Sustainable Urban Futures: Transportation and Development in Riyadh, Jeddah, and Neom

Abstract

This study explores sustainable urbanism in the three largest Saudi Arabian cities—Riyadh, Jeddah, and NEOM—in the context of Vision 2030. Qualitative methodology was used, which incorporated environmental, social, economic, governance, and mobility aspects. The analysis of ten semi-structured interviews with planners, engineers, and policy officials was based on Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA), Sustainable Urbanism, and Participatory Governance models. The results indicate that Riyadh presents structural congruence and consistency of policies, Jeddah is characterized by disjointed governance and poor coordination, and NEOM is characterized by futuristic aspirations with unpredictable social inclusiveness. The paper highlights that more powerful integration of governance, participatory planning, and realistic implementation is required to create a balance between technological innovations and equity in society. It adds to the current knowledge of how the global sustainability models can be localized in the fast-changing cities of the Gulf.

1. Introduction

The world is changing due to the influence of urbanization, which results in economic development and the worsening of environmental and social problems. Nearly three-quarters of greenhouse gas emissions in the world are produced by cities, which are congested [1,2]. By 2050, the global population is expected to have reached approximately 70 percent urban population, which highlights the urgency of the need to achieve sustainable growth in cities [3]. Sustainable city development is based on planning, good governance, and participation. It aims to maximize resource utilization, reduce the effects on the environment, and increase the quality of life in the city by integrating environmental, social, economic, and governance activities with the help of green infrastructure, renewable energy, and multimodal transport [4]. However, in rapidly developing regions such as the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), the challenge of urban planning has remained high in terms of resource use, lack of coordination, and interaction.

Sustainability has become one of the pillars of the urban transformation program in the Vision 2030 of Saudi Arabia, and some of the programs that have been put in place to achieve this include the Green Riyadh program, the redevelopment of Jeddah, and the NEOM smart city program. Nonetheless, the literature on the implementation of such ambitions or the way they are consistent with the principles of international sustainability is limited. The literature available is more likely to consider individual industries, e.g., energy or environment, separately, without considering their interdependence [2,5,6].

This study bridges that gap by comparing Riyadh, Jeddah, and NEOM in different aspects. It relies on 10 interviews with stakeholders (urban planners, government officials, and environmental specialists) to discuss the definition, practice, and governance of sustainability. The analysis was made in comparison of the local developments and international best practices, and how to make resilient, inclusive and adaptive cities in the Gulf region. It is in this relation between the sustainability agenda in the Vision 2030 and the general theoretical comprehension of sustainable urbanism and governance that this study will contribute empirical and theoretical insights into the paths to sustainable urban change in Saudi Arabia.

2. Literature Review

Urban sustainability is now a well-known problem, after the World Commission on Environment and Development published the Brundtland Report in 1987, which emphasized the role of cities in sustainable development [7]. The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (1992) supported this idea and emphasized the necessity to enhance the sustainability of urban centers [8,9]. To be more specific, the seventh MDG with its goal 11, is to improve the living standards of 100 million slum dwellers by 2020; thus, the urban dimension was, first, to be introduced into the sustainable development work [10]. The World Cities Day on 31 October 2014, themed “Shaping the World’s Urban Future: Leading Urban Transformations,” highlighted the role of urbanization in global sustainable development initiatives [11].

After that, the need for urban sustainability has been a concern for scientists, decision-makers, and policymakers, and it is evident in different policy areas and global reports. The WCD of 2023 is on “Financing Sustainable Urban Future for All,” which underlines financial objectives that UNCTAD and the IAE also estimate a yearly requirement of $2.6 trillion before 2030 to implement the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) and transition to a net-zero society by 2050 [12,13].

Although the global growth rate is projected to decline to 1% per year in the coming years, 1.9% in 2023, the World Bank indicates that there is sufficient capital to fund the growth of global infrastructure [14]. The primary dimensions of global development are population growth and urbanization, which need a critical examination of the possibility of sustainable urbanization in the world [6]. The primary frameworks and programs of UN work that are connected to cities are the Sendai Framework on Disaster Risk Reduction, the Paris Agreement on Climate Change, the World Heritage Convention, and the WHO Shanghai Consensus on Healthy Cities [15]. The New Urban Agenda must be combined with the 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda to address the issues of urban areas, including environmental issues, waste, climate change, transportation concerns, and accessibility of services [16]. The challenges can be considered as the opportunities to create a sustainable urban environment, pursue the principles of a sustainable city, green or smart city, which assists in enhancing the quality of life [16].

Even though the international frameworks such as the New Urban Agenda, SDG 11, and the Paris Agreement provide a broad guideline, their practicality on the ground depends on the institutional capacity and socio-economic environment. In the example of Saudi Arabia, such attempts are translated into the Vision 2030 programs that are aimed at adaptive governance and local implementation rather than direct imitation of the international models. Today, 55% of the total population lives in cities, and 85% of the gross world product is produced in urban centers, which are viewed as the centers of employment, innovations, and investments [17]. However, urbanization and related issues have led to major environmental issues. A major challenge that cities continue to exhibit is that they generate 75% of greenhouse gases and 70% of world waste through industrial actions and uncontrolled consumption, consequently resulting in environmental deterioration [18] (Figure 1). According to the statistics of the United Nations, by 2050, 75% of people will live in cities, of which 18% will live in the 40 largest urbanized areas, which will contribute to 60% of all economic activity and 85% of technological advances, as shown in Figure 2 [19].

Urbanization has led to increased energy and water use, weak infrastructure, poor utilities, traffic congestion, and global warming. Hence, cities provide great opportunities to address sustainability in the context of the urban environment, including transportation, energy, and water through financial, planning, and administrative tools [19]. In this regard, the 2030 Agenda and the NUA provide a special chance to promote sustainable development. The NUA, which was adopted on 20 October 2016, is a broad framework for realizing urban sustainability [20]. The implications of implementing the NUA will reflect on urban rules and regulations, urban planning and design, and municipal finance. UN-Habitat emphasizes the need to engage with urbanization policies because they assist countries in coping with challenges through the proper national framework, identification of suitable SDGs, and improving urban planning that supports sustainable urbanization and the improvement of the institutions [20,21]. Figure 3 demonstrates the main aim of the new sustainable urban development agenda.

More than three decades of sustainable development efforts have pointed to the necessity of accurate, well-researched scientific justification to balance political, scientific, and expertise in solving global environmental problems and other issues, which constitutes one of the major concerns of the NUA [20,21]. To tackle new problems of urbanization, there are solutions, such as the International Guidelines on Urban and Territorial Planning (IG-UTP) and National Urban Policies (NUP) [12,22]. These tools offer a policy advisory role and a government-guided process for sustainable urban growth. Hence, sustainable urbanization within the context of the NUA is a great force of change to attain the envisaged goals of the SDGs of the 2030 Agenda [20].

Urbanization has turned out to be a central focal development and change element in the global environment. The new global development agenda of cities extends beyond housing or even eradication of slums to safe and sustainable transportation, green public spaces, air quality, water supply, sanitation, waste disposal, climate change and prevention of disasters. This vision seeks to enhance urban procedures, politics, and strategy all around the globe. For instance, the NUA pledges to safeguard, preserve, rehabilitate, enhance, and foster ecosystems, water, natural habitats, and the biophysical environment, endeavoring to reduce the negative impact on the planet’s environment and encouraging sustainable utilization and production [23]. In 2021, the Global Platform for Sustainable Cities (GPSC) started the Cities-4-Biodiversity program to assist the cities in implementing the biodiversity- Climate Change approach in their urban planning [12].

Based on the facts of the evolution, it can be said that Saudi cities have gone through significant physical changes due to the increased demographic, social, and economic dynamics [24]. Due to the increasing concern for managing and uplifting the impacts of sustainable urban development on human health and natural systems, the government has undertaken the following reforms. The development of the first National Development Plan 1970–1974 resulted in the development of other five-year development plans on the basis of national priorities that act as a pull factor to development [25]. These planned spatial, social, and economic growths have improved the quality of life and transformed the application of sustainable development policies. Nevertheless, many natural and artificial environments are still undergoing degradation, including agricultural land conversion, depletion of natural resources, excessive energy and water consumption, air pollution, traffic jams, inadequate basic facilities, and unregulated suburbanization [26]. Some of these problems are linked to poor integrated spatial development, poor coordination, and a weak institutional framework. The mega economic diversification plan, Saudi Vision 2030, was launched in April 2016 [27]. The Vision 2020 of the National Transformation Program, formulated by the Council of Economic and Development Affairs (CEDA), also intends to sustain and enhance all forms of capital in the governance development of institutional capabilities and the application of sustainable regulations [28]. The government has implemented various rules and policies toward environmental sustainability; the evidence reveals that poor urban governance, designing, and implementing the land development policies & environmental laws pose threats to these efforts [28].

The United States has numerous examples of the pursuit of sustainable practices, both within urban areas and has demonstrated various efforts that are directed to promoting the sustainability of cities. Appreciable efforts have been made in green building projects, including LEED certification, etc. Several cities, including San Francisco as well as Seattle, have made green building codes mandatory in order to decrease energy utilization and use sustainable materials [29]. Transportation innovations are also strategic since cities continue to develop transit systems and other modes of transportation. Waste minimization techniques, as demonstrated by San Francisco’s zero-waste policy, intend to prevent waste from ending up in landfills by practicing high-level recycling and composting. US cities are drafting climate action plans, and Los Angeles has aimed at 50 percent GHG reductions by 2025 and net zero carbon by 2050 [30]. The awareness of sustainable practices is further enhanced with community participation in different activities and projects on the subject. Thus, the United States is relevant and proactive in its concern for sustainable urbanization and combating climate change, with polices that foster both solutions to urban challenges through comprehensive involvement of the public [29]. The Australian government has developed sustainability with the help of the Infrastructure Sustainability Council, which facilitates the adoption of environmental, social and economic values in the planning and delivery of infrastructure. The Australian institutions also use the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) framework extensively. As a lead agency, the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (DFAT) undertakes these initiatives that focus on key issues of water and sanitation, sustainable energy, and urban development and planning [31,32]. The adoption of the cross-governmental strategy guarantees engagement of the various departments that make up the government of the given country, citizens, businesses, and civil society in the realization of these objectives [32].

Furthermore, Main Roads Western Australia uses the SDGs as guidelines for its activity and determines the spheres where it can act most effectively, including ensuring healthy lives and promoting the population’s well-being, work, and economic development. These strategies underscore Australia’s vision for sustainable development and serve as a guideline for other countries, Saudi Arabia included, on formulating their strategies for meeting environmental, social, and economic issues [32].

Incorporation of smart and sustainable strategies is now regarded as imperative for the shaping of future cities. In this regard, although the idea of smart city implies that attention is paid to sustainable development, empirical research on the versatility of the smart city model with an emphasis on sustainability, including in the field of governance and integrated urban planning, remains quite weak. As the current literature has shown, there is a lack of consideration of social, environmental, and community concerns in smart city studies and their policy recommendations. This disintegration often goes hand in hand with the exclusion of social and environmental capital and the use and participation of citizens. Furthermore, the Natural or Biophilic city paradigm often pays attention to nature as a solution, but rarely involves another essential consideration of the smart city frameworks [33]. Although various improvements have been demonstrated regarding efficient urban sustainable development in the literature review, some limitations are apparent. Thus, there is a requirement for further and more integral comparative investigations that regard sustainable development endeavors in various locations, including Saudi Arabian cities. Unfortunately, existing sources fail to provide a comprehensive analysis of how practices from the top-performing countries can be introduced in the local context. This research intends to fill these gaps by comparing Saudi Arabian cities’ sustainable urban development policies with those of benchmarked sustainable cities worldwide for better policy and planning for Saudi Arabian cities.

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Study Areas

This study analyses three Saudi cities (Riyadh, Jeddah and NEOM) at various levels of sustainable urban transformation as part of Vision 2030 (Figure 4). Riyadh concentrates on the green infrastructure, renewable energy, and modern transport with such initiatives as the Riyadh Metro and Green Riyadh. Jeddah aims at striking a balance between modernization and heritage conservation, coupled with marine conservation and waste management. NEOM is a technological smart city founded on a carbon-neutral and innovation-driven approach. Collectively, these urban centers can be seen as the changing Saudi Arabian sustainability model.

3.2. Research Design

The qualitative exploratory design was employed to gain a deep insight into the issues of urban sustainability from the perspectives of different stakeholders. The study was conducted in three large cities of Saudi Arabia: Riyadh, Jeddah, and Neom, which have different degrees of urban development and planning paradigms.

3.3. Data Collection

The main data-collection technique was semi-structured interviews, which allowed the participants to provide professional insights and remain consistent with the objectives of this study. Based on the conceptual framework, the interview protocol was created and revised by two academic experts to make it clear and thematic. It consisted of six blocks in line with the analytical dimensions of the study, which included the environmental, social, economic, governance and institutional capacity, transportation and mobility, and international best practices. The interviews were initiated by background questions and then in-depth questions on sustainability policies, difficulties in implementing them, and experience in the sector. The interviews were carried out in English and were recorded with the consent of the participants, which took between 40 and 70 min. Contextual observations and non-verbal observations were made using field notes. The identified institutional stakeholders provided the results of managerial and decision-making approaches, which were the focus of the research purpose.

3.4. Sampling Strategy

The purposive sampling strategy was adopted so that there was a wide variety of knowledge on sustainable urban governance. The respondents were sampled on the basis of their professional occupation, experience working in urban planning or environmental policy, and their knowledge of the development processes in the three cities of the study. The sample size (n = 10) was small but featured major stakeholders in the policy and practice of sustainability. Saturation of information was obtained, and the key themes were well represented in the gathered responses.

3.5. Research Framework

The study uses a multidimensional approach that consists of five dimensions of sustainability, such as environmental, economic, social, governance and mobility. It combines three mutually supportive theories: Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) of both policy and environmental accountability, Sustainable Urbanism of spatial and infrastructural integration, and Participatory Governance of inclusiveness and stakeholder outreach. Applying these views, thematic analysis using NVivo version 15 found six main themes that included environmental sustainability, economic efficiency, governance effectiveness, social inclusion, mobility, and international best practices. This integrated model shows the process of interaction that exists between governance and planning and community participation in order to create a sustainable change in urban areas.

3.6. Data Analysis

The thematic analysis was done in a six-step process that was suggested by Braun and Clarke to make the interpretation of qualitative data systematic and transparent [34]. It was obtained through getting acquainted with transcripts, creating initial codes, and analyzing patterns and creating themes in regards to the dimensions of analysis of the study presented in the research framework. The semi-structured interview guide was provided to all participants. The interviews were taped and transcribed word-for-word, and the transcripts were read out aloud a number of times to gain a complete view of the data. Two researchers independently coded approximately 30 percent of the transcripts and the differences were discussed, and a common codebook was developed to enhance dependability. The codes were then categorized into broad areas of sustainability, which included environmental, economic, social, governance, mobility and international practice. This process was managed and organized using NVivo software. The data saturation was reached when there were no new themes in the following interviews, which means that the data was sufficient to reflect the range of views necessary to conduct the study.

3.7. Ethical Consideration

This research was approved by the Ethics Committee of Imam Abdulrahman Bin (Approval Reference No. IRB-2025-06-0539). All the participants were informed and provided informed consent, which guaranteed confidentiality and anonymity. Transcripts were depersonalized, and all information was stored on encrypted, password-protected devices in line with institutional data protection policies. The research was conducted in accordance with the ethical standards of integrity, transparency, and respect for the rights of the participants at every research stage.

4. Results

The findings offer important insights into the stakeholder interviews, which showed that various stakeholders held different views on sustainability practices, governance frameworks, and urban transformation in Riyadh, Jeddah, and NEOM. Participants comprise two professionals in urban planning, two local government representatives, two environmental professionals, two transport planners, and two representatives of community organizations (each making 20%). Of theirs, six (60%) were male and four (40%) were female and their age was 32 to 62 years, and most of them (70%) were between 40–55 years. Each one of them had more than seven years of professional experience, which places them in a position where they can give knowledgeable information on sustainability practices and policy implementation at their respective cities (

Table 1. Interviewee Profile.

Participant ID	Position/Role	City Focus	Years of Experience
P1	Urban Planning Official	Riyadh	15 years
P2	Urban Planning Official	Jeddah	12 years
P3	Urban Transport Planners	NEOM	5 years
P4	Urban Transport Planners	Riyadh	11 years
P5	Environmental Specialist	NEOM	10 years
P6	Environmental Specialist	Riyadh	13 years
P7	Local Government Official	Riyadh	11 years
P8	Local Government Official	Jeddah	8 years
P9	Community Organization Leader	Jeddah	9 years
P10	Community Organization Leader	Riyadh	8 years

). Thematic analysis was conducted, and six major themes were identified, including Environmental Sustainability, Governance and Institutional Challenges, Economic Sustainability, Social Sustainability, Transportation and mobility, and International Best Practices in Urban Sustainability.

4.1. Environmental Sustainability

The findings indicate that Saudi Arabian cities have achieved a lot in terms of environmental sustainability, but there are certain gaps. Riyadh was also reported to have grand plans to transform the city into a green city, such as the King Salman Park and the Green Riyadh Project. Nevertheless, a few of the interviewees observed that such projects are not accompanied by deeper structural changes. According to an Environmental Specialist, “Riyadh has embarked on a massive urban greening spurt, yet in the background, we continue to excessively rely on fossil energy”. Jeddah also had recycling and beach cleanups, which were not maintained. “In Jeddah, there are programs, but they are scattered. Waste management is still quite a response rather than a system” (Urban Planner). The analysis also established that even with these efforts, air pollution in the central business district of Jeddah is very high. The city has also adopted waste management and recycling policies, which have resulted in small emission cuts. However, challenges like poor recycling and dumping still pose a problem to development. But Neom was a forward-looking, holistic environmental orientation. The majority of the interviewees claimed that Neom is a city of big ambitions, such as zero-emission transport and a focus on solar and wind power. The Urban Planner says, “Most of the plans are yet to be finalized, but they will establish a new level of environmental sustainability in the area”. The findings show that the city is well covered with green areas and has developed technologies to reduce the negative effects on the environment. One participant said that “Neom’s strategy is embedded from the start; they’re not just adding green features; it’s built into the design” (Neom Local Government Official, Neom) (

Table 2. Environmental Sustainability.

City	Key Environmental Challenges	Stakeholder Perspective	Implications
Riyadh	Rely heavily on fossil energy	Strong support for the Green Riyadh initiative	Need for enforcement and long-term monitoring
Jeddah	Pollution and lack of green infrastructure	Importance of proactive environmental planning	Environmental quality is closely linked to health and livability
NEOM	Large-scale environmental ambitions in early-stage planning	Visionary goals are widely recognized, with ongoing focus on practical implementation and collaboration	Success depends on transparent monitoring and strong stakeholder engagement

).

4.2. Social Sustainability

This study found the social aspect of sustainable urban development as one of the key themes (

Table 3. Social Sustainability.

City	Social Inclusion Issues	Stakeholder Perspective	Implications
Riyadh	Opportunities to improve public participation and inclusion	Demands more inclusive decision-making and planning by the community	Strengthening community trust through participation
Jeddah	Attention to older neighbourhoods and social cohesion	Promote the value of historical areas and low-income groups’ redevelopment	Encourages socially sensitive and inclusive redevelopment
NEOM	New emphasis on the integration of existing communities	Seek clarity on beneficiaries and inclusive development	Highlights the role of equity and social justice in planning

). The results show that there are still significant issues with the affordability of housing, socialization, and cultural preservation in Riyadh, Jeddah, and NEOM. Government programs in Riyadh that encourage low-cost housing and community facilities are meant to promote social integration, but the schemes do not necessarily ensure that the lower-income groups can afford housing. The participants have observed that there has been a slow but steady rise in the participation of the populace in the planning processes, but they also pointed out that more stakeholders need to be involved in the planning process in order to make sure that the priorities of the community are reflected in the planning process. “The social engagement has now been formalized as one local government official explained, as an official part of the planning process, with high-visibility areas in mind, and is being extended further. In Jeddah, there was also a low level of community participation as the people were not so active in making decisions in their residential areas” (Community leader). “Although the redevelopment process is going on, there is growing concern regarding ensuring that older neighbourhoods are not left behind”. This also highlights the necessity of integrative approaches that consider the city’s cultural past and support vulnerable populations. The vision for NEOM’s future presents new challenges and opportunities. These issues highlight the necessity of inclusive planning, where equity and social justice are the key concepts, and the development of NEOM should be beneficial to many stakeholders.

4.3. Economic Sustainability

The stakeholders mentioned the metro in Riyadh and other mega-projects as the driver of economic sustainability since they have created thousands of new jobs and greatly enhanced the infrastructure and mobility of the city. The results indicate that the economic sustainability of Saudi Arabian cities is a major factor in their development. Cultural tourism in Jeddah is largely based on the protection of the historic district, which must be included in the planning process for the citizens. This will improve the culture of the city and generate more economic gains through increased tourism revenues. “Cultural tourism in Jeddah is doing very well, but I am not aware of how much it is reflected at the community level” (Community Leader). Neom was regarded as a possible economic driver since it was interested in innovation and foreign investment. “The clean-tech and digital sectors of Neom are attracting foreign investment and developing new patterns of urban employment” (Urban planner). Another interviewee further explained that “the city is oriented to technology-based industries, which create colossal job opportunities and economic diversification beyond the traditional industries” (Local Government Officer). Although the economic sustainability projects in Riyadh, Jeddah, and Neom have quantifiable effectiveness, respondents observed that the policy should have an objective of distributing financial gains, particularly to the less fortunate in the community, in a balanced manner. SEA and public consultation processes were suggested to enhance transparency, governance, and compliance with international standards of sustainability. “SEA is not imposed and hence we miss opportunities to avoid environmental errors before they occur” (Environmental Specialist). This shows that the inability to incorporate SEA in the early planning process compromises ecological objectives and causes economic inefficiencies, which threatens the payback of urban investments and sustainability of urban planning projects (

Table 4. Economic Sustainability.

City	Economic Focus	Stakeholder View	Key Challenges
Riyadh	Mega-projects driving growth and jobs	Strong growth; concerns over equity	Need for inclusive benefits and integration of SEA (Social and Environmental Accountability)
Jeddah	Trade, cultural tourism, and infrastructure	Tourism thrives; the limited community gains	Enhance public participation and secure more funding for heritage preservation
NEOM	Innovation, tech, and foreign investment	Promising diversification; inclusivity remains unclear	Clarify inclusivity and improve transparency in development plans

).

4.4. Governance and Policy Effectiveness

The strategy for sustainable urban development in major cities in Saudi Arabia, such as Riyadh, Jeddah, and NEOM, is based on governance systems (

Table 5. Governance and Policy Effectiveness.

City	Governance Structure	Stakeholder Perception	Policy Implementation Challenges
Riyadh	Multi-agency governance with robust inter-agency cooperation and strategic master planning	Seeing as progressive, transformative, and more efficient in governance and development	Managing rapid urban growth and sustainable implementation at scale
Jeddah	Mixed governance and changing planning systems and active regional collaboration (e.g., Saudi-Emirati Coordination Council)	Adopted different governance systems	Poor coordination of policy implementation and insufficient stakeholder involvement remain challenges
NEOM	Very centralized, visionary leadership and strategic policy coordination	Seen as innovative and strategically controlled under a top-down vision	Balancing ambitious goals and practical implementation and stakeholder involvement

). The new urban planning reforms have significantly improved the policy-making and stakeholder involvement in Riyadh. The general city infrastructure plan is a move away from doing projects in bits, towards collective, integrated planning, where priorities are aligned and implementation is more efficient. One urban planner says that “Riyadh has been moving towards isolated projects to coordinated strategies that unite all actors around a single vision of planning”. Conversely, although there are governance strategies that are meant to enhance it, the implementation of policies in Jeddah remains a critical issue. Lack of inter-agency coordination and stakeholder participation is also a major challenge. One of the community leaders stressed that they are negotiating partnerships in Jeddah, but the coordination among various agencies is a problem. NEOM is a progressive and innovative model of governance as compared to other models. It is structured based on the principles of sustainability, technology, integration, and inclusivity, and facilitated by the active involvement of government institutions, partners in the private sector, and international stakeholders. One of the urban planners stated that “the governance system of NEOM will be highly coordinated on high-level policy and well-connected with local communities, businesses, and international partners”. These results imply that even though the institutional alignment in Riyadh and NEOM’s visionary model of governance is high, the experience of Jeddah shows that the lack of administrative and participatory capacity is a major obstacle to the successful implementation of sustainability policies.

4.5. Transportation and Mobility

Mobility and transport were found to be the main concerns in all three cities, with varying nature and severity of the problems (

Table 6. Transportation and Mobility.

City	Key Issues	Stakeholder Views	Future Outlook
Riyadh	Car dependence; limited metro accessibility	Metro is a step forward, but it is not designed for the average commuter	Moderate progress with risk of exclusivity; need to improve accessibility and affordability
Jeddah	Lack of integrated public transport; weak pedestrian and cycling infrastructure	The transport system is disorganized and often fails in older and low-income areas	Requires a comprehensive multimodal strategy and improved urban integration
NEOM	Ambitious AI-driven, autonomous, carbon-neutral transport vision	The mobility plan is innovative but lacks clarity on practical implementation and equitable access	High innovation potential; implementation and inclusiveness remain to be demonstrated

). In the case of Riyadh, stakeholders liked the Riyadh Metro as a possible development but doubted its restricted accessibility and its elitist character. “The metro is a move in the right direction, but it is not designed to accommodate the average commuter—it is a prestige project” (Urban Transport Planners Riyadh). In Jeddah, the absence of a well-developed system of public transport and the inability to integrate the modes were highlighted.

Stakeholders explained that “Transportation is unorganized and often fails the people in older or low-income areas.” Inadequate walking and cycling infrastructure inhibits movement and solidifies the use of cars. NEOM, which was planned to be AI-driven with carbon-neutral transportation, brought up transparency and fair access among stakeholders. An Urban Transport Planner stated that “NEOM’s mobility plan is ambitious and innovative, but there is limited information on how it will function in practice and serve all segments of the population.” Even though the city’s master plan complies with a vision of a future era of sustainability, its actual implementation and accessibility are to be determined.

4.6. Global Urban Planning Models

The comparison of Saudi cities with international best practices in sustainable urban planning is one of the primary themes that emerged from the interviews with stakeholders. Stakeholders used examples from countries such as Canada, Australia, the UK, and Sweden, namely, decentralization of government, strategic environmental assessment (SEA), and public engagement. Despite the useful inspiration these models offer, stakeholders stressed the role of context and the current progress being made in Saudi Arabia. An urban city planner said, “The cities in Europe are more autonomous, and local governments have more powers”. Everything is concentrated, and this slows development and inhibits local innovation. Saudi Arabia is in the process of transforming their governance systems to attain sustainable development. The Kingdom believes in modernization, and cities like NEOM are already implementing the spirit of smart and sustainable design. Even though the stakeholders realized that formal SEA frameworks are in their early stages of development, majority of the stakeholders were pleased with the increased focus of the government on environmental planning. According to the Environmental Specialist, “SEA does not apply here, and hence large projects are done without much regard to the long-term environmental trade-offs”. However, the strategic goals of such large-scale projects as the Green Riyadh Project and the zero-emission infrastructure of NEOM are considered to be a positive move in the right direction. “The design of Neom is intrinsic in nature; they are not merely adding green elements to it, it is built into the design” (Local Government Official).

Another area stakeholders suggested could be improved is public participation. “In Melbourne or Vancouver, policy is made in public forums. In this case, we are often informed later on that the decision has been made” (Local Government Official). However, respondents also concurred that the recent developments in cities like Riyadh are enabling more stakeholders by providing community centers and urban planning consultations. International best practices, such as the circular economy in Stockholm or the flood protection system in Copenhagen, were cited not as a criticism but as an ambition. “Neom can seek to be innovative; however, its infrastructure is not yet at the level of the leading cities in the world” (Local Government Official). But this was accompanied by optimism. “We’re not just replicating foreign models, we’re creating something distinct, and that takes time” (Urban Planner).

5. Discussion

This study aimed to examine the localization of the principles of sustainable urbanism in the Saudi Arabian cities of Riyadh, Jeddah, and NEOM in the context of Vision 2030. The results indicate that despite a common national vision of transformation across the three cities, the cities differ greatly in the methods of governance, ability to implement, and inclusiveness. These findings demonstrate the multi-speed character of sustainability transitions in Saudi Arabia [35].

The environmental results indicate that extensive greening schemes in Riyadh, such as Green Riyadh and King Salman Park, are evidence of the firm governmental interest in environmental improvement, but remain limited due to the reliance on fossil fuels and inadequate monitoring systems. This reflects the findings from previous literature, which demonstrate that capital-intensive sustainability projects in Saudi Arabia tend to increase livability indicators but not structural environmental dependence [36,37]. Jeddah has a severe ecological disintegration, where the waste management is both disorganized and high in pollution, which resonates with the results of the study of [26,38] regarding the lack of coordination in the governance of cities located in the coastal regions of Saudi Arabia. NEOM is in its infancy, but it represents a holistic environmental approach in which sustainability is part of the design, not an afterthought, which is in line with [39,40] who highlight the opportunity of design-driven smart cities to realize low-carbon transformation. Nonetheless, the success of NEOM will be based on the transparent monitoring and realistic implementation, which is stressed by [41].

Governance has continued to be one of the factors that define sustainable outcomes. Riyadh is the best example of a top-down but more coordinated governance concept in which collaboration across agencies and master planning has enhanced policy uniformity. This proves the point of [42], who stated that centralized national structures can be efficient when implemented at the level of the institutions. However, Jeddah is a case of fractured governance, with poor coordination and uneven enforcement making it difficult to move forward despite continual reforms, which is consistent with the findings of [43]. In the meantime, the centralized and visionary governance model of NEOM is the example of an innovative hybrid system: technologically oriented, global, and at the same time, prone to exclusivity.

Social inclusion is the lowest aspect of sustainability in the three cities. Riyadh has been positive in institutionalizing the consultations among people, but the consultation is not very participatory. The redevelopment of Jeddah has intensified the issues of displacement and the loss of heritage, which can be seen as an example of the lack of participation in fast-urbanizing societies. Equity and community integration are especially important in NEOM, since the futuristic nature of the project will lead to the marginalization of the communities. These results support the participation-performance paradox, where efficiency benefits are usually achieved at the expense of social empowerment. To achieve the sustainability objectives of Vision 2030, the community engagement of Saudi Arabia should not be at the stage of consultation, but actual co-creation.

The combination of innovation and accessibility is seen through transportation and mobility. The Metro in Riyadh is a good model of sustainable mobility, but affordability and coverage problems may result in exclusivity. It was also discovered that Jeddah has a childish transport infrastructure that only contributes to the establishment of car dependency and the restriction of equity in mobility, as also found by [44]. The NEOM carbon-neutral transport vision, which is driven by AI, is one of the most innovative in the world, but its practical inclusiveness is dubious. The three cities are in line with the diversification agenda of Vision 2030: Riyadh as an administrative center, Jeddah as a cultural tourism center, and NEOM as a high-tech investment center. However, economic sustainability must not be based on technological development but must include social equity and environmental responsibility, as it is put by [45].

This analysis reveals Riyadh as institutionally robust, but socially constrained, Jeddah socially sensitive, yet institutionally fragile, and NEOM technologically sophisticated and untested, which is indicative of the paradox of ambition surpassing institutionalization [46]. The Saudi cities, in comparison with international standards of sustainability planning, like those in Melbourne, resilience planning in Copenhagen, or circular economy in Stockholm, demonstrate a distinct hybrid model of sustainability that is facilitated by centralized governance but selectively informed by global experiences [47,48,49]. Instead of imitating the Western models, Saudi Arabia is adopting them in the context of its governance system, which would be a good example to other fast-developing countries that have a lot of resources.

The findings broaden the knowledge on the role of state-led sustainability transitions in non-Western societies. They propose that the long-term developments would rely on the principles of SEA implemented at the initial phase of planning, better coordination among the agencies, and the institutionalization of the mechanisms of inclusive governance. In theory, the research proves that sustainable urbanism is not merely a technical challenge, but also a governance and cultural process, i.e., it needs flexibility, reflexivity, and local adaptation. Structural sustainability is formed when fiscal, environmental, and institutional reforms form a co-evolution [50,51,52].

6. Novelty of the Study and Future Research Directions

This study is one of the first comparative, qualitative studies of sustainable urban development in the Saudi environment, with the emphasis on Riyadh, Jeddah, and NEOM as the different models of change within the framework of Vision 2030. The original feature of the study is a multi-dimensional framework that combines Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA), Sustainable Urbanism, and Participatory Governance, providing a multi-dimensional perspective on the environmental, economic, social, and institutional aspects of the study simultaneously.

The study expands the discussion on sustainable urbanism around the world to the Gulf region, where the modernization process is state-based and community participation is transforming. Results indicate that there is an improvement in technology and planning, but there is a lack of inclusiveness and coordination. Future studies must involve secondary cities and look at how participatory governance can enhance resilience of sustainability efforts under the Vision 2030.

7. Limitations of the Study

This study has some limitations, even though it offers valuable insights. The limited sample and the omission of the private developers, academics, and citizens could have limited the range of views. Being a cross-sectional qualitative study on Riyadh, Jeddah, and NEOM, the results might not be applicable to smaller cities or evolving dynamics in the context of Vision 2030. However, such limitations offer possibilities to conduct quantitative, longitudinal and comparative studies in the future to confirm and broaden findings.

8. Conclusions

The paper has discussed sustainable directions of urban development in Riyadh, Jeddah, and NEOM as part of Saudi Vision 2030 and discovered that they have their own paths, yet they are all interrelated. Riyadh is institutionally consistent and socially isolated; Jeddah is community-oriented in its governance; NEOM is technologically ambitious and socially integrated unpredictably. The results indicate that sustainability does not only concern infrastructure and technology but also depends on good governance, stakeholder participation, and the integration of SEA principles in a timely manner. To balance between the environmental, economic, and social goals, institutional cooperation and adaptive governance are necessary. The changing Saudi model shows that centralized planning may expedite development, but in the end, success will be achieved through transparency, inclusiveness, and resilience, which can be useful in the creation of sustainable urban transitions in developing economies.