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Volume 17
Issue 20
10.3390/su17209258
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Article

Groundwater–Surface Water Interactions and Pollution Assessment Using Hydrochemistry and Environmental Isotopes δ18O, δ2H, and 3H in Puebla Metropolitan Area, Mexico

by
Ronald Ernesto Ontiveros-Capurata
1,
Manuel Martínez Morales
2,
Maria Vicenta Esteller Alberich
3,
Juan Manuel Esquivel Martínez
4,
Gutiérrez-Macias Tania
1,
Edith Rosalba Salcedo Sanchez
1,* and
Ariadna Ocampo Astudillo
2
1
SECIHTI-Instituto Mexicano de Tecnología del Agua, Paseo Cuauhnáhuac 8532, Progreso, Jiutepec 62550, Morelos, México
2
Instituto Mexicano de Tecnología del Agua, Paseo Cuauhnáhuac 8532, Progreso, Jiutepec 62550, Morelos, Mexico
3
Instituto Interamericano de Tecnología y Ciencias del Agua (IITCA), Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México, Carretera Toluca-Atlacomulco km 14.5, Toluca 50120, Estado de México, Mexico
4
SECIHTI-Instituto Interamericano de Tecnología y Ciencias del Agua (IITCA), Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México, Carretera Toluca-Atlacomulco km 14.5, Toluca 50120, Estado de México, Mexico
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2025, 17(20), 9258; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17209258 (registering DOI)
Submission received: 12 August 2025 / Revised: 14 October 2025 / Accepted: 14 October 2025 / Published: 18 October 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Pollution Prevention, Mitigation and Sustainability)
Versions Notes

Abstract

The Puebla Metropolitan Area, one of the most industrialized regions in Mexico, shows severe contamination of both surface and groundwater. In this study a multi-tracer approach combining hydrochemistry with environmental isotopes (δ2H, δ18O, 3H) was applied to evaluate groundwater–surface water (GW–SW) interactions and their role in water quality degradation. Elevated concentrations of aluminum, iron, zinc, and lead were detected in the Alseseca and Atoyac Rivers, exceeding national standards, while arsenic, manganese, and lead in groundwater surpassed Mexican and WHO drinking water limits. The main sources of contamination include volcanic inputs from Popocatepetl activity (e.g., arsenic) and untreated discharges from industrial parks (e.g., lead), which together introduce significant loads of Potentially Toxic Elements (PTEs) into surface and groundwater. Isotopic analysis identified three sources for aquifer recharge: (1) recharge from high-altitude meteoric water, (2) mixed GW–SW water recharged at intermediate elevations with heavy metal presence, and (3) recharge from lower altitudes (evaporate water). Tritium confirmed both modern and old recharge, while isotope-based mixing models indicated surface water contributions to groundwater ranging from 18% to 72%. These interpretations were derived from the integrated analysis of hydrochemical and isotopic data, allowing the quantification of recharge sources, residence times, and mixing processes. The results demonstrate that hydraulic connectivity, enhanced by fractures and faults, facilitates contaminant transfer from polluted rivers into the aquifer.
Keywords: aquifer; polluted river; potential toxic elements; recharge sources; water mixing aquifer; polluted river; potential toxic elements; recharge sources; water mixing

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MDPI and ACS Style

Ontiveros-Capurata, R.E.; Martínez Morales, M.; Alberich, M.V.E.; Esquivel Martínez, J.M.; Tania, G.-M.; Salcedo Sanchez, E.R.; Ocampo Astudillo, A. Groundwater–Surface Water Interactions and Pollution Assessment Using Hydrochemistry and Environmental Isotopes δ18O, δ2H, and 3H in Puebla Metropolitan Area, Mexico. Sustainability 2025, 17, 9258. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17209258

AMA Style

Ontiveros-Capurata RE, Martínez Morales M, Alberich MVE, Esquivel Martínez JM, Tania G-M, Salcedo Sanchez ER, Ocampo Astudillo A. Groundwater–Surface Water Interactions and Pollution Assessment Using Hydrochemistry and Environmental Isotopes δ18O, δ2H, and 3H in Puebla Metropolitan Area, Mexico. Sustainability. 2025; 17(20):9258. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17209258

Chicago/Turabian Style

Ontiveros-Capurata, Ronald Ernesto, Manuel Martínez Morales, Maria Vicenta Esteller Alberich, Juan Manuel Esquivel Martínez, Gutiérrez-Macias Tania, Edith Rosalba Salcedo Sanchez, and Ariadna Ocampo Astudillo. 2025. "Groundwater–Surface Water Interactions and Pollution Assessment Using Hydrochemistry and Environmental Isotopes δ18O, δ2H, and 3H in Puebla Metropolitan Area, Mexico" Sustainability 17, no. 20: 9258. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17209258

APA Style

Ontiveros-Capurata, R. E., Martínez Morales, M., Alberich, M. V. E., Esquivel Martínez, J. M., Tania, G.-M., Salcedo Sanchez, E. R., & Ocampo Astudillo, A. (2025). Groundwater–Surface Water Interactions and Pollution Assessment Using Hydrochemistry and Environmental Isotopes δ18O, δ2H, and 3H in Puebla Metropolitan Area, Mexico. Sustainability, 17(20), 9258. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17209258

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