy metals, when applied to the soil, can also pose a threat. Using Miscanthus × giganteus M 19 as a test plant, an experiment with a randomized block design was established in four replications in Central–Eastern Poland in 2018. Various combinations of organic waste (municipal sewage sludge and spent mushroom substrate) were applied, with each dose containing 170 kg N ha−1. After three years (in 2020), the soil content of total nitrogen (Nt) and carbon (Ct) was determined by elemental analysis, with the total content of P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Na, Fe, Mn, Mo, Zn, Ni, Pb, Cr, Cd, and Cu determined by optical emission spectrometry, after wet mineralization with aqua regia. For the available forms of P and K, the Egner–Riehm method was used, and the Schachtschabel method was used for the available forms of Mg. The total content of bacteria, actinomycetes, and fungi was also measured. The application of municipal sewage sludge (SS) alone and together with spent mushroom substrate (SMS) improved the microbiological composition of the soil and increased the content of Nt and Ct and the available forms of P2O5 and Mg more than the application of SMS alone. SMS did not contaminate the soil with heavy metals. In the third year, their content was higher after SS than after SMS application, namely for Cd by 12.2%, Pb by 18.7%, Cr by 25.3%, Zn by 16.9%, and Ni by 14.7%.

1. Introduction

In order to obtain the appropriate quantity and quality of perennial lignocellulosic plants, alternative production technologies are applied, using various post-production waste and agricultural residues, such as sewage sludge, mushroom substrate, digestate from biogas plants, or alcohol distillery waste. One of the main problems with the use of organic waste as a fertilizer is its content of pathogenic microorganisms and heavy metals, with the latter accumulating in the soil [1,2,3,4,5]. The long-term presence of heavy metals in the soil can lead to their bioaccumulation in plants. Heavy metals reduce plants’ ability to absorb nutrients and water and, consequently, inhibit their growth. Heavy metals can also disrupt the functions of soil microorganisms and their ecosystem [6,7,8]. The action of organic materials in the soil, especially of SS, is dynamic and changes over time. Initially, the soil physicochemical properties improve and plant yields increase [9,10,11,12], but, over time, depending on their chemical composition, problems related to the accumulation of pollutants (e.g., heavy metals) and reduced soil biodiversity may arise [13]. Depending on the habitat conditions and the types of materials introduced into the soil, as much as 40% to 70% of organic matter undergoes mineralization in the first year. In the following years, the rate of mineralization decreases in favor of humification [14]. Climate change has a strong impact on these processes [15]. In Poland, a large amount of waste ranging from 1 to 1.3 million tons per year is generated during mushroom production [16]. This waste is much safer in terms of heavy metal content than SS, but it can contain fungi and many other microorganisms that may negatively affect plant growth and development. Therefore, it should always be heat-treated before being introduced into the soil [17]. The substrate after mushroom cultivation is produced on the basis of organic materials (chicken or horse manure, straw, and peat) supplemented with a mineral substance.
The use of organic waste as a fertilizer always requires careful monitoring and compliance with environmental regulations to avoid long-term negative effects on human health and the soil ecosystem. In Poland, the use of SS is determined by the Regulation of the Ministry of the Environment [18] and the Act of 27 April 2001 on waste [19]. In the cultivation of energy crops, the use of SS is much less restrictive than in the cultivation of forage crops and those produced for human consumption, but this does not mean that cyclical soil and plant tests should not be performed.
Taking the above into account, this paper examines changes in the chemical composition of the soil treated with different combinations of SS and SMS, each with the same dose of N, after three years of Miscanthus × giganteus cultivation.
The aim of this research was to determine the long-term effects of SS and SMS on the soil content of carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, macro- and micronutrients, and selected heavy metals, as well as bacteria, actinomycetes, and fungi, after three years of Miscanthus × giganteus cultivation in Central–Eastern Poland.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Description of the Experiment

The field experiment was established in the experimental field of the University of Siedlce (52°17′ N, 22°28′ E) in 2018, on anthropogenic soil of the culture-earth type and hortisol subtype. It was clay loam soil, with light loam as the subsoil [20]. The experiment was set up in a system of random blocks with four replications. The test plant was Miscanthus × giganteus (giant miscanthus) M 19, a perennial grass of the C4 photosynthetic type.
The experimental site consisted of the following plots and treatments (Table 1).
Both SS and SMS were applied only once before planting the grass rhizomes, namely in the spring. Sludge was obtained from the sewage treatment plant in Siedlce, with a capacity of about 24,000 m3 of SS per day. It produced 1897 Mg of SS per year and 5.2 Mg per day. The substrate obtained after mushroom cultivation from a farm located in the Siedlce district was subjected to thermal treatment. The cultivation of the white mushroom on the farm lasted six weeks. The producer of the substrate for mushroom cultivation was Unikost, while the peat moss for the casing layer was produced by Wokas.

2.2. Weather Conditions During the Experiment

The meteorological conditions from 2018 to 2020 were assessed on the basis of data made available by the Institute of Meteorology and Water Management, National Research Institute (PIB) in Warsaw. In order to determine the temporal variability and the impact of precipitation and the air temperature on the growth and development of plants, Sielianinov’s hydrothermal coefficient (K) was determined according to the following formula:
K = P 0.1 Σ t
where
P—monthly rainfall;
Σt—the sum of the daily air temperature values in a given month [21].
Then, nine classes of hydrothermal conditions were established using Sielianinov’s coefficient (K):
K ≤ 0.4 extreme drought (ed);
0.4 < K ≤ 0.7 severe drought (sd);
0.7 < K ≤ 1.0 drought (d);
1.0 < K ≤ 1.3 moderate drought (md);
1.3 < K ≤ 1.6 optimal (o);
1.6 < K ≤ 2.0 moderately wet (mw);
2.0 < K ≤ 2.5 wet (w);
2.5 < K ≤ 3.0 severely wet (sw);
K > 3.0 extremely wet (ew) [22].
Optimal thermal and moisture conditions occurred only in June, July, and October 2018, i.e., in the first year of grass growth (Table 2). In the remaining growing seasons, they varied to a large degree. In June 2019 and July 2020, extremely dry conditions were observed. The most difficult growing conditions occurred in 2019, when, with the exception of May, they ranged from extremely dry to quite dry.

2.3. Soil and Organic Material Analysis

Representative soil samples were collected from three layers, 0–20 cm, 20–40 cm, and 40–60 cm, at the beginning of the experiment and at the end of the third year (2020) only from the arable layer (0–20 cm). They were air dried, and the following were determined:
  • pHH2O and in 1 mol KCl L−1 by the potentiometric method;
  • total nitrogen (Nt) and carbon (Ct) content by elemental analysis using the Perkin Elmer CHNS/O Series II 2400 autoanalyzer with a thermal conductivity detector;
  • total content of P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Na, Fe, Mn, Mo, Zn, Ni, Pb, Cr, Cd, and Cu by optical emission spectrometry, after the wet mineralization of the soil samples with aqua regia, at Eurofins OBiKŚ Polska Ltd, Katowice, Poland. in Katowice, formerly the Centre for Environmental Research and Control;
  • available forms of P and K by the Enger–Riehm method, at the District Chemical-Agricultural Station in Lublin, according to the Polish standards, respectively [23,24];
  • available forms of Mg by the Schachtschabel method, at the District Chemical and Agricultural Station in Lublin, according to the Polish standard [25].
In addition, after harvesting Miscanthus × giganteus, the total soil content of bacteria and actinomycetes was determined, expressed as the number of colony-forming units (107 CFUg−1 DM of soil), via the plate method on LB medium after incubation at 28 °C for 5 days. Petri dishes were seeded with bacterial colonies using the flood plate method. The total number of fungi (104 CFUg−1 DM of soil) was determined on Martin’s substrate.
The experiment was conducted on soil with high total C and N content and a neutral pH (Table 3, (a)). The content of Cr, Cd, Cu, and Ni at the beginning of the experiment was several times lower than the limits specified by the Ministry of the Environment’s Regulation [18] for light soils when using SS, while the amounts of Zn and Pb were within the standards (Table 3, (b)). The content of available forms of P, K, and Mg in the soil top layer was as follows: P2O5—117; K2O—47.5; Mg—10.04 mg kg−1. This indicated their large amounts (Table 4).
In a representative sample of waste organic material, the following were determined:
  • dry matter, after drying the sample at 105 °C until a constant mass was reached;
  • pH value in 1 mol KCl L−1 by the potentiometric method;
  • total nitrogen (Nt) content by the modified Kjeldahl method, after mineralization in concentrated sulfuric acid (VI), in the presence of a selenium mixture [26];
  • organic C (Corg) content by the redox titration method [27];
  • total content of P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Na, Fe, Mn, Mo, Zn, Ni, Pb, Cr, Cd, and Cu by optical emission spectrometry after the wet mineralization of the samples using aqua regia.
The municipal sludge used in the experiment was characterized by high content of dry matter (93%) and macroelements (Table 5), with low content of heavy metals. Their permissible amounts were provided by the Regulation of the Ministry of the Environment [18], allowing the use of sewage sludge in the cultivation of Miscanthus × giganteus (in accordance with Directive 86/278/EEC). Of all heavy metals in SS, the Zn content was the highest (987.2 mg kg−1 DM) and Cd (1.81 mg kg−1 DM) the lowest. The content of heavy metals in the organic material was ranked in a sequence of decreasing values (mg kg−1): Zn (987.2) > Cu (88.01) > Ni (44.23) > Pb (36.12) > Cr (15.44) > Co (3.58) > Cd (1.81).
The spent substrate left after the production of white mushrooms was characterized by relatively low content of heavy metals (Table 6). Among them, Zn (156.9 mg kg−1) was the most abundant, and the cobalt (0.415 mg kg−1) and cadmium content (0.287 mg kg−1) was the lowest. The content of all heavy metals in SMS was several times lower than in SS. The chemical composition of the SMS was determined by the materials used for its production.

2.4. Statistical Processing

The results were developed statistically using the analysis of variance for a univariate experiment. The significance of the fertilizer treatment’s effect on the values of the characteristics was checked on the basis of the Fisher–Snedecor F test. The LSD0.05 value (for a detailed comparison of the means) was calculated using Tukey’s test. The Statistica StatSoft 13.1 [28] program was used for calculation

3. Results and Discussion

After the third year of Miscanthus × giganteus cultivation, an increase in the soil content of total C and N was noted only in two plots (Table 7, Table 3 (a)), one with SS used on its own and the other treated with a mixture of SS at the highest dose and SMS (SS75 + SMS25). Applied on its own, SS increased the Nt content in the soil to the largest extent, by 12.3%, while, in the plot with SS75 + SMS25, it rose only by 6.0%. The content of Ct in both plots increased much less than that of Nt, only by 1.5%. In the remaining fertilized plots, a decrease in the content of Nt and Ct was noted, and, in the case of the latter, it was the largest in the control plot and in response to SMS used on its own.
A significant difference was noted between the SS plot and the control concerning the content of Nt. The total N content in the former was the highest, with 3.20 g kg−1 DM of soil, while, in the control plot, it was 2.65 g kg−1 DM. The content of Nt in the control plot was similar to that in the SMS plot. This may have been the result of the initial immobilization or inhibition of the N-nitrification process in the soil [29,30]. The nitrogen content in the remaining fertilized plots was higher than in the soil from the control plot, but these differences were not statistically significant. Bik-Małodzińska et al. [31] indicated a significant increase in soil nitrogen content after the application of SS, while Grzywnowicz and Strutyński [32] recorded an increase that was more than twice as high in response to manure application. Kuziemska et al. [33] stated that SS, compared to other organic wastes, had the greatest impact on soil nitrogen enrichment, which was confirmed by the results of the present research.
The lowest content of Ct was found in the control plot (33.6 g kg−1 DM of soil) and after applying SMS (35.6 g kg−1 DM of soil). The average content of Ct in the soil from all fertilized plots after three years of research was 38.0 g kg−1 DM of soil. On all fertilized plots, except for that with SMS, a significant increase in Ct was found in relation to the control plot.
Many authors stress the beneficial effect of SS in increasing the content of organic C in the soil [34,35]. Additionally, its content can be increased by organic matter development, limited agrotechnical treatments, and leaf shedding before harvest due to wind, the temperature, and heavy precipitation [36]. The accumulation of C in the soil is largely determined by the air temperature and the amount of precipitation. Any increase in temperature leads to an increase in evaporation and to a water deficit, which may be closely related to a decrease in soil C [14]. During the experiment, difficult growing conditions prevailed, especially in 2019 (Table 2), which probably contributed to the reduction in the soil C content in the control plot.
The content of H in the soil after three years of Miscanthus × giganteus cultivation was, on average, 5.48 g kg−1 (Table 7). No significant differences were noted in response to organic waste application. The highest H content was recorded in the control plot (6.10 g kg−1 DM of soil) and the lowest after the application of SMS. Grzywnowicz and Strutyński [32] found an increase in the active and potential acidity of soil treated with SS. The exchangeable acidity increased in response to increasing amounts of exchangeable hydrogen.
The average content of P in the soil after three years of Miscanthus × giganteus cultivation was 1.14 g kg−1 (Table 3 (a), Table 8), slightly lower than before the experiment (1.19 g kg−1). After three years of research, the lowest content of this macronutrient was found in the control plot (1.08 g kg−1) and in the plot with SS and SMS at the dose of SS25 + SMS75 (1.09 g kg−1). In relation to the other fertilized plots, the soil content of P was most favorably affected by two combinations of SS and SMS, namely SS75 + SMS25 and SS50 + SMS50, with 1.24 and 1.20 g kg−1 DM of soil, respectively. The differences in the soil P content in response to organic waste were not statistically significant. Xu et al. [37] reported that about 90% of the P found in sewage sludge was strongly bound to iron or aluminum. On the other hand, Grzywnowicz, Strutyński [32] and Kuziemska et al. [33] indicated that the P content in the soil increased with the use of SS.
The soil content of K was, on average, 0.818 g kg−1 and was higher than before the experiment was established (Table 3 (a), Table 8). This increase was due to the introduced organic materials, but also to the shedding of large quantities of Miscanthus × giganteus leaves [38]. The lowest content of total K in the soil was recorded in the control plot (0.739 g kg−1). The highest content (0.897 g kg−1) was reported in the plot where a combination of the lowest dose of SS and the highest dose of SMS (SS25 + SMS75) was applied, but also in that with SMS (0.891 g kg−1). Generally, in its composition, SS contains a small amount of K; therefore, after its application, a small increase in soil K is observed—or, in the case of small doses of sludge, no changes are noticed [37].
The average content of total Ca in the soil after three years increased compared to the start of the experiment and was 10.05 g kg−1 DM (Table 3 (a), Table 8). However, its amount in the control plot was the lowest; it was nearly the same as its content in the humus layer before the experiment was established. The highest content of total Ca in the soil after the third year (11.23 g kg−1 DM) was found in the plot treated with equal doses of SS and SMS (SS50 + SMS50). Martyn et al. [39] reported that the use of SS in the production of energy crops increased the Ca content in the soil. SMS contains fairly large amounts of Ca [40], which is the result of its addition to the casing and to the substrate itself.
The average content of total Mg in the soil increased in relation to the start of the experiment and was 1.25 g kg−1 DM (Table 3 (a), Table 8). The highest value (1.65 g kg−1 DM of soil) was noted in the plot with SMS. The effect of other organic materials resulted in a slight, statistically insignificant increase compared to the control plot. Martyn et al. [39] found that an increase in the amount of Mg was dependent on the SS dose.
The total content of S in the soil after three years of Miscanthus × giganteus cultivation was, on average, 0.438 g kg−1 and increased by 0.061 g kg−1 in relation to the start of the experiment (Table 3 (a), Table 8). The lowest value was recorded in the control plot (0.402 g kg−1 DM of soil). On the other hand, the highest content (0.474 g kg−1 DM of soil) was noted in the soil treated with SS and SMS together (SS50 + SMS50), both containing the same amounts of nitrogen. However, no significant effect of waste organic materials on the soil S content was found. Similarly, Czekała [41] stated that SS did not significantly affect its amounts in the soil.
The soil pH in H2O after three years of Miscanthus × giganteus cultivation was neutral, ranging from 6.8 to 7.0 (Table 9). Organic materials did not significantly change its value, with SMS having deacidifying properties due to its composition. On the other hand, SS might have reduced the soil pH slightly [13].
The content of available P in the soil after three years of research was the lowest in the control plot, with 115 mg 100 g−1 of soil (Table 9). The soil with SS and SMS applied on their own contained 128.0 and 127.0 mg P2O5, which were greater than in the control plot. On the other hand, the differences between the fertilized plots and the control were not significant. However, some authors have reported an increase in the content of available P forms in the soil in the first and subsequent years after the application of SS [13]. Other studies have indicated slight changes despite the high content of P in this waste. According to many authors, it results from P precipitation by Fe and Al ions [34].
The highest content of available K in the soil after the end of the three-year research was found in the control plot, with 44.2 mg of K2O in 100 g−1 of soil (Table 9). However, its average content decreased significantly throughout the experiment to 36.6 mg 100 g−1 of soil. The lowest amount of available K was recorded in the plot with SMS (27.2 mg 100 g−1 of soil). According to Krzywy-Gawrońska [42], compared to other composted organic materials, SS composts contain less available K, which is released during the decomposition of this waste. Hajduk [43] found that, after the introduction of SS into the soil, the content of available K increased to a lesser extent due to its low content in this organic waste. The decreasing content of chemical elements in the soil treated with organic materials can be explained by the removal of nutrients with the biomass yield.
The highest content of available Mg (11.8 mg 100 g−1 of soil) was recorded on plots with SS (Table 9). The authors also noted a positive effect of SS on the content of available forms of P and K, which was observed by other researchers [44]. The process of the mineralization of organic materials introduced into the soil depends on many factors, including the soil pH, temperature, moisture, microbiological activity, and nutrient content [45].
After the third year of Miscanthus × giganteus cultivation, the increased content of some heavy metals (Pb, Cr, Zn, and Ni) was observed in the soil treated with waste organic materials (Table 3 (b), Table 10). In the control plot soil, the content of these elements was the lowest. The largest amounts of Pb, Cr, and Zn were recorded in the soil treated with SS. The content of Ni increased the most in response to SS and SMS applied together, both containing equal doses of N (SS50 + SMS50). A twofold increase in soil Zn content after SS application was confirmed by Malinowska [46]. The average content of heavy metals in the soil after the third year could be listed in a series of decreasing values (mg kg−1): Zn (273.4) > Pb (58.95) > Cr (11.68) > Ni (8.50) > Cd (0.432). An increase in the content of most heavy metals after the application of SS was also reported by Kalembasa and Malinowska [47]. The authors found decreased Cd content three years after SS application. Similar results were observed in the present research. The soil content of heavy metals after the third year was higher in response to SS than to SMS: for Cd, by 12.2%; for Pb, by 18.7%; for Cr, by 25.3%; for Zn, by 16.9%; and for Ni, by 14.7%. This resulted from the differences in the chemical composition of the organic waste materials.
After the third year, the content of heavy metals in the soil of the control plot in relation to the start of the experiment decreased for some elements by the following percentages: Cr, 10.5%; Zn, 4.68%; and Ni, 7.96%. These changes were affected by their bioaccumulation by plants and their removal from the soil together with the biomass yield. However, no difference was found in the Pb content. On the other hand, an almost twofold decrease in the Cd content in the soil was recorded on all experimental plots after three years of research.
All fertilizer combinations increased the content of Fe and Mn in the soil at the end of the third year of Miscanthus × giganteus cultivation (Table 10). The highest Fe concentration (10,500 mg kg−1 DM of soil) was recorded after the combined application of SS and SMS (SS75 + SMS25), as well as Mn (223.2 mg kg−1 DM of soil) after applying SS on its own. Data in the literature indicate increased content of Mn and Fe in soil treated with SS [48]. The content of Mn and Fe was the lowest on the control plot (Table 10).
The average Cl content in the soil after three years was 0.088 mg kg−1 DM (Table 10), with the highest value (0.099 mg kg−1 DM) in the plot with SS and SMS applied together (SS50 + SMS50), both with the same nitrogen dose, and the lowest in the soil from the control plot (0.078 mg kg−1 DM). The content of Cl did not significantly vary across the experimental plots. According to Kabata-Pendias and Pendias [49], most Polish soils do not contain increased amounts of Cl, but regions with dry climates, coastal areas, and those close to communication routes are exposed to this element. Fertilizers with KCl, sometimes containing as much as 50% of Cl, increase its content in the soil. According to Burzała [50], Cl constitutes only 0.101% of the dry mass of SS, with a similar amount (0.1%) in SMS.
Soil microorganisms contribute to harvest residue decomposition and mineralization, which determines the availability of nutrients to plants [51,52]. Bacteria and fungi affect the formation of humus, its sorption properties, and the amounts of soil organic components. They also participate in the formation of a lumpy soil structure. The content of bacteria and fungi depends on the soil physicochemical properties, organic matter content, and plant species and on the tillage of the soil and its treatment with mineral and organic fertilizers [53]. The number of soil microorganisms also depends on the temperature, as well as on the climatic zone. Their largest number is seen at the humus level.
The data presented in Table 11 indicate that, after three years, the number of microorganisms varied in response to the different combinations of organic materials. The treatment had a positive effect on the development of soil bacteria, actinomycetes, and fungi, compared to the control.
The highest density of bacteria and actinomycetes (270.55 × 107 CFU g−1 DM of soil) was found in the soil treated with both SS and SMS in the combination of SS25 + SMS75, and the lowest (more than four times lower) was found in the soil from the control plot (60.08 × 107 CFU g−1 DM of soil). The strongest effect on the total number of fungi was observed in the plot with SS and SMS applied together (51.16 × 104 CFU g−1 DM of soil), both with equal amounts of N (SS50 + SMS50). The lower content of soil microorganisms after the application of SMS on its own compared to other fertilizer combinations (Table 11) might have been due to the fact that the SMS had a narrow C:N ratio.
In a pot experiment, Fijałkowski and Kacprzak [54] found that the number of soil fungi and actinomycetes increased after SS application. In a similar way, according to Wydro et al. [55], SS in the form of granules contributed to an increase in the number of bacteria and actinomycetes, while the soil fungal content depended on the date of sampling.
One of the problems encountered when using SMS in agriculture is the possibility of the presence of disease-causing fungi, so its chemical composition and the content of unfavorable microorganisms should be tested. This is why it is subjected to thermal treatment [17,56]. According to Wlazło et al. [56], thermal treatment reduces the total number of microorganisms from 1.7 × 107 CFU g−1 before the disinfection process to 2.7 × 106 CFU g−1 after treatment. Becher [57] stated that properly stored and disinfected SMS maintained its sanitary safety, without the development of pathogens or fungi. In the present research, after three years of plant cultivation, the number of soil fungi in the plot with SMS applied on its own was the lowest among all combinations (excluding the control plot).
The soil quality also depends on the ratio of bacteria to fungi [58]. The latter produce toxins and phytopathogenic substances, reducing the soil quality. On the other hand, they decompose organic matter, releasing mineral nutrients.
After three years of Miscanthus × giganteus cultivation, the soil ratio of bacteria to fungi ranged from 2641 to 9969 (Table 11), with high values indicating a limited number of fungi [55]. If this ratio is high, the soil has good microbiological properties. A decrease in the ratio of bacterial to fungal content is not desirable [58,59].

4. Conclusions

Organic waste applied in Central–Eastern Poland affected the soil chemical composition. After three years of Miscanthus × giganteus cultivation, the content of Nt and Ct changed. Their largest amounts were recorded in response to SS used on its own and together with SMS (SS75 + SMS25). Compared to the Nt and Ct amounts before organic waste treatment, SS increased the soil Nt content by 12.3% and the Ct content by approximately 1.5%. In the remaining plots treated with SMS on its own and with SMS + SS, the latter one applied in lower doses, the Nt content decreased; it declined the most in the control plot and in the one with SMS (by 8%). Compared to the control, in all fertilized plots, except the one with SMS, a significant increase in the content of Ct in the soil was noted. Organic matter content is an integral indicator of soil quality and should be maintained by applying appropriate organic materials. The content of heavy metals in the soil remained at a low level, but it was higher after SS treatment than in response to SMS. Generally, the long-term effect of SS and of its combination with SMS (SS + SMS) improved the soil chemical and microbiological composition more than SMS used on its own. Compared to others, in plots with SMS only, an increase in the total Mg and K soil content was noted. Replacing traditional mineral fertilizers with post-production waste contributes to increasing the sustainability of lignocellulosic crop production. The use of recyclable waste in agriculture supports the circular economy and reduces the amounts of materials that need to be disposed of. This approach is in line with organic and sustainable farming strategies, reducing the cultivation costs. Using organic waste as a fertilizer can support sustainable farming by improving the soil quality, increasing its fertility, and reducing the negative impacts of agriculture on the environment. In the case of SMS applied on its own, additional fertilizer treatment should be applied to Miscanthus × giganteus. In the long run, the application of post-production organic waste can lead to soil degradation and reduced yields. It is also necessary to control the doses and types of materials applied to the soil to avoid adverse changes in the nutrient balance.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, E.M.; data curation, E.M.; formal analysis, E.M.; writing—original draft, E.M.; writing—review and editing, E.M. and P.K.; investigation, P.K.; resources, P.K.; software, E.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

The research was carried out under research theme No. 161/23/B, financed by a science grant provided by the Ministry of Education.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The datasets generated and analysed during the current study are not publicly available as they are the authors’ own data, but they are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Table 1. The layout of the field experiment.
Table 1. The layout of the field experiment.
Experimental ObjectTreatment
Controlno fertilizer treatment
(SS)SS—170 kg N ha−1 (0.907 kg of sludge per plot, 4.54 Mg ha−1)
(SS75 + SMS25)SS + SMS—170 kg N ha−1, i.e., 75% sludge + 25% substrate (0.683 kg + 1.40 kg per plot, 3.38 Mg ha−1 + 7 Mg ha−1)
(SS50 + SMS50)SS + SMS—170 kg N ha−1, i.e., 50% sludge + 50% substrate (0.454 kg + 2.80 kg per plot, 2.25 Mg ha−1 + 14 Mg ha−1)
(SS25 + SMS25)SS + SMS—170 kg N ha−1, i.e., 25% sludge + 75% substrate (0.227 kg + 4.20 kg per plot, 1.13 Mg ha−1 + 21 Mg ha−1)
(SMS)SMS—170 kg N ha−1 (5.60 kg per plot, 28 Mg ha−1)
Table 2. Values of Sielianinov’s hydrothermal coefficient (K) in individual months in 2018–2020.
Table 2. Values of Sielianinov’s hydrothermal coefficient (K) in individual months in 2018–2020.
YearMonth
AprilMayJuneJulyAugustSeptemberOctober
20181.07 (md)0.50 (sd)1.38 (o)1.5 (o)0.44 (sd)0.92 (d)1.52 (o)
20190.32 (ed)2.83 (sw)0.44 (sd)1.7 (d)1.21 (md)1.01 (md)0.62 (sd)
20200.29 (ed)3.24 (ew)3.02 (ew)0.69 (sd)1.09 (md)1.06 (md)2.73 (sw)
ed—extreme drought, sd—severe drought, d—drought, md—moderate drought, o—optimal, sw—severely wet, ew—extremely wet.
Table 3. Soil chemical properties before the experiment.
Table 3. Soil chemical properties before the experiment.
(a)
Layer of Soil ProfilepHH2OpHKClCtNtC:NPKCaMgSNa
(g kg−1)
0–20 (A1)6.936.6040.502.8514.211.190.7369.420.9730.3770.066
20–40 (A2)6.255.8520.301.6512.300.7840.6806.720.7380.3010.071
40–60 (A3)6.105.5019.151.6011.970.5810.5022.990.4270.1090.065
(b)
Layer of Soil ProfileFeMnMoPbCdCrCuZnNi
(mg kg−1)
0–20 (A1)5186.5145.80.23148.980.9598.9518.85149.75.53
20–40 (A2)3918.4160.00.07041.710.5115.3513.24136.14.29
40–60 (A3)2274.3121.40.10824.180.3183.286.0946.592.27
Table 4. Content of available macronutrients in the soil (mg 100 g−1 of soil) before the experiment.
Table 4. Content of available macronutrients in the soil (mg 100 g−1 of soil) before the experiment.
Level of the Soil ProfileP2O5K2OMg
(mg 100 g−1 Soil)
0–20 (A1)117.047.510.04
20–40 (A2)109.344.88.20
40–60 (A3)90.539.37.41
Table 5. Chemical composition of SS.
Table 5. Chemical composition of SS.
pHKClDM (%)Corg
(g kg−1 DM)		C:NNPKCaMgSNa
(g kg−1 DM)
6.493.03487.840.5019.812.5634.256.255.360.589
FeMnBMoCoPbCdCrCuZnNi
(mg kg−1 DM)
89506026.152.533.5836.121.8115.4488.01987.244.23
Table 6. Chemical composition of SMS.
Table 6. Chemical composition of SMS.
pHKClDM (%)Corg
(g kg−1 DM)		C:NNPKCaMgSNa
(g kg−1 DM)
6.4130.0028413.5920.98.8611.2178.834.2118.771.16
FeMnBMoCoPbCdCrCuZnNi
(mg kg−1 DM)
2383334.312.601.440.4153.980.2873.0812.59156.94.84
Table 7. The content of Nt, Ct, and H (g kg−1 DM of soil) after the third year of Miscanthus × giganteus cultivation and the Nt and Ct content changes.
Table 7. The content of Nt, Ct, and H (g kg−1 DM of soil) after the third year of Miscanthus × giganteus cultivation and the Nt and Ct content changes.
Experimental ObjectNtNt Content ChangeCtCt Content ChangeH
(g kg−1 DM Soil)
Control plot2.65−0.2033.6−6.906.10
SS3.200.3541.10.605.80
SS75 + SMS253.020.1741.20.705.70
SS50 + SMS502.80−0.0538.9−1.605.20
SS25 + SMS752.71−0.1437.8−2.705.20
SMS2.65−0.2035.6−4.904.90
mean2.84 38.0 5.48
LSD0.050.4613.59NS
NS—not significant; SS—sewage sludge dose introducing 170 kg N ha−1; SMS—spent mushroom substrate dose introducing 170 kg N ha−1; SS used together with SMS in various proportions: SS75 + SMS25, SS50 + SMS50, and SS25 + SMS75, with each dose introducing 170 kg N ha−1.
Table 8. The content of selected macronutrients (g kg−1 DM of soil) after the third year of Miscanthus × giganteus cultivation.
Table 8. The content of selected macronutrients (g kg−1 DM of soil) after the third year of Miscanthus × giganteus cultivation.
Experimental ObjectPKCaMgS
(g kg−1 DM of Soil)
Control plot1.080.7399.400.9680.402
SS1.110.82510.581.230.451
SS75 + SMS251.240.78810.941.080.431
SS50 + SMS501.200.76911.231.350.474
SS25 + SMS751.090.89710.781.210.459
SMS1.140.89110.081.650.412
Mean1.140.81810.051.250.438
LSD0.05NS0.0610.3920.544NS
NS—not significant; SS—sewage sludge dose introducing 170 kg N ha−1; SMS—spent mushroom substrate dose introducing 170 kg N ha−1; SS used together with SMS in various proportions: SS75 + SMS25, SS50 + SMS50, and SS25 + SMS75, with each dose introducing 170 kg N ha−1.
Table 9. The content of available macronutrients (mg 100 g−1 DM of soil) and the soil pH after the third year of Miscanthus × giganteus cultivation.
Table 9. The content of available macronutrients (mg 100 g−1 DM of soil) and the soil pH after the third year of Miscanthus × giganteus cultivation.
Experimental ObjectP2O5K2OMgpHH2O
(mg 100 g−1 DM of Soil)
Control plot115.044.29.906.9
SS128.041.711.86.8
SS75 + SMS25117.033.69.707.0
SS50 + SMS50116.035.810.37.0
SS25 + SMS75116.037.19.207.0
SMS127.027.210.27.0
Mean120.436.610.2
LSD0.05NS2.792.32
NS—not significant; SS—sewage sludge dose introducing 170 kg N ha−1; SMS—spent mushroom substrate dose introducing 170 kg N ha−1; SS used together with SMS in various proportions: SS75 + SMS25, SS50 + SMS50, and SS25 + SMS75, with each dose introducing 170 kg N ha−1.
Table 10. The content of selected soil elements and heavy metals (mg kg−1 DM of soil) after the third year of Miscanthus × giganteus cultivation.
Table 10. The content of selected soil elements and heavy metals (mg kg−1 DM of soil) after the third year of Miscanthus × giganteus cultivation.
Experimental ObjectClFeMnCdPbCrZnNi
(mg kg−1 DM of Soil)
Control plot0.0785025143.20.41748.988.01142.75.09
SS0.0847710223.20.46668.7014.73326.19.46
SS75 + SMS250.09210,500201.30.46063.5012.82304.08.36
SS50 + SMS500.0998960214.00.40258.8112.71312.411.70
SS25 + SMS750.0839910222.80.43857.9110.80287.38.33
SMS0.0899730199.40.40955.8211.00271.18.07
Mean0.0888639200.70.43258.9511.68273.48.50
LSD0.05NS555.228.040.0402.172.2321.700.671
NS—not significant; SS—sewage sludge dose introducing 170 kg N ha−1; SMS—spent mushroom substrate dose introducing 170 kg N ha−1; SS used together with SMS in various proportions: SS75 + SMS25, SS50 + SMS50, and SS25 + SMS75, with each dose introducing 170 kg N ha−1.
Table 11. Total number of soil bacteria and actinomycetes (107 CFU g−1 DM of soil) and fungi (104 CFU g−1 DM of soil) after the third year of Miscanthus × giganteus cultivation.
Table 11. Total number of soil bacteria and actinomycetes (107 CFU g−1 DM of soil) and fungi (104 CFU g−1 DM of soil) after the third year of Miscanthus × giganteus cultivation.
Experimental ObjectTotal Number of Bacteria and Actinomycetes
(107 CFU g−1 DM of Soil)		Total Number of Fungi
(104 CFU g−1 DM of Soil)		Ratio of Bacteria and Actinomycetes to Fungi
Control plot60.0815.643841
SS118.927.164345
SS75 + SMS25150.922.366749
SS50 + SMS50135.151.162641
SS25 + SMS75270.527.149969
SMS96.6721.814432
Mean138.727.555329
LSD0.0513.624.17102.3
SS—sewage sludge dose introducing 170 kg N ha−1; SMS—spent mushroom substrate dose introducing 170 kg N ha−1; SS used together with SMS in various proportions: SS75 + SMS25, SS50 + SMS50, and SS25 + SMS75, with each dose introducing 170 kg N ha−1.
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Malinowska, E.; Kania, P. The Effect of Waste Organic Matter on the Soil Chemical Composition After Three Years of Miscanthus × giganteus Cultivation in East-Central Poland. Sustainability 2025, 17, 2532. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17062532

AMA Style

Malinowska E, Kania P. The Effect of Waste Organic Matter on the Soil Chemical Composition After Three Years of Miscanthus × giganteus Cultivation in East-Central Poland. Sustainability. 2025; 17(6):2532. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17062532

Chicago/Turabian Style

Malinowska, Elżbieta, and Paweł Kania. 2025. "The Effect of Waste Organic Matter on the Soil Chemical Composition After Three Years of Miscanthus × giganteus Cultivation in East-Central Poland" Sustainability 17, no. 6: 2532. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17062532

APA Style

Malinowska, E., & Kania, P. (2025). The Effect of Waste Organic Matter on the Soil Chemical Composition After Three Years of Miscanthus × giganteus Cultivation in East-Central Poland. Sustainability, 17(6), 2532. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17062532

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