Next Article in Journal
Active and Healthy Case Della Comunità: Model Research for Spatial Requirements of Waiting Spaces
Previous Article in Journal
The Digital: A Catalyst for Accelerating the Quality Improvement and Sustainable Development of China’s Marine Industry
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Sustainability
Volume 17
Issue 21
10.3390/su17219463
sustainability-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

The Impact of Consumer Characteristics, Product Attributes, and Food Type on Polish University Students’ Willingness to Pay More for Sustainable Insect-Based Foods

by
Anna Platta
1,
Anna Mikulec
2,
Monika Radzymińska
3,
Karolina Mikulec
4 and
Stanisław Kowalski
5,*
1
Faculty of Management and Quality Science, Gdynia Maritime University, 81-87 Morska Street, 81-225 Gdynia, Poland
2
Faculty of Engineering Sciences, University of Applied Science in Nowy Sacz, 1A Zamenhofa Street, 33-300 Nowy Sacz, Poland
3
Faculty of Economic Sciences, Institute of Management Science and Quality, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, 4 Oczapowskiego Street, 10-719 Olsztyn, Poland
4
Graduate of the Warsaw School of Economics, 162 Niepodległości Avenue, 02-554 Warsaw, Poland
5
Department of Carbohydrate Technology and Cereal Processing, Faculty of Food Technology, University of Agriculture in Krakow, 122 Balicka Street, 30-149 Krakow, Poland
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2025, 17(21), 9463; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17219463 (registering DOI)
Submission received: 25 September 2025 / Revised: 17 October 2025 / Accepted: 23 October 2025 / Published: 24 October 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Sustainable Urban and Rural Development)
Versions Notes

Abstract

As part of urban sustainable food strategies, reducing land and emission footprints motivates interest in edible insects (EI) as a sustainable protein source. However, research on the determinants of young consumers’ acceptance and willingness to pay for insect-based foods in Central and Eastern Europe remains limited. This study assessed whether Polish students are willing to pay more for foods containing EI when production is environmentally friendly. The analysis focused on identifying socio-demographic and product-related factors influencing willingness to pay a higher price. Data were collected in November 2023 through a nationwide Computer-Assisted Web Interview (CAWI) conducted via Google Forms among 947 Polish university students. A logistic regression model was applied to determine socio-demographic predictors, while exploratory factor analysis was used to identify latent dimensions of product attributes and food categories. Results revealed that gender and place of residence significantly affected willingness to pay, with women and urban residents showing higher readiness. Attributes related to convenience, availability, sensory appeal, health and nutrition claims, and CO2 reduction benefits were the strongest positive correlates. The findings suggest pragmatic pathways for introducing insect-based foods into sustainable urban food systems and highlight the role of education in fostering environmentally responsible consumer behavior.

1. Introduction

Urban food systems are a rapidly growing area within urban and regional planning, as cities face the dual challenge of ensuring food security and reducing the land footprint of food production [1,2,3]. Strictly controlled indoor vertical farming systems in urban agriculture show a high likelihood of economic viability [4,5]. Advances in urban food systems are making cities important sites of food production [6,7] reducing transport needs and carbon dioxide emissions. Increasing urban self-sufficiency also enhances resilience during natural disasters, political conflicts, or epidemics [8].
Development efforts in urban agriculture should consider the interdependence of sustainability goals, identify key drivers and barriers and use local productivity potentials to improve livelihoods [8]. Rapid urbanization creates additional pressure on rural land, affecting food security. Ensuring food supply therefore depends not only on protecting arable land but also on improving soil quality, reducing agricultural pollution and enhancing resource efficiency [2]. Vertical systems can contribute to climate-resilient production by reducing land and water use, as well as pesticide and fertilizer emissions [9,10,11].
Urban agriculture combined with circular-economy protein sources is increasingly recognized as a key strategy for integrating food production into cities and strengthening urban–rural linkages [12]. Conventional livestock farming is one of the most land- and carbon-intensive sectors, constraining sustainable urban development [13,14]. In this context, sustainable food consumption emphasizes alternative protein sources that meet nutritional needs while minimizing environmental harm [15,16]. Edible insects (EI), endorsed by the FAO and scientific communities, offer high feed-to-protein efficiency and can be reared in vertically integrated facilities that require minimal space and resources. Integrating insect farming into urban systems through rooftop and indoor facilities can therefore support compact, low-carbon, and resilient food networks [8,17].
The European Union addressed the need for sustainable protein alternatives by adopting the Novel Foods Regulation 2015/2283 [18]. Under this framework, the Commission established a list of authorized novel foods [19], including Tenebrio molitor (yellow mealworm), Locusta migratoria (migratory locust), Acheta domesticus (house cricket), and the larvae of Alphitobius diaperinus (lesser mealworm), as reflected in the Union list and its amendments through 2023 [19]. Poland operates within this regulatory framework.
Studies show growing interest in incorporating edible insects into human diets, both as whole insects and as processed ingredients such as powders and flours. Insect flour has a favorable environmental profile and high nutritional value, and is increasingly used in foods such as bread [20,21,22,23,24], sponge cakes [25,26], shortbread biscuits [27], crackers [28], snack bars [29,30], extruded snacks [31,32,33], yogurts [34,35], ice cream [36], and meat substitutes such as burgers [37].
Despite these advantages, psychological barriers remain the main limitation to EI consumption among Polish consumers [38,39]. Disgust, fear and awareness of insect origin are strong deterrents [40]. Similar patterns were observed among students in Italy, Chile, Turkey and Saudi Arabia [15,41,42,43]. However, Polish Generation Z consumers appear more open to novel insect-based foods than older generations [44]. Education and income influence the perception of these products as healthy and environmentally friendly [45]. For environmental reasons, Generation Z tends to accept “hidden entomophagy,” meaning insect ingredients incorporated into familiar processed foods rather than visible whole insects [38,39,44,46].
Market segmentation studies among Polish students indicate that psychological factors such as food neophobia, safety concerns and sustainability awareness, together with sensory attributes such as taste and aroma, are the strongest determinants of acceptance, while socio-demographic characteristics play a marginal role [47]. To improve acceptance, researchers recommend promoting processed insect-based products, improving education and labeling transparency, and highlighting environmental and health benefits [38,40,46,48].
Food-security challenges linked to urban expansion underscore the need for sustainable food production in both cities and rural areas. Vertically integrated urban insect production could help meet protein demand while reducing environmental pressure. Understanding whether consumers, especially students, are willing to pay more for environmentally friendly insect-based foods is therefore essential for market development. Acceptance of hidden insect ingredients in familiar products could accelerate large-scale domestic production and reduce prices over time. Against this background, the present study links sustainable food consumption with urban development and land use efficiency. The aim of the present study was to address a gap in current research by examining the willingness of Polish Generation Z students to pay a higher price for foods containing EI, provided that these products are produced with reduced environmental impact. This work builds on prior research on consumer acceptance of EI, with a particular focus on younger cohorts, and tests whether perceived environmental benefits in the production process influence students’ willingness to pay a price premium. The study had an exploratory character and was designed to identify preliminary patterns in consumers’ willingness to pay rather than to empirically test a fully specified theoretical model.
The study tested the following hypotheses:
H1: 
Socio-demographic characteristics (gender, place of residence, field of study, self-assessed financial situation) are associated with the level of willingness to pay a higher price for environmentally friendly insect-based foods.
H2: 
Perceptions of selected product attributes are associated with the willingness to pay a higher price for foods containing EI that are produced in an environmentally sustainable way.
H3: 
The type of insect-based product is associated with willingness to pay a higher price.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Data Collection and Sample Characteristics

To assess the willingness of young consumers in Poland, specifically Generation Z, to pay a higher price for foods containing edible insects (EI), we conducted a survey among students at higher education institutions nationwide. The study protocol was reviewed and approved by the University Ethics Committee for Scientific Research at the Krakow University of Economics (KEBN/71/0044/D24/2023). A non-probability purposive sampling strategy was used, yielding a final sample of 947 participants. An empirical study was conducted in November 2023 using the Computer-Assisted Web Interview (CAWI) method via the Google Forms online platform. All respondents provided informed, voluntary consent and made aware of any potential risks associated with participation the CAWI survey.
The survey was conducted among Polish university students representing Generation Z, as this cohort is expected to capture an increasingly significant share of global consumer markets by 2030. Currently, Generation Z constitutes approximately 40% of the global consumer population and is shaping emerging market trends that will define products and services in the near future [49]. Their collective spending power is projected to reach around USD 12 trillion by 2030, positioning them as one of the most influential consumer groups in history [50]. Moreover, Generation Z already demonstrates faster growth in expenditure compared with older generations [51]. As this generation matures and enters its peak earning years, its importance as a consumer group will continue to grow, particularly in markets driven by innovation, sustainability, and novel food technologies. A high level of digital engagement, a strong value orientation (e.g., environmental awareness and ethical consumption), and openness to innovative products make Generation Z a strategically important group for studying willingness to pay for sustainable insect-based foods.
The research instrument was an online questionnaire administered via a CAWI platform and comprised two main sections. The first section collected data on quantitative variables, including willingness to pay a higher price for new, innovative foods containing EI, provided that production is environmentally sustainable. Respondents also indicated their readiness to consume such foods across product forms, including burgers and other processed meat products, ready-to-eat meals such as soups, pasta, or pancakes, baked products including bread, rolls, and pizza, and confectionery such as cakes, cookies, chocolate-coated insects, or sweet pastries. Additional categories included snack bars, crisps and other snacks, post-workout beverages and high-protein supplements, dairy products such as yogurts and cheese, sauces and mayonnaise, as well as items produced with crickets, mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor), or migratory locusts (Locusta migratoria) in frozen, dried, or powdered forms [44].
The survey further examined how selected product attributes shape purchasing decisions for insect-based foods. Considered attributes included sensory characteristics such as taste, aroma, and appearance, high nutritional value, market availability and variety, popularity, affordable price, and packaging appeal. Functional qualities such as ease of use, health and nutrition claims, reduced carbon emissions, and the availability of recipes on blogs and websites were also included [46].
Participants rated their agreement with each statement on a five-point Likert scale, where 1 meant “definitely no,” 2 “no,” 3 “I do not know/no opinion,” 4 “yes,” and 5 “definitely yes” [52].
To assess willingness to pay a higher price for EI foods produced in an environmentally friendly manner, respondents were grouped by their average response scores. The classification used the mean (X) and standard deviation (SD): low willingness (scores ≤ X − SD), moderate willingness (X − SD < scores < X + SD), and high willingness (scores ≥ X + SD). According to this categorization, 25.67% of respondents were highly willing to pay more, 29.78% showed moderate willingness, and 44.55% reported low willingness to pay a premium, conditional on environmentally sustainable production.
The second section gathered sociodemographic data, including gender, place of residence, and a subjective assessment of financial situation. To improve the clarity of statistical comparisons and ensure adequate cell sizes, selected categories were aggregated. For field of study, disciplines with relatively small counts were grouped into two broader categories. The Natural Sciences category included medical and health sciences, agricultural sciences, and natural and physical sciences, reflecting their emphasis on empirical research and applied learning. The Social Sciences and Humanities sciences combined social sciences and humanities, which focus on social, cultural, and psychological phenomena.
For place of residence, respondents from cities with 150,000–500,000 inhabitants and those from cities with more than 500,000 inhabitants were combined into a single category of cities over 150,000 residents. This grouping reflects the comparable characteristics of large urban environments and supports balanced analytical subgroups.
For perceived economic status, responses were consolidated into two groups. Individuals who rated their situation as “insufficient” or “sufficient” were classified as lower economic status, while those reporting a “very good” situation or a “exceptionally high status” were classified as higher economic status. This aggregation facilitates clearer interpretation and reduces bias arising from underrepresented subgroups.

2.2. Statistical Analyses

To achieve the study objectives, we applied a three-stage analytical procedure. The primary aim was to assess how socio-demographic variables relate to the willingness of Polish students to pay a higher price for foods containing edible insects (EI) in the context of sustainable production.
In the first stage, an ordinal logistic regression model based on the proportional odds assumption was applied to identify socio-demographic determinants of respondents’ willingness to pay a higher price for food products containing edible insects (EI). The dependent variable represented three ordered levels of willingness: low, moderate, and high. Explanatory variables included gender, field of study, place of residence, and self-assessed economic status.
The model was estimated using maximum likelihood estimation within the OrderedModel framework of Python’s (version 3.11) statsmodels library, employing a logit link function. For categorical predictors, reference categories were set as follows: men for gender, engineering and technical sciences for field of study, rural areas for place of residence, and lower economic status for self-assessed material situation. Model performance was evaluated both in-sample and through five-fold stratified cross-validation. In-sample model accuracy was 0.444, with a mean absolute error (MAE) of 0.815 and a quadratic weighted Cohen’s kappa of 0.010, indicating moderate ordinal alignment between predicted and observed categories. Cross-validation produced comparable results (Accuracy = 0.436, MAE = 0.830), suggesting limited generalization capacity. The overall model significance was confirmed by the omnibus likelihood-ratio test (χ2 = 18.1, df = 7, p = 0.012). Although the model exhibited only moderate classification performance, such outcomes are typical for exploratory ordinal regression analyses involving attitudinal data, where the primary aim is to identify statistically significant associations rather than to achieve high predictive precision. In the second step, predictors for the ordered-outcome model were derived by conducting an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) on items measuring acceptance of EI product formats and purchase attributes. Because the items were ordinal, original five-point Likert responses (1 “definitely no,” 2 “no,” 3 “I do not know/no opinion,” 4 “yes,” 5 “definitely yes”) were recoded to a three-category scale by collapsing 1–2 into “no” and 4–5 into “yes.” EFA was performed on polychoric correlation matrices with oblimin rotation, given a priori expectations that factors may correlate. Sampling adequacy was confirmed as excellent, with KMO = 0.921 for product categories (all MSA ≥ 0.851) and KMO = 0.945 for purchase attributes (all MSA ≥ 0.899). Bartlett’s tests were significant for both instruments (p < 0.001), supporting factorability. For product categories, a four-factor solution fit the data and explained 80.8% of variance (SS loadings: 2.79, 2.99, 1.53, 1.57). For purchase attributes, a three-factor solution explained 73.5% of variance (SS loadings: 3.42, 3.50, 2.62). The following composites were obtained: Whole/Visible Insects; Processed Staples and Basics; Sweet Snacks and Confectionery; Dairy and Sauces; and Sensory Appeal; Market Access and Convenience; Claims (Health/Nutrition/CO2). Item responses were first z-standardized and then combined into weighted composite scores using factor loadings. Weights were renormalized on a row-wise basis when any indicator was missing. The resulting composites were re-standardized (M = 0, SD = 1) so that regression coefficients reflect a one standard deviation increase. Two-indicator factors (Sweet Snacks and Confectionery; Dairy and Sauces) were retained as weighted scores but interpreted with caution.
In the third step, willingness to pay a higher price for foods containing edible insects was modeled as a three-category ordered outcome (low, moderate, high) using the full sample (n = 947). The seven standardized composites derived in the second step were entered as predictors. A cumulative logit proportional-odds model including all seven composites converged without issues (n = 947; AIC = 1711.08). Per-predictor nominal tests indicated no violations of proportional odds. Estimated thresholds were ordered and well separated (low|moderate = −0.295; moderate|high = 1.424), which supports a coherent latent continuum.

3. Results

The analysis included 947 university students, of whom 568 were women (60.0%) and 379 were men (40.0%). Clear gender patterns emerged across fields of study: men were predominantly enrolled in engineering and technical sciences (57.00%), while women were more frequently represented in social and humanities sciences (49.30%) and also showed a stronger presence in the natural sciences (20.24%).
The residential structure was broadly similar across genders. The largest share of respondents came from rural areas (about 36–37%), followed by those living in small and medium-sized towns (approximately one-third overall), and large cities (27–32%).
In terms of self-reported economic status, most participants described their situation as good (around 53%), while smaller proportions reported lower (23–27%) or higher (20–23%) status. Gender differences in this regard were minimal (Table 1).

3.1. Socio-Demographic Factors and Willingness to Pay for EI Foods

Based on the results of the ordinal logistic regression model two socio-demographic factors, gender and place of residence, emerged as statistically significant predictors of respondents’ willingness to pay a higher price and to consume foods containing edible insects (Table 2). Women demonstrated a significantly higher likelihood of expressing greater willingness compared to men (β = 0.388, p = 0.003), corresponding to an odds ratio of 1.47. This indicates that the odds of reporting a higher level of willingness were approximately 47% greater for women than for men. A similar upward trend was observed for place of residence. Respondents living in large cities (>150,000 inhabitants) showed a 1.48-fold increase in the odds of higher willingness relative to those living in rural areas (β = 0.389, p = 0.012). For individuals residing in medium-sized towns (up to 150,000 inhabitants), the effect was positive but did not reach statistical significance (p = 0.095) (Table 2). Neither field of study nor self-assessed economic status showed a statistically significant relationship with willingness.

3.2. Exploratory Factor Analysis of EI Product Categories and Purchase Attributes

For product categories (Table 3), a four-factor structure was obtained. Loadings within factors were robust, typically 0.511–0.980, with no substantive cross-loadings. The factors correspond to Whole/Visible Insects, Processed Staples and Basics, Sweet Snacks and Confectionery, and Dairy and Sauces.
For purchase attributes (Table 4), a three-factor structure emerged. Within-factor loadings generally ranged 0.600–0.946 for Sensory Appeal, Market Access and Convenience, Claims (Health/Nutrition/CO2).

3.3. Willingness to Pay and Effects of Product Formats and Purchase Attributes

Based on the cumulative logit model with seven standardized composites (n = 947), market and usage attributes and claims emerged as the strongest positive correlates of higher willingness to pay. Both composites were statistically significant and consistent in magnitude. Among product formats, dairy and sauces and sweet snacks showed modest positive associations, whereas whole/visible formats and processed staples and basics did not add predictive value in the additive specification.
At the coefficient level, significant positive associations (per +1 SD in the composite) were observed for Market Access and Convenience, Claims (Health/Nutrition/CO2), Dairy and Sauces, and Sweet Snacks and Confectionery. The remaining composites Whole/Visible Insects, Processed Staples and Basics, and Sensory Appeal were not significant (Table 5). Cut-points were ordered and well separated (low|moderate = −0.295; moderate|high = 1.424), confirming a coherent latent continuum; predictor effects are interpreted as shifts on this latent scale relative to these fixed thresholds (Table 6).
Market and usage-related cues are the strongest correlates: a one standard deviation increase in Market Access and Convenience is associated with about a 67% rise in the odds of belonging to a higher willingness-to-pay category, while stronger emphasis on Claims (Health/Nutrition/CO2) corresponds to roughly a 54% increase. Among product formats, Dairy and Sauces and Sweet Snacks and Confectionery are linked to more modest gains, about 26% and 24%, respectively, indicating that acceptance of these familiar, processed formats contributes positively, though less strongly than attribute-based signals. By contrast, shifts in Whole/Visible Insects, Processed Staples and Basics, and Sensory Appeal correspond to odds ratios near 1, implying little to no meaningful change in the probability of higher willingness to pay (Table 5).
Attribute-driven factors, that is market and use signals (assortment and availability, popularity, price, packaging, convenience, recipe visibility) and the salience of health, nutrition, and CO2 claims, are the principal correlates of higher stated willingness to pay. Product-format effects are smaller and category dependent, with positive associations concentrated in dairy and sauces and in sweet snacks. The modeling strategy, which combines polychoric-based weighted composites with a cumulative logit specification, preserves ordinal measurement, reduces item-level noise through thematic aggregation, and yields effects interpretable per +1 SD. Typical limitations of three-point scales, for example, rotation warnings and limited reliability for two-item composites, were noted but did not materially affect inference stability (Table 5 and Table 6).
The results indicate that young consumers’ willingness to pay a higher price is shaped primarily by cues that facilitate everyday choices, namely market access and convenience, together with credible information on health, nutrition, and CO2 reduction, while socio-demographic characteristics play a smaller and selective role. Product format matters in a moderate, category-dependent way, with higher acceptance for processed, familiar forms such as dairy and sauces and sweet snacks, which suggests pragmatic pathways for introducing insect-based products into the diets of urban consumers. This orientation supports shorter supply chains, integration with urban circular-economy systems, and reductions in land use and emissions, while aligning with Generation Z’s expectations for functionality, transparent labeling, and trustworthy information.

4. Discussion

In the context of Polish urban food systems, the ecological benefits of producing edible insects and insect-containing foods may translate into sustainable urban development, stronger urban–rural integration, and improved food security during crises. The literature emphasizes the need to understand consumer profiles and to develop attractive attributes of insect-based products in order to increase acceptance of entomophagy [53], which is consistent with the concept of controlled indoor vertical farming systems in urban agriculture. It is therefore important to obtain evidence on consumers’ willingness to bear higher purchase costs for novel, sustainable foods, including among members of Generation Z in Poland. University students [46], in contrast to other population groups in Poland [45], report positive attitudes toward purchasing foods that contain insect ingredients.
The findings of this study indicate that willingness to pay a higher price for novel, innovative foods containing EI, when produced in an environmentally sustainable manner, is shaped by both socio-demographic factors and perceptions of product attributes and food types. In particular, gender, place of residence, and self-assessed economic status emerged as significant predictors, consistent with prior research showing that women and urban residents tend to be more open to sustainable or alternative food sources [54,55]. In our model, young women, individuals living in larger cities, and those reporting moderate, good, or very good economic status exhibited a significantly higher willingness to incur greater food costs, which may reflect heightened environmental awareness and better access to a wider range of innovative products [56].
Moreover, the findings indicate that product attributes such as availability, convenience, popularity, recipe availability on blogs, packaging, sensory appeal, health and nutrition claims, and the reduction of carbon dioxide emissions play a crucial role in shaping consumers’ willingness to pay. These results are consistent with the conclusion of van Huis et al. [16], who emphasize the importance of practicality and the integration of EI into familiar and culturally accepted culinary forms. Furthermore, individuals with low willingness to pay a higher price for foods containing edible insects exhibited the strongest correlations between perceived product attributes and acceptance, suggesting that acceptance within this group depends on the fulfillment of a broad range of sensory and functional expectations [57].
It is particularly noteworthy that young consumers’ belief in the environmental benefits of EI production and consumption, especially in terms of reducing CO2 emissions, was among the three strongest predictors of willingness to pay a higher price. This underscores the growing salience of environmental concerns in young people’s food choices [58]. Interestingly, even some respondents who were unsure about the environmental impact of insect consumption nevertheless reported greater willingness to pay, which suggests that environmental messaging may help build acceptance of insect-based foods. Accordingly, there is potential for the development of urban food systems, as urban consumers appear to be the only group demonstrating even a modest yet noticeable willingness to pay a higher price for foods containing edible insects, driven by their concern for the natural environment.
Beyond confirming patterns observed in earlier studies conducted in Western Europe, this research extends existing evidence to Central and Eastern Europe and focuses on Generation Z consumers, whose sustainable consumption behaviors remain insufficiently explored. By combining socio-demographic and product-level determinants, the study provides a more integrated understanding of willingness to pay for sustainable insect-based foods in an emerging market context. Our research has practical implications. It highlights the need to develop a comprehensive strategy for introducing sustainable foods containing edible insects to the Polish market, tailored to the varying levels of Polish students’ willingness to pay a higher price for such products. For the most receptive consumers, communication should emphasize the environmental benefits of EI production and consumption. For moderately interested individuals, the focus should be on practical attributes, such as convenience, availability, sensory attractiveness, nutritional information, and health claims. For more skeptical consumers, familiar formats, such as bread or ready meals, may ease adoption. Reducing negative sensory associations, particularly regarding taste and appearance, is also essential for engaging undecided consumers [59].
Studies conducted outside Poland have consistently shown that young adults, men, and individuals with low levels of food neophobia and high culinary curiosity tend to exhibit the greatest openness toward entomophagy [55]. The strongest predictors of rejection of insects in the diet, as identified in Belgium [55], Hungary [60], Denmark [61], among Chinese consumers [62], and among Polish students [46], include neophobia and disgust. Research conducted at Chinese universities has shown that most students were unfamiliar with and unwilling to consume insect-based foods [62]. In studies conducted among Polish university students, acceptance of foods containing edible insects was found to be most strongly correlated with a hedonistic orientation (particularly among young men), low attachment to regional culinary traditions (among both men and women), and high nutritional value awareness and health consciousness (especially among young women) [63].
The findings from international studies are consistent with the present results, indicating that the format in which insect-based products are offered plays a crucial role in shaping consumer acceptance. Snack-type and highly processed foods, such as energy bars, crisps, burgers, sweets, cheeses, yogurts, ice cream, bread, pasta, and baked goods enriched with insect flour, are generally more acceptable than dishes containing visible insects [34,35,36,37,64,65,66,67]. The species of insect also influences food acceptance. Insects perceived as less disgusting, such as grasshoppers or mealworms, and those presented in more processed, non-visible forms tend to be evaluated more positively than products with visible insect parts [68,69,70].
Kornher et al. [65] identified three consumer segments in Germany in relation to the acceptance of insect-based burgers. The largest segment expressed a willingness to try such burgers without requiring a price discount, indicating that they were prepared to pay a price comparable to that of conventional meat products. Nevertheless, a considerable share of respondents still reported feelings of disgust and demonstrated no purchase intention. Poortvliet et al. [71] highlighted the ambivalence of consumers who perceived insect-based “meat” as healthy yet simultaneously off-putting. Similarly, a study by Balzan et al. [72] conducted among young adults in Italy revealed that, despite increasing awareness of edible insects, actual willingness to consume them in sweet products remained low. However, some studies provide evidence supporting consumers’ readiness to include edible insects in their diets. Woolf et al. [73] found that factors such as gender and awareness of the benefits of insect-based foods influenced Americans’ willingness to consume such products. Overall, U.S. consumers demonstrated curiosity, particularly toward snack-type items marketed as healthy and high in protein [73].
In our study, the type of EI-based food showed a moderate influence on young consumers’ willingness to pay a higher price. In the cumulative logit model with seven standardized composites, positive, though modest, associations were observed for the dairy and sauces category and for sweet snacks, whereas whole or visible formats and processed staples and basics did not improve model fit in the additive specification. These results point to pragmatic entry pathways for introducing insect-based foods into urban diets. Although mean acceptance appeared lowest for migratory locust products, this difference was not statistically significant, so it should be interpreted cautiously. Taken together, the findings suggest that Generation Z students tend to favor simple, familiar, and functional products.
Our results further indicate that awareness of potential benefits of edible insects is increasing among young Polish consumers, likely reflecting a growing recognition that insect farming can be more sustainable than conventional livestock production. Demographically, the most receptive segment comprises young, well-educated, urban residents, among whom approximately 55% reported a willingness to purchase insect-based foods. To bridge the gap between consumer behavior and the development of sustainable urban systems, it is therefore essential to implement educational initiatives targeting this group, as confirmed by the results of the conducted analyses. The findings also made it possible to identify a segment of students, representing young consumers in Poland, who are willing to purchase edible insect–based products at higher prices than conventional foods, provided that their production contributes to reducing environmental degradation. In the coming years, additional research will likely document whether acceptance of EI-based foods increases among Polish consumers. For such growth to occur, the market should introduce EI products that match well-known and widely accepted formats, especially those embedded in the everyday diets of young people in Poland. This orientation supports shorter supply chains, integration with urban circular-economy systems, and reductions in land use and emissions, while meeting Generation Z expectations for functionality, transparent labeling, and trustworthy information.

5. Conclusions

In this study, we examined how the willingness of young consumers, specifically Generation Z students, to pay a higher price for foods containing edible insects relates to socio-demographic characteristics, gender, place of residence, field of study, and self-assessed economic situation, as well as to product attributes and the type of EI-based food.
Interpreting the results against our hypotheses gives a clear, if nuanced, picture. For H1, socio-demographic differences were present but not overwhelming. Women, students living in larger cities, and those reporting a higher economic status were more likely to fall into the higher willingness-to-pay category, while field of study did not matter. Demographics therefore shape readiness to some extent, yet they do not account for most of the variation we observe.
H2 finds strong support. When students perceived better market access and convenience and when health, nutrition, and CO2 claims felt salient and credible, their stated willingness to pay increased. These attribute-based cues, which signal that products are easy to find and use and come with meaningful information, emerged as the most consistent correlates in the model, whereas sensory appeal alone did not show an independent association.
H3 is supported only in part. Acceptance of familiar, processed formats, especially dairy and sauces and sweet snacks, was linked to higher willingness to pay, while whole or visible insect formats and processed staples did not add explanatory value once other factors were considered. Product form therefore matters, but its influence is smaller than that of purchase attributes and appears to be category-specific. The positive, yet modest, effects for dairy and sauces and for sweet snacks align with the broader pattern that processed, non-visible formats are more acceptable than visible ones, reinforcing the case for “hidden entomophagy” as a pragmatic market entry route.
Taken together, the evidence suggests that who the consumer is matters less than how the product is framed and where it fits into everyday routines. Clear market presence, practical usability, and trustworthy claims do more to shift willingness to pay than demographic profiles or the visibility of the insect ingredient.
Polish students’ willingness to pay a higher price for foods that contain edible insects in hidden form, for example, finely milled into flours used as ingredients in familiar products, stems from acceptance of foods with high nutritional and health value that are produced within sustainable food systems. Students at Polish universities express concern for the environment in the context of food production with a reduced carbon footprint. Among young Poles this environmental concern can translate in practice into more sustainable urban development, more efficient land use, and stronger integration between urban and rural areas in Poland.
Our study underscores the importance of understanding the needs of Generation Z, illustrated here by students at Polish universities, and of leveraging product attributes that are attractive to this group in order to implement urban food systems that reduce cities’ dependence on foods imported from rural areas. Our examination of local urban food self-sufficiency reveals the complexity of this process and highlights the urgent need for regionally grounded interventions that harness motivational factors, including environmental benefits and social acceptance.

5.1. Limitations

Several limitations should be considered when interpreting these results. The sample consisted of students, recruited with a non-probability strategy; therefore, generalizability to the wider population is limited. The cross-sectional design, based on self-reports collected through a CAWI survey, does not permit causal inference and may be affected by response biases. Measurement choices, including collapsing five-point items into three categories and building two-indicator composites for some factors, constrain reliability and precision. Although the ordered logit assumptions were checked, minor deviations cannot be fully ruled out. Model discrimination was modest, which indicates that important psychological or cultural determinants were not observed.
The results of this study should not be interpreted as categorical recommendations but rather as indicative findings and supplementary insights that enhance our understanding of the investigated issue. The model analyzed in this research, illustrating the relationships between qualitative variables describing potential young consumers of edible insect-based foods and specific product attributes and food types, indicates the directions for future research that may provide the foundation for developing integrated urban food systems. Future studies should be conducted on a representative sample of young urban consumers in Poland and should also consider the multicultural context of city residents.

5.2. Recommendation for Future Studies

Future research should aim to validate the findings of this exploratory study using larger, representative samples of young urban consumers in Poland and other Central and Eastern European countries. Comparative studies across diverse cultural contexts could clarify whether the observed patterns, particularly the effects of gender, place of residence, and environmental awareness, generalize beyond the Polish setting.
Further research should also integrate psychological and behavioral constructs, such as food neophobia, perceived risk, and moral attitudes toward sustainability, to capture additional explanatory variance in willingness to pay. Applying experimental or longitudinal designs could help determine causal mechanisms underlying the relationship between perceived environmental benefits and consumer acceptance of insect-based foods.
Finally, future studies could employ discrete choice experiments or conjoint analysis to estimate specific price premiums consumers are willing to pay for different product types and labeling schemes. Such evidence would strengthen the practical relevance of consumer research for sustainable food system design and for marketing strategies promoting edible insect-based products in urban markets.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, A.P.; methodology, A.P. and M.R.; validation, A.P. and M.R.; formal analysis, A.P., A.M. and K.M.; investigation, A.P., A.M., M.R., K.M. and S.K.; resources, A.P. and A.M.; data curation, A.P.; writing—original draft preparation, A.P., A.M., and K.M.; writing—review and editing, M.R. and S.K.; visualization, A.P. and K.M.; supervision, S.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was financed by the Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Poland.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the University Ethics Committee for Scientific Research at the Krakow University of Economics (protocol code KEBN/71/0044/D24/2023; date of approval: 9 December 2023).

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study. Participation was voluntary and anonymous, and respondents were informed about the study aims, data handling, and their right to withdraw before commencing the survey.

Data Availability Statement

All relevant data for this study are publicly available from the Github repository.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

  1. Abu Hatab, A.; Cavinato, M.E.R.; Lindemer, A.; Lagerkvist, C.-J. Urban Sprawl, Food Security and Agricultural Systems in Developing Countries: A Systematic Review of the Literature. Cities 2019, 94, 129–142. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. Cao, C.; Wang, J. The Impact of Urban Expansion on Food Production: A Bibliometric Study of Development, Hotspots, and Future Prospects. Front. Sustain. Food Syst. 2025, 9, 1550373. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Goldstein, R.; You, H.Y. Cities as Lobbyists. Am. J. Political Sci. 2017, 61, 864–876. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Kozai, T. Sustainable Plant Factory: Closed Plant Production Systems with Artificial Light for High Resource Use Efficiencies and Quality Produce. Acta Hortic. 2013, 1004, 27–40. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Banerjee, C.; Adenaeuer, L. Up, Up and Away! The Economics of Vertical Farming. J. Agric. Stud. 2014, 2, 40–60. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Orsini, F.; Pennisi, G.; Gianquinto, G.; Martin, M. Defining Impacts of Urban Farming beyond Catchy Headlines. Int. J. Veg. Sci. 2024, 30, 497–502. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Vîrtosu, I.; Li, C. Vertical Farming Perspective and Challenges: A Comparative Review between China and the EU. In Proceedings of the Central and Eastern European eDem and eGov Days, Budapest, Hungary, 12–13 September 2024; Association for Computing Machinery: New York, NY, USA, 2024; pp. 1–12. [Google Scholar]
  8. Karpe, M.; Lachman, J.; Wang, L.; Marcelis, L.F.M.; Heuvelink, E. Potential for Urban Agriculture: Expert Insights on Sustainable Development Goals and Future Challenges. Sustain. Prod. Consum. 2025, 57, 16–34. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. van Delden, S.H.; SharathKumar, M.; Butturini, M.; Graamans, L.J.A.; Heuvelink, E.; Kacira, M.; Kaiser, E.; Klamer, R.S.; Klerkx, L.; Kootstra, G.; et al. Current Status and Future Challenges in Implementing and Upscaling Vertical Farming Systems. Nat. Food 2021, 2, 944–956. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Al-Kodmany, K. The Vertical Farm: A Review of Developments and Implications for the Vertical City. Buildings 2018, 8, 24. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Muller, A.; Ferré, M.; Engel, S.; Gattinger, A.; Holzkämper, A.; Huber, R.; Müller, M.; Six, J. Can Soil-Less Crop Production Be a Sustainable Option for Soil Conservation and Future Agriculture? Land Use Policy 2017, 69, 102–105. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Sanyé-Mengual, E.; Secchi, M.; Corrado, S.; Beylot, A.; Sala, S. Assessing the Decoupling of Economic Growth from Environmental Impacts in the European Union: A Consumption-Based Approach. J. Clean. Prod. 2019, 236, 117535. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Andrade, H.J.; Vega, A.; Martínez-Salinas, A.; Villanueva, C.; Jiménez-Trujillo, J.A.; Betanzos-Simon, J.E.; Pérez, E.; Ibrahim, M.; Sepúlveda, L.C.J. The Carbon Footprint of Livestock Farms under Conventional Management and Silvopastoral Systems in Jalisco, Chiapas, and Campeche (Mexico). Front. Sustain. Food Syst. 2024, 8, 1363994. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Al-Qubati, A.; Zhang, L.; Forkel, M. Urban and Peri-Urban Agriculture under Climate Change: A Review on Carbon Emissions and Sequestration. Sustain. Cities Soc. 2024, 115, 105830. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Sogari, G.; Amato, M.; Biasato, I.; Chiesa, S.; Gasco, L. The Potential Role of Insects as Feed: A Multi-Perspective Review. Animals 2019, 9, 119. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. van Huis, A.; Itterbeeck, J.V.; Klunder, H.; Mertens, E.; Halloran, A.; Muir, G.; Vantomme, P. Edible Insects: Future Prospects for Food and Feed Security; FAO: Rome, Italy, 2013; ISBN 978-92-5-107596-8. [Google Scholar]
  17. Oonincx, D.G.A.B.; de Boer, I.J.M. Environmental Impact of the Production of Mealworms as a Protein Source for Humans-a Life Cycle Assessment. PLoS ONE 2012, 7, e51145. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Regulation (EU) 2015/2283 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 November 2015 on Novel Foods, Amending Regulation (EU) No 1169/2011 of the European Parliament and of the Council and Repealing Regulation (EC) No 258/97 of the European Parliament and of the Council and Commission Regulation (EC) No 1852/2001 (Text with EEA Relevance). 2015. Available online: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2015/2283/oj/eng (accessed on 22 September 2025).
  19. Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2017/2470 of 20 December 2017 Establishing the Union List of Novel Foods in Accordance with Regulation (EU) 2015/2283 of the European Parliament and of the Council on Novel Foods (Text with EEA Relevance). 2023. Available online: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg_impl/2017/2470/oj/eng (accessed on 22 September 2025).
  20. Xie, X.; Cai, K.; Yuan, Z.; Shang, L.; Deng, L. Effect of Mealworm Powder Substitution on the Properties of High-Gluten Wheat Dough and Bread Based on Different Baking Methods. Foods 2022, 11, 4057. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. González, C.M.; Garzón, R.; Rosell, C.M. Insects as Ingredients for Bakery Goods. A Comparison Study of H. illucens, A. domestica and T. molitor flours. Innov. Food Sci. Emerg. Technol. 2019, 51, 205–210. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Kowalski, S.; Mikulec, A.; Mickowska, B.; Skotnicka, M.; Mazurek, A. Wheat Bread Supplementation with Various Edible Insect Flours. Influence of chemical composition on nutritional and technological aspects. LWT 2022, 159, 113220. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Cappelli, A.; Oliva, N.; Bonaccorsi, G.; Lorini, C.; Cini, E. Assessment of the Rheological Properties and Bread Characteristics Obtained by Innovative Protein Sources (Cicer arietinum, Acheta domesticus, Tenebrio molitor): Novel Food or Potential Improvers for Wheat Flour? LWT 2020, 118, 108867. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Roncolini, A.; Milanović, V.; Cardinali, F.; Osimani, A.; Garofalo, C.; Sabbatini, R.; Clementi, F.; Pasquini, M.; Mozzon, M.; Foligni, R.; et al. Protein Fortification with Mealworm (Tenebrio molitor L.) Powder: Effect on Textural, Microbiological, Nutritional and Sensory Features of Bread. PLoS ONE 2019, 14, e0211747. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  25. Kowalski, S.; Mikulec, A.; Skotnicka, M.; Mickowska, B.; Makarewicz, M.; Sabat, R.; Wywrocka-Gurgul, A.; Mazurek, A. Effect of the Addition of Edible Insect Flour from Yellow Mealworm (Tenebrio molitor) on the Sensory Acceptance, and the Physicochemical and Textural Properties of Sponge Cake. Pol. J. Food Nutr. Sci. 2022, 72, 393–405. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Kowalski, S.; Gumul, D.; Oracz, J.; Rosicka-Kaczmarek, J.; Mikulec, A.; Mickowska, B.; Skotnicka, M.; Zborowski, M. Chemical Composition, Antioxidant Properties and Sensory Aspects of Sponge Cakes Supplemented with Edible Insect Flours. Antioxidants 2023, 12, 1912. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Tańska, M.; Browarek, J.; Ruszkowska, M.; Purkiewicz, A. Comparative Study on the Incorporation of Lesser Mealworm (Alphitobius diaperinus) and House Cricket (Acheta domesticus) Powders into Shortbread Cookies: Effects on Physical, Chemical and Sensory Properties. Pol. J. Food Nutr. Sci. 2024, 74, 280–292. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Ivanišová, E.; Rajnoha, M.; Harangozo, Ľ.; Kunecová, D.; Čech, M.; Gabríny, L.; Gálik, B.; Banach, J.K.; Kowalczewski, P.Ł.; Pietrzak-Fiećko, R. Physicochemical, Nutritional, Antioxidant, and Sensory Properties of Crackers Supplemented with Edible Insects. Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 11911. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Kowalski, S.; Oracz, J.; Skotnicka, M.; Mikulec, A.; Gumul, D.; Mickowska, B.; Mazurek, A.; Sabat, R.; Wywrocka-Gurgul, A.; Żyżelewicz, D. Chemical Composition, Nutritional Value, and Acceptance of Nut Bars with the Addition of Edible Insect Powder. Molecules 2022, 27, 8472. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Gumul, D.; Oracz, J.; Kowalski, S.; Mikulec, A.; Skotnicka, M.; Karwowska, K.; Areczuk, A. Bioactive Compounds and Antioxidant Composition of Nut Bars with Addition of Various Edible Insect Flours. Molecules 2023, 28, 3556. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  31. Garcia, S.; Rushforth, R.; Ruddell, B.L.; Mejia, A. Full Domestic Supply Chains of Blue Virtual Water Flows Estimated for Major U.S. Cities. Water Resour. Res. 2020, 56, e2019WR026190. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Ruszkowska, M.; Tańska, M.; Kowalczewski, P.Ł. Extruded Corn Snacks with Cricket Powder: Impact on Physical Parameters and Consumer Acceptance. Sustainability 2022, 14, 16578. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Ruszkowska, M.; Świtalski, M.; Tańska, M.; Rybicka, I.; Miedzianka, J.; Baranowska, H.M.; Kowalczewski, P.Ł. Sustainable Protein Fortification: Impact of Hemp and Cricket Powder on Extruded Snack Quality. Sustainability 2025, 17, 3097. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Andrzejczyk, B.; Łobacz, A.; Ziajka, J.; Lis, A.; Małkowska-Kowalczyk, M. Comprehensive Analysis of Yoghurt Made with the Addition of Yellow Mealworm Powder (Tenebrio molitor). Foods 2024, 13, 2416. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Karwacka, K.; Łobacz, A.; Ziajka, J.; Baranowska, M. Use of House Cricket (Acheta domesticus) Powder in Yoghurt Products. Foods 2024, 13, 2426. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  36. Zielińska, E.; Pečová, M.; Pankiewicz, U. Impact of Mealworm Powder (Tenebrio molitor) Fortification on Ice Cream Quality. Sustainability 2023, 15, 16041. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Caparros Megido, R.; Gierts, C.; Blecker, C.; Brostaux, Y.; Haubruge, É.; Alabi, T.; Francis, F. Consumer Acceptance of Insect-Based Alternative Meat Products in Western Countries. Food Qual. Prefer. 2016, 52, 237–243. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Bogusz, R.; Polak, R.; Nowacka, M. Consumer Attitudes to Food Products Made from Edible Insects. Zesz. Probl. Postępów Nauk Rol. 2020, 603, 17–27. [Google Scholar]
  39. Modlinska, K.; Adamczyk, D.; Maison, D.; Goncikowska, K.; Pisula, W. Relationship between Acceptance of Insects as an Alternative to Meat and Willingness to Consume Insect-Based Food-A Study on a Representative Sample of the Polish Population. Foods 2021, 10, 2420. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Modlinska, K.; Adamczyk, D.; Maison, D.; Pisula, W. Gender Differences in Attitudes to Vegans/Vegetarians and Their Food Preferences, and Their Implications for Promoting Sustainable Dietary Patterns—A Systematic Review. Sustainability 2020, 12, 6292. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. La Barbera, F.; Verneau, F.; Amato, M.; Grunert, K.G.; Schnettler, B. Acceptance of Insect-Based Food in Chile: Evidence from a Survey Using the Entomophagy Attitude Questionnaire (EAQ). Food Qual. Prefer. 2021, 93, 104269. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Al-Otaibi, H.H.; Alabdulmohsen, S.R. From Disgust to Curiosity: Investigating Saudi University Students’ Willingness and Attitudes Toward Edible Insects as an Alternative Protein Source. Insects 2025, 16, 963. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Duman, E.; Keser, A. Entomophagy Attitudes Among Turkish Generation Z University Students: A Scale Validation and Path Analysis Model for Sustainable and Healthy Dietary Choices. Food Sci. Nutr. 2025, 13, e70397. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Platta, A.; Mikulec, A.; Radzymińska, M.; Kowalski, S.; Skotnicka, M. Willingness to Consume and Purchase Food with Edible Insects among Generation Z in Poland. Foods 2024, 13, 2202. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  45. Pachołek, B.; Bartkowiak, P.; Michalak, S.; Stachowiak-Krzyżan, M. Attitudes towards Insect-Based Foods: The Polish Consumer Perspective. Econ. Environ. 2025, 93, 1048. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Mikulec, A.T.; Platta, A.M.; Radzymińska, M.; Ruszkowska, M.; Mikulec, K.; Suwała, G.; Kowalski, S.; Kowalczewski, P.Ł.; Nowicki, M. Attitudes and Purchase Intentions of Polish University Students towards Food Made from Insects—A Modelling Approach. PLoS ONE 2024, 19, e0300871. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Platta, A.; Mikulec, A.; Radzymińska, M.; Mikulec, K.; Kowalski, S. Segmentation of Young Polish Consumers in Relation to Product Attributes and Willingness to Consume Food Containing Edible Insects. Insects 2025, 16, 980. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Skotnicka, M.; Mazurek, A.; Kowalski, S. The Acceptance of Cream Soups with the Addition of Edible Insects (Mealworm, T. molitor; House Cricket, A. domesticus; Buffalo Worm, A. diaperinus; Grasshopper, R. differens) among Young People and Seniors in Poland. Nutrients 2023, 15, 5047. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  49. Winning with Gen Z. Embracing Intention and Values for Brand Success. Available online: https://www.edelman.com/trust/2024/trust-barometer/special-report-brand/gen-z-embracing-intention-values-brand-success (accessed on 17 October 2025).
  50. NielsenIQ/World Data Lab. Spend Z: A Global Report on Generation Z’s Spending Potential. 2025. Available online: https://www.nielseniq.com/global/en/landing-page/spend-z (accessed on 17 October 2025).
  51. State of the Consumer Trends Report 2025|McKinsey. Available online: https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/consumer-packaged-goods/our-insights/state-of-consumer (accessed on 17 October 2025).
  52. Likert, R. A Technique for the Measurement of Attitudes; The Science Press: New York, NY, USA, 1932; 55p. [Google Scholar]
  53. Tolve, R.; Zanoni, M.; Sportiello, L.; Musollini, S.; Tchuenbou-Magaia, F.L.; Favati, F. From Fear to Fork—Exploring Food Neophobia and the Inclination towards Entomophagy in Italy. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2025, 60, vvae047. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  54. Rozin, P.; Fischler, C.; Imada, S.; Sarubin, A.; Wrzesniewski, A. Attitudes to Food and the Role of Food in Life in the U.S.A., Japan, Flemish Belgium and France: Possible Implications for the Diet-Health Debate. Appetite 1999, 33, 163–180. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Verbeke, W. Profiling Consumers Who Are Ready to Adopt Insects as a Meat Substitute in a Western Society. Food Qual. Prefer. 2015, 39, 147–155. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  56. de Boer, J.; Schösler, H.; Boersema, J.J. Motivational Differences in Food Orientation and the Choice of Snacks Made from Lentils, Locusts, Seaweed or “Hybrid” Meat. Food Qual. Prefer. 2013, 28, 32–35. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  57. Tan, H.S.G.; Fischer, A.R.H.; van Trijp, H.C.M.; Stieger, M. Tasty but Nasty? Exploring the Role of Sensory-Liking and Food Appropriateness in the Willingness to Eat Unusual Novel Foods like Insects. Food Qual. Prefer. 2016, 48, 293–302. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  58. Siegrist, M.; Hartmann, C. Consumer Acceptance of Novel Food Technologies. Nat. Food 2020, 1, 343–350. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  59. Hartmann, C.; Siegrist, M. Insects as food: Perception and acceptance Findings from current research. Ernahr. Umsch. 2017, 64, 44–50. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Gere, A.; Székely, G.; Kovács, S.; Kókai, Z.; Sipos, L. Readiness to Adopt Insects in Hungary: A Case Study. Food Qual. Prefer. 2017, 59, 81–86. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  61. Videbæk, P.N.; Grunert, K.G. Disgusting or Delicious? Examining Attitudinal Ambivalence towards Entomophagy among Danish Consumers. Food Qual. Prefer. 2020, 83, 103913. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  62. Tian, H.; Chen, J. Association of Food Neophobia and Food Disgust with the Willingness, Benefits, and Risks of Insect Food Consumption among Chinese University Students. Front. Nutr. 2025, 12, 1613932. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  63. Platta, A.; Mikulec, A.; Radzymińska, M. Lifestyle as Determinant of Edible Insect Food Consumption among Selected Members of Generation Z. Sci. Pap. Silesian Univ. Technol. Organ. Manag. 2024, 2024, 409–425. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  64. Orkusz, A.; Wolańska, W.; Harasym, J.; Piwowar, A.; Kapelko, M. Consumers’ Attitudes Facing Entomophagy: Polish Case Perspectives. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 2427. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  65. Kornher, L.; Schellhorn, M.; Vetter, S. Disgusting or Innovative-Consumer Willingness to Pay for Insect Based Burger Patties in Germany. Sustainability 2019, 11, 1878. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  66. Menozzi, D.; Sogari, G.; Veneziani, M.; Simoni, E.; Mora, C. Eating Novel Foods: An Application of the Theory of Planned Behaviour to Predict the Consumption of an Insect-Based Product. Food Qual. Prefer. 2017, 59, 27–34. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  67. Ardoin, R.; Prinyawiwatkul, W. Product Appropriateness, Willingness to Try and Perceived Risks of Foods Containing Insect Protein Powder: A Survey of U.S. Consumers. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2020, 55, 3215–3226. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  68. Schäufele, I.; Barrera Albores, E.; Hamm, U. The Role of Species for the Acceptance of Edible Insects: Evidence from a Consumer Survey. Br. Food J. 2019, 121, 2190–2204. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  69. Tuccillo, F.; Marino, M.G.; Torri, L. Italian Consumers’ Attitudes towards Entomophagy: Influence of Human Factors and Properties of Insects and Insect-Based Food. Food Res. Int. 2020, 137, 109619. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  70. Harms, E.; Pirolet, N. Consumer Acceptance of Insect-Based Burgers. Appetite 2018, 130, 306. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  71. Poortvliet, P.M.; Van der Pas, L.; Mulder, B.C.; Fogliano, V. Healthy, but Disgusting: An Investigation into Consumers’ Willingness to Try Insect Meat. J. Econ. Entomol. 2019, 112, 1005–1010. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  72. Balzan, S.; Fasolato, L.; Maniero, S.; Novelli, E. Edible Insects and Young Adults in a North-East Italian City an Exploratory Study. Br. Food J. 2016, 118, 318–326. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  73. Woolf, E.; Zhu, Y.; Emory, K.; Zhao, J.; Liu, C. Willingness to Consume Insect-Containing Foods: A Survey in the United States. LWT 2019, 102, 100–105. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Table 1. Sample characteristics after category consolidation by gender.
Table 1. Sample characteristics after category consolidation by gender.
VariableMenWomen
N%N%
Gender37940.0056860.00
Field of study
Engineering and technical sciences21657.0017330.46
Social and humanities sciences13234.8328049.30
Natural sciences318.1711520.24
Place of residence
Rural area13736.1521237.33
Town (up to 50,000 inhabitants)6617.4110117.78
Town (50,000–150,000 inhabitants)5614.7810117.78
City (>150,000 inhabitants)12031.6615427.11
Self-reported economic status
Lower economic status8823.2215427.11
Good economic status20253.3030052.82
Higher economic status8923.4811420.07
Table 2. Socio-demographic predictors of willingness to pay and consume EI foods.
Table 2. Socio-demographic predictors of willingness to pay and consume EI foods.
PredictorCoef.SEzp95% CIOR
Female (vs. male)0.3880.1302.9760.003(0.133–0.645)1.474
Social and humanities sciences (vs. engineering and technical sciences)−0.2160.139−1.5560.120(−0.489–0.056)0.806
Natural sciences (vs. engineering and technical sciences)−0.0160.188−0.0850.932(−0.386–0.352)0.984
Town up to 150,000 inhabitants (vs. rural area)0.2460.1471.6720.095(−0.042–0.535)1.279
City > 150,000 inhabitants (vs. rural area)0.3890.1542.5250.012(0.087–0.691)1.475
Good economic status (vs. lower)0.1290.1450.8910.373(−0.154–0.414)1.138
High economic status (vs. lower)0.2750.1771.5490.121(−0.072–0.622)1.316
Table 3. Factor loadings of food products containing edible insects.
Table 3. Factor loadings of food products containing edible insects.
ProductF1 *F2F3F4
Burgers and processed meat products 0.862
Ready-to-eat meals (soups, pasta, pancakes, sauces) 0.850
Bakery products (bread, rolls, pizza, etc.) 0.757
Confectionery (cakes, cookies, chocolate-coated insects, desserts) 0.989
Snacks (bars, crisps) 0.512
Post-workout beverages and high-protein supplements 0.511
Dairy-based products (e.g., cottage cheese, yogurts) 0.979
Sauces and mayonnaise 0.431
Cricket (frozen, dried, or powdered form)0.894
Mealworm larvae (frozen, dried, or powdered form)0.928
Migratory locust (frozen, dried, or powdered form)0.980
F1 *—Whole/Visible Insects, F2—Processed Staples and Basics, F3—Sweet Snacks and Confectionery, F4—Dairy and Sauces.
Table 4. Factor loadings for attributes of foods containing edible insects.
Table 4. Factor loadings for attributes of foods containing edible insects.
Product AttributeF1 *F2F3
Appealing taste0.917
Pleasant aroma0.906
Attractive appearance0.808
High nutritional value 0.401
Product variety and market availability 0.600
Popularity (trendiness) 0.614
Affordable price 0.442
Package size and attractiveness 0.712
Ease of use 0.608
Health claims 0.946
Nutrition claims 0.917
Reduction in CO2 emissions 0.472
Recipe availability on blogs and websites 0.791
F1 *—Sensory Appeal, F2—Market Access and Convenience, F3—Claims (Health/Nutrition/CO2).
Table 5. Effects of Product and Attribute Composites on Willingness to Pay.
Table 5. Effects of Product and Attribute Composites on Willingness to Pay.
CompositeEstimateSEOR95% CIzp
Whole/Visible Insects0.0760.0791.08(0.92–1.26)0.9620.336
Processed Staples and Basics0.1100.1201.12(0.88–1.41)0.9110.362
Sweet Snacks and Confectionery0.2160.1031.24(1.01–1.52)2.0980.036 *
Dairy and Sauces0.2270.1031.26(1.03–1.54)2.2100.027 *
Sensory Appeal−0.0920.1090.91(0.74–1.13)−0.8470.397
Market Access and Convenience0.5120.1251.67(1.31–2.13)4.098<0.001 ***
Claims (Health/Nutrition/CO2)0.4300.1031.54(1.26–1.88)4.191<0.001 ***
OR reflect the change in odds per +1 SD in each composite. * p < 0.05; *** p < 0.001.
Table 6. Cut-point estimates for the cumulative logit model of willingness to pay.
Table 6. Cut-point estimates for the cumulative logit model of willingness to pay.
Threshold (Category Split)EstimateSEzOR95% CIp
Low|Moderate−0.2950.076−3.8930.744(0.641–0.864)<0.001
Moderate|High1.4240.08816.1044.152(3.492–4.938)<0.001
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Platta, A.; Mikulec, A.; Radzymińska, M.; Mikulec, K.; Kowalski, S. The Impact of Consumer Characteristics, Product Attributes, and Food Type on Polish University Students’ Willingness to Pay More for Sustainable Insect-Based Foods. Sustainability 2025, 17, 9463. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17219463

AMA Style

Platta A, Mikulec A, Radzymińska M, Mikulec K, Kowalski S. The Impact of Consumer Characteristics, Product Attributes, and Food Type on Polish University Students’ Willingness to Pay More for Sustainable Insect-Based Foods. Sustainability. 2025; 17(21):9463. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17219463

Chicago/Turabian Style

Platta, Anna, Anna Mikulec, Monika Radzymińska, Karolina Mikulec, and Stanisław Kowalski. 2025. "The Impact of Consumer Characteristics, Product Attributes, and Food Type on Polish University Students’ Willingness to Pay More for Sustainable Insect-Based Foods" Sustainability 17, no. 21: 9463. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17219463

APA Style

Platta, A., Mikulec, A., Radzymińska, M., Mikulec, K., & Kowalski, S. (2025). The Impact of Consumer Characteristics, Product Attributes, and Food Type on Polish University Students’ Willingness to Pay More for Sustainable Insect-Based Foods. Sustainability, 17(21), 9463. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17219463

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop