Application Potential of Lactic Acid Bacteria in Horticultural Production

Abstract

Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) are found on the surface of some plants, forming their natural microbiome, and are especially common in fermented plant products. They are microorganisms capable of performing lactic fermentation, during which they utilize carbohydrates and produce lactic acid. They are considered probiotic microorganisms. LAB are characterized by strong antagonistic activity against other microorganisms. The mechanism of action of these bacteria is mainly based on the production of substances with strong antimicrobial activity. Some strains of LAB also inhibit the secretion of mycotoxins by mold fungi or have the ability to eliminate them from the environment. With the changing climate and the need for plants to adapt to new, often stressful climatic conditions, the use of LAB in crops may offer a promising solution. These bacteria stimulate plant resistance to abiotic factors, i.e., drought and extreme temperatures. Research has also shown the ability of LAB to extend the storage life of fruits and vegetables. These bacteria reduce the number of unfavorable microorganisms that contaminate plant products and cause their spoilage. They also have a negative effect on human pathogenic bacteria, which can contaminate plant products and cause food poisoning in humans. When applied as an edible coating on leaves or fruits, LAB protect vegetables and fruits from microbial contamination; moreover, these vegetables and fruits can be served as carriers of probiotic bacteria that benefit human health. The presented properties of LAB predispose them to practical use, especially as components of biological plant protection products, growth biostimulants, and microbial fertilizer products. They have great potential to replace some agrochemicals and can be used as a safe component of biofertilizers and plant protection formulations for increasing plant resilience, crop productivity, and quality. The use of LAB is in line with the aims and objectives of sustainable horticulture. However, there are some limitations and gaps which should be considered before application, particularly regarding efficient and effective formulations and transfer of antibiotic resistance.

1. Introduction

Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) are Gram-positive, non-spore-forming, non-respiring but aerotolerant, and they produce lactic acid as one of the key fermentation products by utilizing carbohydrates during fermentation. Additionally, LAB can promote the decomposition of proteins and lipids, to produce flavor precursor substances such as free amino acids or free fatty acids, give food unique flavor, and have a certain positive impact on the overall flavor of the finished product. They are relatively common microorganisms that are found in various fermented foods—fermented dairy products, fermented meat products, fermented fruit juice, or fermented vegetables. The main microorganisms in the lactic acid bacteria starter culture are Lactobacillus, Pedicoccus, Streptococcus, Bifidobacterium, and Leuconostoc. Recently, there has been increasing interest in their use as probiotics. Probiotics are living microorganisms that have health-promoting effects that might be exerted through improvement of the intestinal microflora and proposed modulation of immune system function. Regular consumption of foods containing probiotic bacteria helps maintain a healthy gut microbiome by enhancing intestinal integrity, shaping the intestinal epithelium, extracting energy, protecting against pathogens, stimulating host immunity, and aiding the absorption of magnesium, iron, and calcium ions. Specific species of lactic acid bacteria positively influence human health and are used in the prevention and treatment of certain diseases [1,2,3,4].

The preservation abilities of LAB are a result of several mechanisms of action and are mainly related to the production of antimicrobial compounds, organic acids, hydrogen peroxide, bacteriocins, low-molecular-weight substances (diacetyl, fatty acids, reuterin, reutericyclin), and antifungal compounds (phenyl lactate, propionate, hydroxyphenyl lactate) [5]. Moreover, they compete with pathogens and spoilage microorganisms for nutrients e.g., vitamins, minerals, trace elements, and peptides. Today, LAB form part of the most important group of microorganisms for industry. Most LAB possess characteristics that allow them to be used in a wide range of industrial applications due to their tolerance to various stress environments, their simple metabolism, and the ability to metabolize numerous carbon sources [6]. Moreover, these properties of lactic acid bacteria make them an important factor in sustainable agriculture, and in the future LAB can be increasingly incorporated into practice [7,8,9].

The aim of this review is to present the latest data on the potential uses of LAB in agriculture. In the face of a changing climate and in the absence of effective methods of plant protection, new methods of fighting plant pathogens are continually being sought. An important aspect of this research is also the use of the potential of LAB bacteria in reducing microbial contamination occurring on fresh fruits and vegetables, thereby extending the storage life of plant products and reducing food waste. This activity not only has a positive economic dimension but also has a positive impact on human health through probiotic consumption. However, the use of LAB in agriculture also carries some limitations that may be a problem or may need to be addressed in the future. Notably, there is a limited number of field trials evaluating the effectiveness of LAB, due to their high cost, and there are concerns regarding the transfer of antibiotic resistance genes.

2. Research Methodology

The literature search was conducted using the following databases: PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science. This review used the following search terms: lactic acid bacteria, biocontrol, biostimulants, edible coating, waste degradation, antibiotic resistance, sustainability, agriculture from 2010 to 2025. Studies were grouped by themes such as antimicrobial activity, mycotoxins reduction, biostimulants, edible coatings, waste degradation, antibiotic resistance.

3. The Biocontrol of Plant Pathogens by LAB

Plant diseases caused by pathogenic fungi and bacteria generate losses in crops and pose a threat to human and animal health. Within the EU, there is a strong emphasis on reducing synthetic approaches to plant protection, which has led to a greater interest in the application of biological control measures. This is in line with a more sustainable approach to agricultural practices [10].

The safety of some species for use in food and their disease-suppressive effects could also make some LAB suitable for the biological control of plant diseases [11]. Their potential to inhibit the growth of plant pathogenic microorganisms has been documented for both fungi and bacteria [6,12,13,14,15].

The antifungal properties of selected LAB strains (Lactobacillus fermentum, L. plantarum, L. paralimentaris, L. pentosus, L. buchneri, Sporolactobacillus) have been evaluated against several important plant pathogenic fungi, including Fusarium verticillioides, Penicillium sp., and Verticillium dahliae, as well as against the parasitic oomycete Pythium aphanidematum [16,17,18].

De Simone et al. [19] showed that LAB strains belonging to Lactiplantibacillus plantarum exerted strong antagonistic activity against B. cinerea. High levels of lactic acid in cell-free supernatant contributed to the antagonistic activity. The application of cell-free supernatants delayed the growth of B. cinerea on artificially contaminated kiwi fruits. Other studies [20] showed activity of one strain of Levilactobacillus sp. and two strains of Lactiplantibacillus sp. in the inhibition of B. cinerea growth under in vitro conditions in growing microbiological media. The efficacy was confirmed in vivo. By conducting experiments on cut-off leaves and whole plants of lettuce and spinach, it was found that the three tested LAB isolates showed an inhibitory effect on the development of grey mold-caused B. cinerea strains [20]. In a study by Marin et al. [21], coating with Lactobacillus plantarum reduced Botrytis incidence on grapes while having a positive effect on berry quality (weight, color, firmness, and soluble solid content).

Of particular note is the possibility of using LAB to protect plants from diseases of bacterial origin. Bacterial diseases are especially dangerous due to their rapid spread and the difficulty of controlling them through effective protection methods. Several studies in the literature have reported on the control or reduction of pathogenic bacteria by LAB [12,13,22].

Fermentative bacteria such as lactic acid bacteria seem to be promising candidates for biopesticides because they can inhibit the development of pathogens in crops. They are able to produce metabolites such as organic acids, hydrogen peroxide, diacetyl, bacteriocins, and bacteriocin-like inhibitory substances, and other metabolites such as phenylactic acid and 3-hydroxy fatty acids. Antagonism between microorganisms may also be related to the competition for nutrients. LAB may be promising candidates as biological control agents; however, their efficacy varies depending on the specific strain and the disease being targeted. It could be concluded that many LAB strains exhibiting high pH and salt tolerance, high lactic acid production, and strong antifungal activity against plant pathogens could be used as biopreparations for the kind of biological controls recommended by sustainable agriculture [5,6,21].

4. Mycotoxin Reduction

Mycotoxins are secondary toxin metabolites produced by filamentous fungi. More than 400 forms of mycotoxins have been identified and reported. Due to their various toxic effects and high resistance to temperature, storage conditions, and processing, the presence of mycotoxins in food poses a serious threat to both human and animal health. These compounds can enter the food chain indirectly and directly: indirectly, through the consumption of meat and milk from animals fed with contaminated products; or directly, through the consumption of plant products infested with mold fungi. The most dangerous in food are aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, patulin, fumonisins, zearalenone, and deoxynivalenol. According to a Food and Agriculture Organization report, 25% of the world’s food crops are significantly affected by mycotoxins during cultivation or storage [23,24,25]. Mycotoxin contamination of agricultural products poses enormous challenges to the principles of sustainable agriculture.

An effective alternative strategy is the use of LAB, which possess detoxifying capacities towards mycotoxins. Numerous reports from the literature indicate that there are interactions between Lactobacillus sp. bacteria and mycotoxins secreted by mold fungi [15,26,27,28,29,30]. For example, it has been observed that a strain of L. lactis added to a 13-day culture of Aspergillus parasiticus completely inhibited the secretion of aflatoxin. In addition, numerous strains of Lactobacillus sp. bound aflatoxin B1 under both in vivo and in vitro conditions. The ability of L. rhamnosus strains to bind zearalenone, a mycotoxin produced by Fusarium graminearum and F. culmorum, has been observed [30]. The ability of Lactobacillus and Lactococcus strains to eliminate ochratoxin produced mainly by Penicillium spp. fungi and fumonisins produced by Fusarium moniliforme, F. verticillioides, and F. poliferatum, from liquid culture by a binding mechanism has also been observed [31].

Strains isolated from corn silages have demonstrated high antifungal activity against F. verticillioides, the predominant mycotoxigenic fungus in maize production and corn silages. These results are promising for the selection of efficient LAB to enhance quality and aerobic durability of silages and also reduce mycotoxin contents in corn silages [16]. L. plantarum MYS6 isolated from fermented pomegrate wine, proved to be efficient in inhibiting fumonisin production and F. proliferatum growth. Additionally, the antifungal metabolites also exhibit a conspicuous inhibition of Fusarium growth, conidia germination, mycelia development, and fumonisin production. Many antifungal metabolites have been identified in the cell-free supernatant of L. plantarum MYS6, suggesting its potential as a bio-alternative to the chemical preservatives in poultry feeds. These findings create new opportunities for the uses of LAB in the food industry [32].

5. LAB as Biostimulants

Lactic acid bacteria generate phytohormones in very low concentrations that can influence plant growth. These phytohormones enhance root hair length and surface area, which improves plant root nutrition and water uptake. There is limited evidence of LAB-related growth hormones. Several species are capable of secreting phytohormones such as gibberellins and auxins (e.g., indole-3-acetic acid), which play various roles in plant growth promotion [7,33,34,35]. Strains belonging to Levilactobacillus sp. and Lactiplantibacillus sp. applied during the cultivation of spinach have been shown to significantly increase the weight of spinach plants [20]. The treatment of wheat and rye seeds with LAB has resulted in increased grain yield and, in some cases, a higher weight of 1000 seeds [36].

Lactic acid bacteria has been shown to induce the production of defense-related enzymes in treated tomato seedlings. The treatment of tomato seedlings with LAB isolate has induced a significant amount of peroxidase, polyphenol oxidase, phenylalanine ammonialyase, total phenolics, and β-1,3-glucanase activities. LAB has also increased the yield of tomato by 15.3%. In field conditions, LAB have exhibited a 61.1% disease reduction of bacterial wilt in tomato [37]. There is great hope and promise for the use of LAB as biostimulants in sustainable agriculture.

6. Reduction of Microbiological Contamination of Vegetables and Fruits

LAB have also shown great potential as biocontrol agents in minimally processed vegetables and fruits in sustainable production. The suppressive effects of LAB against pathogenic and contaminated microorganisms might be due to competition for nutrients and colonization sites, or antibiosis via the production of various antimicrobial compounds, including lactic acid.

Protective cultures of LAB designed to increase safety and shelf life have been developed over the last few decades [6,11,15,28]. An important property of LAB isolates is that they possess certain characteristics predisposing them to survive under specific conditions, such as low temperatures or unfavorable pH [14,32].

In fact, most of the literature available has studied the effects of biocontrol cultures on minimally processed vegetable safety without considering the effects on product shelf life and quality. On the basis of the results obtained, these authors selected two isolates of Lactobacillus to be used as biocontrol agents in lamb’s lettuce. Applying the strains to lettuce during washing at a concentration of 6 log/CFU/mL, instead of using chlorine, increased product shelf life and safety. In fact, Lactobacillus strains showed an interesting potential for controlling human pathogenic bacteria, e.g., Salmonella and Escherichia coli [14]. The number of E. coli was also reduced on spinach leaves treated with LAB strains and artificially contaminated with E. coli [20]. The spinach leaves were stored at 10 °C for two days following LAB treatment. LAB artificially coated on the leaves survived successfully in this condition and their antibacterial activity was documented [38]. In a study conducted by Uhlig et al. [39], spinach seed coating with antagonistic LAB has shown that the leaf microbiota contained a lower relative abundance of potential human pathogens, especially E. coli.

In another study, competitiveness of LAB strains against L. monocytogenes, L. innocua, and Salmonella spp. in fermented tomato juices was evaluated [40]. The inhibition of Salmonella species was faster compared to that of Listeria. After four weeks of storage at 4 °C, L. plantarum and L. mesenteroides showed high survival rates, while the numbers of pathogenic bacteria, yeasts, and molds decreased drastically.

A particularly important aspect of this study is the measure of consumer acceptability and the toxicity of LAB treated vegetables. According to Ho et al. [41], the use of lactic acid and peroxyacetic acid compositions for sanitizing purposes did not significantly affect the appearance, color, smell, taste, texture, or overall quality assessment of chopped lettuce, chopped romaine, or tender leaves mixed with spinach. Siroli et al. [14] evaluated the sensory quality of lamb’s lettuce covered with LAB. The results of sensory analysis indicated no negative impact of LAB bacteria on the sensory acceptability of the lettuce.

The presented results encourage the usage of bacterial antagonists as part of a global solution to reduce the risk of human pathogens on leafy green vegetables. The risk of pathogenic multiplication and spread on leafy green vegetables can be reduced, and the consequences of their related outbreaks in the future can be mitigated. Such action is in line with the policy of sustainable agriculture, which seeks to improve the quality of agricultural products and, consequently, the health of the population.

7. Edible Coatings

Over the past 20 years, research on food coating technology using edible coatings has intensified compared to more traditional methods of extending the shelf life and quality of plant-based raw materials [42]. Edible coatings are composed of thin layers of natural biopolymers, mainly polysaccharides (e.g., starch, cellulose, alginates), proteins (e.g., casein, egg proteins, plant proteins), or lipids (e.g., natural waxes, fats). Studies have confirmed the possibility of incorporating various functional ingredients into edible coatings, such as nutraceuticals, antioxidants, antimicrobial agents, essential oils, and coloring substances [43,44,45,46]. Edible coatings are widely used in the food industry, mainly to extend shelf life, maintain quality, and ensure microbiological safety, as well as enhance the aesthetic appearance of food products. Applying edible coatings to fruits or vegetables protects these products against moisture loss, oxygen exposure, and pathogenic microorganisms while preserving their texture and flavor. Additionally, they have oxygen barrier properties, slowing oxidative processes such as fat rancidity or enzymatic browning of fruits and vegetables, while maintaining the products’ natural appearance and nutritional value. Coatings based on polysaccharides and proteins are biodegradable and can be composted with food scraps, reducing waste and supporting a sustainable food supply chain. The biodegradability of edible coatings aligns with functional and sustainable environmental protection [47,48,49].

Recent attention has been directed towards the use of these bacteria for biopreservation of foods. LAB are regarded as safe for use in foods because of the long history of their use to preserve foods. Some LAB species have “generally regarded as safe” status and their use in biopreservation can be accelerated. They are used as ingredients of edible coating, because of their probiotics character regarding healthy diet and well-being for consumers [50,51,52].

Research on the application of edible coatings containing live microorganisms (probiotic bacteria) on fresh and cut fruits and vegetables is a relatively new and promising area of science and technology [32,49,51,52,53,54,55,56]. The main group of probiotic bacteria used as components of edible coatings are lactic acid bacteria, including Lactobacillus plantarum, Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus, Lacticaseibacillus casei, and Bifidobacterium animalis, which are applied to fresh and minimally processed fruits and vegetables such as yacon [57], apples [53,58,59], melons [55], blueberries [54], strawberries [60], bananas [61], tomatoes [62], and carrots [63,64]. Tapia et al. [56] were the first to conduct studies on incorporating Bifidobacterium lactis Bb-12 bacteria into alginate and gellan coatings for freshly cut apples and papayas.

Probiotic bacteria positively affect human health. Regular consumption of foods containing probiotic bacteria helps maintain a healthy gut microbiome, which is crucial for proper digestion, nutrient absorption, and preventing digestive disorders such as irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). Probiotic bacteria play a significant role in alleviating IBS symptoms, one of the most common functional bowel disorders, affecting 10–20% of the population. Research shows that various bacterial strains, such as Lactobacillus acidophilus and Bifidobacterium bifidum, can reduce IBS symptoms, including abdominal pain, bloating, and diarrhea. Probiotics also strengthen the immune system, regulate cholesterol and blood sugar levels, and reduce inflammation in the body [65,66,67,68].

Direct application of probiotic bacteria onto fruit and vegetable surfaces faces significant limitations. Low bacterial survivability has been noted in adverse environmental conditions, such as varying humidity or UV radiation [31]. Edible coatings provide an alternative by protecting probiotic bacteria from external factors and prolonging their activity [52]. Developing such technologies requires further research on the compatibility of coating materials with various probiotic strains and the impact of coatings on product quality and sensory acceptance [69]. According to Hashemi et al. [70] and Guimarães et al. [44], the survival of probiotic cells in edible coatings depends on various factors, including bacterial type or strain, the physiological state of probiotic cells, coating preparation conditions, and coating and product storage conditions. As per the guidelines of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), the minimum probiotic concentration required at the time of consumption must be ≥6 log CFU/g or mL of the product to exert a beneficial effect on the human body. Since edible coatings with probiotic bacteria are consumed directly with food, they are subject to legal regulations concerning safe food intended for consumption under GRAS, a document issued by the U.S. FDA [23,71].

8. Vegetables as Carriers of LAB

Probiotic dairy foods, e.g., yogurts, are well recognized by most consumers and command a significant market share. However, many people are allergic or intolerant to dairy products and an alternative option is desirable. Ready-to-eat vegetables are a popular item and are perceived as healthy by consumers. They are therefore an ideal vehicle for incorporation of other functional components such as probiotics. In the literature, there are some reports related to the use of vegetable food matrices for carrying probiotic bacteria [19,49,72]. Legume seed sprouts after fermentation have shown increased numbers of LAB by 2 log 10 cfu/mL and also contained a higher content of isoflavonoids [38]. Nevertheless, additional research should be conducted in future. Sensory tests are needed to gain better knowledge about the sensory properties and nutritional quality of probiotic vegetables during storage. Surveys on consumer interests and industrial trials are necessary to assess vegetables as LAB carriers on a large scale for commercialization. Using vegetables as carriers of LAB will provide promising opportunities for producers to develop innovative probiotic food products. The consumption of probiotic vegetables will help to reduce the risk of chronic diseases, which is in agreement with the goals of sustainable horticultural production and sustainable development of horticulture.

9. LAB in Waste Degradation

Modern food systems, as well as sustainable horticulture, face challenges related to reducing losses and organic waste. One potential solution is the application of lactic acid bacteria, which, due to their fermentation capabilities, contribute to the biotransformation of biomass and organic waste. Utilizing LAB in processing food byproducts can lead to the creation of valuable materials, such as bioplastics, biogas, and organic acids. Through anaerobic fermentation, LAB support biogas production from food and agricultural waste. Biogas serves as a renewable energy source, reducing dependence on fossil fuels. Additionally, post-fermentation residues can be used as eco-friendly fertilizers, supporting closed-loop nutrient cycles in agriculture [73].

Fermentation involving LAB aligns with green chemistry principles, allowing diverse and contaminated biomaterials to be converted into functional products like organic acids or biofuels. This flexibility reduces waste and maximizes resource use, making fermentation a key technology in a circular economy. Key mechanisms by which LAB contribute to sustainable food systems also include bioplastic production—LAB can produce lactic acid, a critical precursor for synthesizing polylactic acid (PLA), a biodegradable polymer used in packaging and other materials. PLA is an eco-friendly bioplastic utilized across industries such as packaging, construction, automotive, and optics [74,75].

Organic waste, including byproducts of the food industry (e.g., fruit pomace, vegetable leaves, whey), poses significant ecological and economic challenges. Annually, millions of tons of waste are generated, often ending up in landfills, leading to methane emissions and other greenhouse gases. Transforming this waste into value-added products is a key challenge that could reduce environmental burdens and support a circular economy [76,77,78]. LAB represent a promising tool for converting biomass into value-added products, significantly reducing the negative environmental impact of the food industry while supporting a circular economy. Further research into fermentation technologies and LAB applications could lead to the development of more efficient and eco-friendly solutions in this field [79].

Lactic acid bacteria play a vital role in methanogenic fermentation processes by accelerating biomass degradation and supporting biogas production. Collaborating with other microorganisms, LAB contribute to breaking down complex organic substances, such as carbohydrates and proteins, into simpler chemical compounds that can be further processed by methanogens. LAB also support process stability by limiting undesirable microbial growth and regulating acidity (pH) levels in the fermentation system. Recent studies highlight LAB’s effectiveness in synergy with other bacteria in producing bioproducts, such as biohydrogen and volatile fatty acids, which can later be utilized in methanogenesis. Under appropriate conditions, these processes can be optimized through precise microbiome management, temperature control, organic load adjustment, and innovative substrate pre-treatment methods, such as cavitation or the use of nanomaterials [80].

10. Antibiotic Resistance

Antibiotic resistance is a natural bacterial mechanism. However, the inappropriate and generalized use of antibiotics has increased selective pressure, resulting in the adaptation of bacteria to environmental changes and a related increase in resistance rates [81]. As a result, the safety status of LAB has been questioned in this connection. Phenotypic and genotypic characterizations of Lactobacillus probiotics have revealed that these bacteria exhibit the most antibiotic resistance against protein synthesis inhibitors and cell wall synthesis inhibitors [82].

Lactic acid bacteria isolated from traditional fermented food products can show resistance to some key antibiotics, including ampicillin, chloramphenicol, ciprofloxacin, erythromycin, kanamycin, streptomycin, and vancomycin [82]. Multivariate principal component analysis, antibiograms, and multiple antibiotic resistance index values have indicated the presence of multidrug resistance among some isolates. The situation is important to regulators and public health authorities, as it underscores the need to develop strategies to control the transmission of antibiotic resistance in food systems.

11. Limitations and Future Prospects

The use of lactic acid bacteria is an emerging tool to promote sustainable horticultural crop production. Different strains of LAB could be used to increase yield and quality while reducing microbial contamination and spoilage of the vegetables and fruits that people consume. Utilizing LAB in horticulture can reduce pesticide and chemical fertilizer use. The direction is promising due to its cost-effectiveness, simplicity, and environmentally friendly nature, which ensures production of horticultural crops harmless to human health. LAB as an edible coating on horticultural products could also be a source of probiotics that are important for human health. Improving people’s health and promoting longevity remain challenges for sustainable horticulture.

On the other hand, the use of LAB in agriculture presents some significant limitations that researchers must address. First, according to data found in the literature and to the best of our knowledge, LAB are known for their fungistatic properties; however, these findings are mainly based on studies conducted in vitro. Not all strains of LAB confer protection to plants against pathogens; therefore, their selection requires many studies in vitro, ex vivo, and in vivo. Complex approaches are highly needed. Additionally, data from field experiments involving LAB are very limited. Furthermore, the classification of the strains used is also an important step in meeting the registration requirements for biological control agents (BCAs). While there are a few research projects describing field experiments with LAB application, there is a clear need to expand research in this area because it is significantly limited to specific diseases and selected experimental conditions [8,9,83].

Another limitation is the selection of the most active strain, a process that requires extensive work and is very expensive. In many studies, the most active isolates are often selected from among the hundreds tested. These studies are expensive, time-consuming, and require a skilled staff [19].

A limitation of the commercial use of LAB is the determination of the correct density of the bacteria. It has been reported that the antimicrobial effectiveness of live bacteria on fresh fruits and vegetables was positively correlated with antagonist concentration. In the case of different species of fruits and vegetables, and also for each isolate, the concentration could be different. Additionally, exploring different forms of LAB bioproduction to reduce costs and developing effective formulations are essential steps before commercial development [84].

12. Conclusions

The use of LAB bacteria in horticulture is experiencing a renaissance. The field is growing exponentially and the scope of use of LAB is increasing and has great application potential. Numerous laboratory, semi-technical, and production-scale studies are being conducted. The use of LAB in agriculture is a part of sustainable agriculture, which aims to reduce the use of chemical plant protection products, improve the health of the plants produced, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and improve soil health and productivity. These measures are increasingly vital in the face of an increasing global population, the increased negative impact of environmental challenges such as salinity, drought, disease pressure, heavy metal toxicity, and the increasing use of pesticides, fungicides, bactericides, and herbicides. Sustainable agriculture has recently been more concerned with a sustainable food system, and organic farming plays a key role in global health. Microbial-based agricultural practices would help alleviate these concerns and supply sufficient food for the world population. In this context, the exploitation of lactic acid bacteria offers promising tools for sustainable agriculture. It is an excellent alternative to chemical agents. The use of LAB that stimulate growth and induce defense mechanisms of host plants is considered to be an affordable, cheap, fast, climate-smart, and eco-friendly alternative approach to increasing the adaptive potential of plants and crop productivity and quality in changing environmental conditions [76,77].

However, it is important to keep in mind certain limitations and potential risks associated with using these microorganisms in horticulture. There remains ample scope for researchers to conduct further studies on LAB biocontrol efficiency and interactions with various abiotic and biotic conditions within the context of sustainable agriculture. Future research should explore strain-specific mechanisms of LAB across different horticultural systems, focusing on their interactions with various crops, soil microbiomes, and environmental stressors like drought and salinity. Moreover, long-term field studies are essential to assess the scalability, safety, and economic feasibility of LAB-based biocontrol and biofertilizer products, which are crucial for their integration into sustainable farming practices.