Harnessing Renewable Waste as a Pathway and Opportunities Toward Sustainability in Saudi Arabia and the Gulf Region

Abstract

This review examines the vast opportunities and key challenges in renewable waste management across the Gulf region, with a particular emphasis on Saudi Arabia. As global demand for sustainable energy intensifies, driven by technological advancements and environmental concerns, the Gulf Cooperation Council nations, notably Saudi Arabia, are beginning to acknowledge the urgency of transitioning from fossil fuel reliance to renewable waste management. This review identifies the abundant renewable resources in the region and highlights progress in policy development while emphasizing the need for comprehensive frameworks and financial incentives to drive further investment and innovation. Waste-to-energy (WTE) technologies offer a promising avenue for reducing environmental degradation and bolstering energy security. With Saudi Arabia targeting the development of 3 Gigawatts of WTE capacity by 2030 as part of national sustainability initiatives, barriers such as regulatory complexities, financial constraints, and public misconceptions persist. Ultimately, this review concludes that advancing renewable waste management in the Gulf, particularly through stronger policies, stakeholders’ collaboration, investment in WTE and an enhancement in public awareness and education, is critical for achieving sustainability goals. By harnessing these opportunities, the region can take decisive steps toward achieving sustainability, positioning Saudi Arabia as a leader in the global fight against climate change and resource depletion.

1. Introduction

The rise in the demand for heat and electricity worldwide is influenced by the advancement of technology and civilization. The growth of different sectors due to human activity is linked to significant environmental effects [1]. The Earth faces severe issues such as climate change, air pollution, and extreme challenges because of the extensive use of subsurface carbon resources [2]. When it comes to delivering clean, sustainable energy and reducing climate change, renewable energy sources (RESs) are crucial [3]. The advancement of renewable energy is crucial for maintaining environmental integrity and energy security [4]. Certain renewable resources are found all throughout the world, such as wind, solar radiation, tidal waves, and biomass-derived heat. Certain forms, like solar, are essentially endless. More than 10,000 times the world’s annual energy demands are provided by the solar radiation that reaches the surface of the planet in a single year. Furthermore, all of the world’s present energy needs might be satisfied by capturing just 25% of the solar radiation that hits paved regions [3].

The Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), which is made up of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates (UAE), is estimated to contain 40% of global oil reserves and 21.7% of global gas reserves [5]. The Gulf Cooperation countries primarily exploit these subterranean carbon resources in order to produce natural gas and extract crude oil [2]. However, these countries have high rates of electricity use, which results in high levels of CO₂ emissions [6]. To face the challenges of a post-oil future, the GCC countries aim to expand the use of renewable energy sources in an effort to diversify their economy and decrease their heavy reliance on oil [5]. Many RESs face a number of obstacles, including those related to policy, government support, public awareness, cost, and integration with the local grid and existing system [6]. The GCC region’s high electricity usage and cheap electricity prices indicate that there are not enough rules in place to encourage the use of renewable energy sources [7].

One of the possible alternatives for converting garbage into energy has emerged as a result of the fast urban population expansion that raises waste generation and electricity consumption [8]. Municipal solid waste management (MSWM) is one of the most important environmental and health issues that Arabian Gulf authorities are dealing with. It is important to properly dispose of MSW in order to safeguard human health, the environment, and natural resources [9].

The rapid increase in waste generation poses significant challenges for the Gulf region. The region generates an enormous volume of waste annually, but recycling rates remain alarmingly low, falling well below global standards [10].

Traditionally, neither the public nor the authorities in the region have been fully convinced of the urgency of waste management. However, this perspective has recently shifted, with international organizations like the United Nations and various NGOs highlighting waste not just as a problem, but as a valuable resource. Despite this increased recognition, several key issues hinder progress: a lack of reliable data, limited economic incentives for waste management projects, and the fragmented, early-stage nature of individual initiatives [11].

The GCC’s shift from fossil fuels to renewable waste management is hindered by multiple challenges, primarily the deep entrenchment of fossil fuels. As fossil fuels account for roughly 99% of the region’s energy consumption, low tariffs and existing subsidies create a lack of incentive to adopt renewable technologies [12]. Additionally, the transition is complicated by high upfront costs associated with renewable energy projects and significant technical limitations, including reliance on imported technologies and insufficient local expertise [13]. The regulatory environment is often fragmented, creating barriers for investors and hindering effective policy implementation [14]. Furthermore, there is a pressing need for substantial infrastructure development to support renewable energy integration, including the establishment of smart grids and waste management facilities [15]. Addressing these multifaceted challenges requires cohesive policy frameworks, strategic investments, and enhanced collaboration among GCC nations to facilitate a successful transition toward sustainable energy practices.

GCC countries are making significant strides in transitioning from fossil fuels to renewable energy resources, driven by the urgent need to address climate change and economic diversification. For instance, Saudi Arabia aims for 50% of its electricity to come from renewable sources by 2030, while the UAE targets 44% by 2050 [12]. These ambitious goals are supported by substantial investments; Saudi Arabia plans to invest over $186 billion into green initiatives, and the UAE has committed $163 billion for renewable energy projects [15]. Several large-scale projects exemplify these efforts. The Barakah nuclear power plant in the UAE is a key component of its energy strategy, while Saudi Arabia’s NEOM Green Hydrogen Project aims to produce 600 tons of green hydrogen daily by 2026 [16]. However, the urgency of this transition is underscored by the challenges that remain. The GCC faces hurdles such as high upfront costs for renewable infrastructure, fragmented regulatory environments, and a continued reliance on fossil fuel revenues [17]. As global markets increasingly demand cleaner energy solutions, GCC nations must overcome these barriers to secure their economic futures and contribute effectively to global climate goals.

The Gulf countries, and particularly Saudi Arabia, aim to adopt renewable energy in general because they currently depend almost entirely on oil and natural gas both locally and economically, and this greatly affects the economy because there are no alternative factors for these matters, and this leads to harm in the Gulf region because it is not industrial. It is characterized by a low population density, but based on studies and indicators, these matters differ because it aspires to achieve the sustainable development goals in 2030 [18]. There are also climate problems, which is air pollution, because the emission of air pollutants from fossil fuels is the main cause of air pollution and leads to water pollution. The main objective of managing renewable waste in the Gulf region is to shift towards sustainable waste strategies aimed at lessening environmental harm, decreasing dependence on fossil fuels, and aligning with the region’s overarching goals for renewable energy and sustainability [19]. A recent study [20] presents a renewable hydrogen system for southeastern Australia. This system effectively recovers waste heat from electrolyzers and fuel cells. The recovered heat is used to power a desalination system, addressing the high water demands of electrolysis. This integrated approach makes the hydrogen production process more self-sufficient. Ultimately, the system significantly enhances overall sustainability and viability. Another study [21] explores the underexplored integration of thermoelectric generators and desalination technologies. It identifies a research gap in the limited use of low-grade thermal energy for simultaneous power and freshwater production. The review paper examines various hybrid systems, highlighting their potential for sustainable energy and water. It also explores emerging material innovations to enhance system performance. The study ultimately emphasizes the importance of optimizing system configurations for maximum efficiency. The Gulf region faces a multi-faceted challenge in its pursuit of sustainable waste management, with several key goals in focus. First, it’s essential to determine the opportunities that renewable waste management could bring to the region, including potential social, environmental, and economic benefits such as job creation, material recovery, energy production, and the promotion of circular economy principles. Next, it’s crucial to identify the challenges that currently hinder the adoption of these practices, which may include regulatory limitations, technological constraints, infrastructure shortcomings, and cultural or behavioral barriers. Based on these insights, actionable suggestions must be developed to overcome these obstacles and advance sustainable waste management. These strategies should encompass public awareness campaigns, technological innovations, capacity building, policy reforms, and investment opportunities. Supporting sustainable development in the Gulf region hinges on the successful transition to renewable waste management, which promises significant benefits for the environment, economy, and society. The region’s abundant organic waste resources and its vast potential for solar energy production encompassing both (CSP) and (PV) systems underscore the opportunities available to harness these assets for a more sustainable future [22].

A significant research gap exists in understanding the specific and complex barriers to WTE implementation within this unique regional context. While previous studies have highlighted general challenges related to renewable energy adoption in the GCC, there is a distinct lack of comprehensive analysis on the specific technical, economic, and policy frameworks required for large-scale and successful WTE projects. Existing literature often focuses on the broader renewable energy landscape, failing to provide a granular examination of the unique challenges posed by waste composition, lack of dedicated policy incentives, and insufficient infrastructure specific to WTE.

This research gap gives rise to a critical research problem: Despite the clear opportunity for WTE technologies to address the GCC’s energy and waste crises simultaneously, their widespread adoption is severely hindered by a confluence of unaddressed technical, policy, and financial barriers. This paper seeks to bridge this knowledge gap by providing a targeted analysis of the specific obstacles and opportunities for advancing WTE in the GCC, with a focus on Saudi Arabia’s ambitious 2030 sustainability goals. By identifying the key impediments and proposing actionable solutions, this study aims to provide a clear roadmap for policymakers and stakeholders to accelerate the transition toward a circular, waste-powered economy.

The research objective of this manuscript is to explore the opportunities and challenges associated with renewable waste management in the Gulf region, with a specific focus on Saudi Arabia, within the context of increasing global demand for sustainable energy and the region’s nascent transition away from fossil fuels.

The scope of the presented review encompasses

• an examination of the abundant renewable waste resources available in the GCC,
• an overview of existing policy developments, and an identification of the regulatory, financial, and social barriers hindering the widespread adoption of waste-to-energy technologies,
• ultimately emphasizing the necessity of collaborative stakeholder efforts and enhanced public engagement to advance sustainable waste management and position Saudi Arabia as a leader in environmental sustainability.

2. Review Method

This section outlines the systematic approach used to collect, analyze, and synthesize information from the existing literature to address the research questions of this review. The methodology is designed to be transparent and reproducible, ensuring the reliability of the findings.

2.1. Search Strategy

A comprehensive search was conducted across multiple reputable academic databases, including Scopus, Web of Science, and ScienceDirect. The search strategy employed a combination of key terms related to the research topic. Boolean operators (e.g., “AND,” “OR”) were used to refine the search strings, ensuring a broad but focused collection of relevant articles. The search was limited to peer-reviewed journal articles and conference papers published within a specified timeframe to ensure the currency of the information.

2.2. Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

To maintain the relevance and rigor of this review, a specific set of criteria was applied to screen the search results. Inclusion criteria mandated that a study must be a peer-reviewed article, published in English, and directly relevant to the core research question. Conversely, exclusion criteria were used to filter out sources such as gray literature (e.g., unpublished reports), articles from non-academic sources, and studies that did not address the research topic’s specific scope. This two-step process ensured that only high-quality and directly relevant studies were considered for the final review.

2.3. Data Extraction

Following the selection of relevant studies, a structured data extraction process was implemented. A standardized form was developed to systematically pull key information from each article. This included details such as the study’s primary objective, research methodology, key findings, and any quantitative data or statistics presented. This structured approach ensured consistency and accuracy in the collection of information across all included studies.

2.4. Data Synthesis and Analysis

The extracted data was then synthesized to identify patterns, themes, and contradictions across the body of literature. A thematic analysis approach was used to group similar findings and draw connections between different studies. This process enabled the identification of overarching trends, knowledge gaps, and areas for future research. The synthesis was qualitative in nature, providing a narrative summary of the state of the art based on the extracted data.

2.5. Quality Assessment

To ensure the reliability of the synthesized results, each included study underwent a quality assessment. A checklist was used to evaluate the methodological rigor and potential for bias in each paper. Studies with significant methodological flaws or potential for bias were noted, and their findings were interpreted with caution. This critical appraisal process is essential for ensuring that this review’s conclusions are based on robust and trustworthy evidence.

3. Current State of Waste Management in the Gulf Region

3.1. Waste Generation

The high consumption of energy and goods, coupled with rapid population growth and rising living standards, has led to a significant increase in municipal solid waste (MSW), which poses serious environmental risks if not properly managed through disposal or recycling. MSW is a diverse collection of solid waste discarded daily by both urban and rural populations in the form of garbage, trash, and refuse. Although MSW can be categorized in various ways, a hierarchical source classification is commonly recommended. This classification divides MSW into three main sources: urban, industrial, and rural. From these three categories, seven specific waste classes have been identified, as illustrated in Figure 1 [23]. The urban source primarily consists of waste generated in residential areas, which does not directly correlate with population density or settlement size [22]. This category is further broken down into residential and non-residential sources, whereas the rural division includes waste from agricultural activities and livestock management. Industrial sources encompass waste generated by all types of facilities, regardless of size. As mentioned earlier, MSW is generally defined as solid refuse or debris produced within the boundaries of a district or municipality, regardless of the specific location where it originates. Within the urban category, waste is subdivided into residential (habitable) and non-residential (commercial or business districts, institutional buildings, construction and demolition sites, and special sources) [23]. The “special” classification includes waste generated by specific sectors based on the raw materials used in their production, services provided, or goods traded, and these sectors may produce hazardous waste that threatens human health and the environment. The industrial category includes waste generated by all types of industrial facilities, irrespective of their size and location. Finally, the rural category encompasses waste from agricultural and livestock-related activities.

As recently as 300 g/per/day, the GCC’s per capita garbage generation rate was discovered [24]. Yet, the region’s countries have seen a rapid expansion of their industrial, cultural, and building sectors since the discovery of oil in the early 1930s. Additionally, there was a surge of immigration to the area, which put a quick strain on the infrastructure that was already in place. As a result, the amount of solid trash generated in cities is constantly increasing. A staggering amount of waste is created annually in the GCC states; very little of this rubbish is recycled or even handled. The majority of this waste, contributing over half of the total (55–60%), comes from Saudi Arabia. The UAE accounts for a significant portion (20%), with the remaining amount distributed among Kuwait, Qatar, Oman, and Bahrain [24,25]. In Saudi Arabia alone, over 110 million tons of waste are generated each year, including the three types of waste. Municipal solid waste generation in Saudi Arabia is approximately 15.3 million tons annually, with significant contributions from Riyadh 21%, Jeddah 14%, and Dammam 8% [26]. In terms of industrial waste, the manufacturing and construction sectors produce around 974,000 tons as of 2023, with projections reaching 1.35 million tons by 2030 [27].

Figure 1. Classification of municipal solid waste [27].

Figure 1. Classification of municipal solid waste [27].

As regards agricultural waste, Saudi Arbia produces over 1.7 million tons of crop residues yearly [27]. The impact of unmanaged waste is substantial; in 2021, environmental degradation primarily from solid waste was estimated to cost Saudi Arabia USD 1.3 billion, according to the National Center for Waste management and recycling [28]. Despite these large amounts, a significant portion of this waste is neither recycled nor properly treated, highlighting the urgent need for more sustainable waste management across the region.

3.2. Existing Waste Management Practices

Over the past century, industrialization, urbanization, and population growth have significantly altered waste generation. Previously, organic waste became dominated by non-biodegradable materials like plastic and metals following the industrial revolution [29]. In GCC, rapid economic growth and urban expansion following the discovery of oil led to higher living standards and population surges, driving a sharp increase in municipal solid waste [30]. Urbanization and consumerism have concentrated waste in dense areas, overwhelming traditional management systems and increasing per capita waste.

Against this backdrop of escalating waste generation, managing solid waste has become a significant and ongoing concern for officials in each of the GCC countries. The nations of GCC, among the wealthiest in the world, have extremely high living standards and rapidly expanding economics factors that directly contributed to some of the highest per capita waste generation rates globally [30]. In these nations, landfill disposal without any prior treatment or resource of recovery is the primary method of disposing of solid waste. The majority of landfills are simply dumps with very few, if any, environmental protection features like leachate collection systems or gas capture systems [31]. This reliance on unsustainable disposal practices has compounded environmental risk and highlighted the urgent need for modernization.

Recognizing these challenges, Middle Eastern countries have investing extensively in waste management projects, sourcing new advanced waste treatment technologies and boosting public awareness in order to mitigate the issue. However, the amount of waste being generated is not keeping pace with the area’s rapid growth. Policymakers, urban planners, and other stakeholders across the region are confronted with a significant issue as regards the management of the mountains of waste that are piling up in the region’s cities [32]. To address these pressures, many countries in the Middle East have implemented comprehensive recycling programs, encouraging citizens to segregate waste at source. Recycling initiatives not only reduce landfill pressure but also conserve resources and promote a circular economy [33]. Advanced waste-to-energy (WTE) technologies have been increasingly adopted in several countries, enabling the conversion of MSW into energy; this not only minimizes the reliance on landfilling but also contributes to the diversification of renewable energy sources [34].

3.3. Policy and Regulatory Framework

The GCC countries have increasingly recognized the critical need to address their growing waste management challenges. In response, they have developed and implemented a variety of policies, regulations, and incentives designed to promote sustainable waste management practices across the region. Many GCC countries have laid out comprehensive national waste management strategies aimed at tackling waste issues more effectively. These strategies generally focus on several key objectives, including waste reduction, recycling and reuse, diversion of waste from landfills, and the promotion of environmentally sound waste management practices. These frameworks highlight the importance of reducing overall waste generation while encouraging the population and businesses to recycle and repurpose materials, creating a more sustainable and circular economy [35].

To show the diversity of approaches across the GCC, Saudi Arabia, through the National Center for Environmental Compliance (NCEC) and the National Center for Waste Management (NCWM), promotes recycling and WTE technologies [36]; the UAE applies a federal waste management law and Dubai’s strategy targets 75% landfill diversion with advanced technologies and public campaigns [37]; Qatar emphasizes recycling facilities and strict waste regulations [38]; Kuwait focuses on recycling, hazardous waste safety and public awareness [39]; and Oman regulates waste collection and promotes sustainable practices through its waste management law [40].

Along these national strategies, GCC countries have also established a robust regulatory framework that governs all aspects of waste management. This includes the collection, transportation, treatment, and eventual disposal of waste, with regulations ensuring that these processes are carried out in ways that minimize environmental harm and protect public health. These laws also set strict environmental standards, regulate pollution control measures, and establish safe handling practices for different types of waste. By adhering to these regulations, countries are working towards a cleaner environment while addressing the mounting waste crisis [41].

In addition to regulatory measures, several GCC countries have set targets to increase waste diversion and recycling rates, aiming to reduce the reliance on landfilling and promote resource recovery. These incentives, such as subsidies or tax breaks, aim to encourage investment in advanced recycling infrastructure, technologies and promote private sector participation in sustainable waste management efforts [42]. Public awareness and education programs also play a pivotal role in promoting sustainable waste management across the GCC. Governments in the GCC region have launched public awareness and education campaigns to promote waste reduction, segregation, and recycling among the population. These initiatives aim to instill a culture of environmental responsibility and encourage individuals and businesses to adopt sustainable waste management practices [43]. The commitment of GCC countries to improving waste management is also reflected in their participation in various international agreements and partnerships related to environmental protection and waste management. These agreements facilitate cooperation, knowledge sharing, and capacity building in waste management practices and technologies [44]. Despite these efforts, the regulatory frameworks and incentive structures across the GCC countries are still evolving and, in some cases, lack comprehensiveness and uniformity. In contrast, countries like the United States have established clear and effective regulations and incentives to promote sustainable waste management. In the USA, advertising and promotional campaigns are used. A few different strategies are used, including a different tax plan for each home in an effort to preserve the environment and the ability to regenerate energy. On the other hand, companies that burn or dispose of waste must pay high fines, and this money is spent in conducting awareness sessions to reduce this matter.

In the KSA, there are three main ministries responsible for the waste management and recycling sector and the possibility of converting it into renewable energy. Among these organizations is the NCEC, which regulates the private environmental sector in the field of waste and recycling. NCEC, recognized as the largest waste sector management entity in Saudi Arabia and the Gulf region, focuses primarily on two objectives: maximizing waste recycling and converting the residual waste into renewable energy for industrial applications. Another critical organization in Saudi Arabia’s waste management ecosystem is the NCWM. The NCWM specifically regulates and supervises waste management and the circular economy to achieve sustainable development goals. These organizations collectively work towards enhancing waste management practices in Saudi Arabia by promoting recycling initiatives, advancing waste-to-energy technologies, and ensuring compliance with environmental standards. Their coordinated efforts aim to reduce environmental degradation, conserve natural resources, and contribute to the country’s sustainable development objectives.

4. Challenges in Waste Management

Over the past few decades, a significant portion of the global population has seen significant gains in their level of well-being due to fast economic development and urbanization. However, this progress has led to a rise in materially intensive resource consumption, resulting in the discharge of huge amounts of waste into the environment [45,46]. The American National Academy of Sciences reports that 94% of materials extracted from the ground end up in the waste stream within a few months [47,48]. Due to the substantial contribution of garbage-related emissions to environmental problems such as climate change, waste concerns are now considered to be global rather than local [49,50].

Beyond infrastructure and financial constraints, a major set of challenges stems from deep-seated socio-cultural factors that influence waste generation and disposal behaviors in the Gulf region. The exceptionally high waste per capita is closely linked to high levels of consumerism and disposable income, which promote a throwaway culture [51,52]. Unlike in cultures where reusing or repairing items is common, there is a strong cultural preference for convenience and newness, which directly contributes to the vast amounts of waste generated [53]. The region’s low recycling rates are not just an infrastructure problem, they are also a behavioral one. There is a general lack of public awareness and environmental consciousness regarding waste separation and the broader impact of improper disposal [54]. Many individuals may not be aware of what can be recycled or the ecological consequences of landfill use. This is exacerbated by the diverse and often transient expatriate population, whose varied cultural backgrounds and lack of long-term investment in the local environment can make it difficult to implement consistent waste management practices. Overcoming these challenges requires more than just building new facilities. It necessitates transforming public mindset through targeted behavioral change programs and incentives. Comprehensive public education campaigns and the integration of waste management topics into school curricula are crucial to fostering sustainable habits from a young age [55]. Additionally, addressing misconceptions and misinformation through community engagement can help build public trust and support for new initiatives.

Furthermore, the absence of suitable infrastructure for waste collection and disposal leads to problems such as illegal dumping and littering, which can exacerbate environmental issues and increase disease risks. Funding shortages for waste management programs are another major challenge, particularly in developing areas where financial resources are limited. Diversifying funding sources through mechanisms like public private partnerships (PPPs) and international grants, rather than relying solely on government budgets, could enhance the financial sustainability [56]. Opposition to waste management initiatives can stem from various sources, including misinformation, misconceptions, or socio-economic barriers. Behavioral change programs and incentives for sustainable consumer choices could help address cultural and behavioral challenges. In rural areas, the lack of composting and recycling options results in more waste being sent to landfills. Climate change also impacts waste management, as changing weather patterns and rising temperatures can complicate waste transportation and disposal. The growth of online shopping and e-commerce has increased packaging waste, exemplified by the proliferation of single-use plastics. Moreover, the waste management sector suffers from outdated technologies that lead to inefficient waste processing [57]. Investment in modern waste-processing technologies, along with deployment of smart waste management systems utilizing IOT and data analytics, could significantly improve efficiency and environmental outcomes. Unclear regulations further complicate the recycling sector, creating inconsistencies across different regions and making waste management efforts more challenging. Recent developments have increased awareness and participation in recycling and upcycling, driven by the need for alternative energy sources amidst political and economic challenges.

Regulatory limitations include poor enforcement of existing waste management laws, insufficient coordination among government bodies, and obstructive regulations that stifle innovative eco-friendly practices and the shift to a circular economy. Additionally, institutional weaknesses, such as unclear legal frameworks and bureaucratic obstacles, further hinder the effective implementation of modern waste management strategies. [58].

Financial limitations further hinder waste management efforts in the Gulf region, primarily due to insufficient funding and a heavy reliance on public finances. Many countries allocate limited resources to waste management, resulting in inadequate infrastructure and services. For instance, in Jordan, cost recovery from waste fees covers only about 60% of the expenses in major municipalities. The reliance on government budgets also creates inefficiencies and stifles innovation, as seen in Saudi Arabia, where increased budget allocations have not bridged the gap between funding and actual needs. Additionally, the private sector plays a minimal role due to regulatory barriers and the absence of incentives for investing in sustainable waste management practices [59].

Countries like Germany and Sweden provide exemplary waste management models that the Gulf region can emulate to overcome its challenges. These nations have implemented integrated waste management systems, incorporating recycling, composting, and energy recovery, which drastically reduce landfill reliance. Their strong regulatory frameworks, such as Germany’s Packaging Act, ensure compliance and promote recycling. Financial incentives, like landfill taxes and deposit-refunding systems, also drive waste reduction and recycling efforts, as seen in Sweden’s successful taxation of landfilling. Additionally, PPPs play a pivotal role in enhancing service delivery and mitigating investment risks. To address the Gulf’s waste management limitations, it is crucial to strengthen regulations frameworks, improve coordination among stakeholders, expand funding mechanisms, and encourage PPPs, aligning with global best practices to achieve sustainable and efficient waste management systems [32]. This trend underscores the importance of addressing waste management issues to support sustainable living and energy production.

5. Opportunities in Renewable Waste Management

5.1. Technological Innovations

Emerging technologies in waste management are revolutionizing how we handle and mitigate the impact of waste on the environment. Below, we present a closer look at some of the cutting-edge innovations.

5.1.1. Advanced Recycling Methods

Advanced recycling methods encompass several innovative techniques designed to enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of waste management. Chemical recycling is a process that decomposes plastic waste into its molecular components, which can then be repurposed to create new plastics or other materials, making it particularly useful for plastics that are challenging to recycle through conventional means [60]. Mechanical–biological treatment integrates mechanical sorting with biological treatment methods, such as composting or anaerobic digestion, to recover recyclable materials and generate compost or biogas from organic waste [60]. Additionally, optical sorting technology improves recycling efficiency by using sensors and cameras to identify and classify various waste materials based on their properties. Emerging biorefinery processes are also gaining attention for their potential to convert organic waste into high-value biofuels and chemicals, further enhancing resource recovery [61]. Figure 2 shows the whole process of the advanced recycling method.

5.1.2. Waste-to-Energy Technologies

Waste-to-energy technologies include several advanced methods designed to convert waste into valuable energy resources. Incineration involves modern WTE plants that burn waste at high temperatures, transforming it into electricity or heat, with stringent emission controls in place to minimize environmental impact. The incineration process typically comprises three primary components: energy recovery, air pollution control, and incineration itself [63,64]. A schematic depiction of the typical incineration process is shown in Figure 3.

Anaerobic digestion, on the other hand, breaks down organic waste through microorganisms in the absence of oxygen, producing biogas—a mixture of methane and carbon dioxide—that can be utilized for generating electricity or heat [66]. Additionally, gasification and pyrolysis are thermal processes that convert waste into syngas, bio-oil, or char, which can serve as feedstock for other industries or be used to generate electricity. Plasma gasification takes this a step further by heating waste to extremely high temperatures to produce syngas, which can then be used as a chemical feedstock or for generating electricity. Composting technologies and development of bioplastics from organic waste also represent important renewable waste management innovations that complement WTE solutions [67].

Table 1. WTE technology use in biorefineries x.

Technology	Reduction in Waste Volume (%)	Refuse Generated	Adverse Impacts	Application	Merits	Demerits
Incineration	75–90	Low	High	Energy/steam production from the heat generated	Established industrial facilities and mature technology	Harmful pollutants generated - Higher cost of capital and O&M
Pyrolysis	75–90	Low	High	Power generation; bio-oil obtained can be used as a base material for the production of chemicals and solvents	Commercially viable and with a low operating cost - Suitable for carbonaceous waste - Flue gas treatment is reduced - Quality of fuel generated is high	High cost of capital and O&M
Gasification	75–90	Low	Medium	Energy generation; syngas produced can be used as fuel and as a raw material for manufacturing of specialty chemicals	The fuel gas/oil can be used for a wide range of purposes	Systems are underdeveloped and inflexible, and less competitive, and are therefore likely to fail
Hydrothermal liquefaction	75–90	Medium	Medium	Bio-oil produced can be used to manufacture chemicals	Product quality is high	High variation in operation
Landfilling	25–35	High	High	Landfill gas is a commonly used to generate electricity	Natural resources are reinstated into the soil and have a low cost of operation	- High cost - High land requirement Possibility of groundwater and soil contamination
Anaerobic digestion	45–50	Low	Low	Biogas generated can be used for electricity generation while the digestate can be used as fertilizer	Methane is higher, and CO2 generated is lower compared to landfilling	Inefficient for wastes with low organic matter contents
Bioethanol preparation	–	Low	Low	Bioethanol can be used as a substitute for gasoline	Low CO2 emissions	Confined to carbohydrate-rich materials

presents the viability and applications of different WTE technologies relevant to bio refineries. High-value materials are crucial for business independence, making bio refineries a key component in shifting from a linear economy to a circular bioeconomy. These facilities are projected to significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions and combat climate change. Furthermore, bio refineries are expected to foster job creation across multiple industries, including agriculture, food production, chemicals, healthcare, pharmaceuticals, and logistics [68].

5.1.3. Innovative Waste Reduction Techniques

Innovative waste reduction techniques encompass a range of approaches aimed at minimizing waste generation and enhancing sustainability. Zero-waste initiatives focus on reducing waste at the source by redesigning products and processes, promoting reuse and repair, and encouraging consumers to adopt sustainable consumption habits [69]. Smart waste management systems leverage IoT-enabled sensors and data analytics to optimize waste collection routes, monitor bin fill levels in real time, and identify areas for efficiency improvements [70]. Figure 4 shows an example of smart waste management systems.

Advances in bio-based materials are providing alternatives to traditional plastics, offering biodegradable and compostable options that break down more readily in the environment. Extended producer responsibility (EPR) regulations hold manufacturers accountable for managing waste and recycling throughout a product’s entire lifecycle. Design for disassembly (DFD) aims to create products that are easy to disassemble, facilitating the separation of materials for recycling or reuse. Figure 5 highlights six key areas of innovation in sustainable waste management, including waste-to-energy, biofuel production, plastic recycling innovations, waste-to-product conversion, smart waste management systems, and upcycling and repurposing.

These innovations hold the promise of not only reducing the volume of waste sent to landfills but also extracting value from waste streams in the form of energy, recycled materials, and compost. As technology continues to evolve, we can expect even more efficient and sustainable solutions to emerge in the field of waste management [9]. Integration of renewable wastes management practices within a broader circular economy framework can significantly improve resource efficiency and reduce reliance on primary materials [72].

Recent waste management projects in the Gulf region highlight the growing commitment to sustainable practices. As highlighted in studies on municipal solid waste in Oman, the region confronts specific challenges such as high waste generation rates and a heavy dependence on landfills. The recycling industry in the Gulf, and particularly in Oman, remains underdeveloped, with only 10–15% of waste being recycled [73]. In the UAE, the Sharjah WTE plant processes 37.5 tons of waste per hour, generating 30 MW of electricity, enough to power 28,000 households while diverting 300,000 tons of waste from landfills annually and offsetting 450,000 tons of CO₂ emissions each year [74]. Similarly, the Dubai WTE plant is one of the largest globally, processing 1.9 million tons of waste annually to generate approximately 200 MW of electricity, supporting over 120,000 households and aligning with Dubai’s goal of achieving 75% clean energy by 2050 [75]. In Qatar, the Domestic Solid Waste Management Centre in Mesaieed generates 50 MW of electricity from waste, with future plans to boost recycling rates from 54% to 95% by 2030, in line with Qatar’s National Vision 2030 [76]. In Saudi Arabia, the government plans to invest in WTE plants with a target capacity of 3 GW by 2030, contributing to its goal of diverting 90% of waste from landfills by 2040. Supportive policies such as tax incentives, streamlined permitting, and PPPs are key drivers behind these initiatives [77]. Collaborative projects, such as the memorandum between Sadara and Veolia, aim to build a sustainable utility plant that will utilize industrial waste for energy production [78]. Community engagement and public awareness campaigns are also critical in promoting the adoption of renewable waste management solutions and ensuring the active participation of stakeholders [79]. These projects demonstrate the region’s strides toward integrated and sustainable waste management solutions.

6. Economic Opportunities

Economic opportunities in renewable waste management are vast and multifaceted, offering avenues for both financial growth and environmental sustainability. One primary opportunity lies in the development and implementation of renewable energy technologies fueled by waste materials. WTE facilities, such as anaerobic digestion plants and incineration facilities, manage waste while generating electricity or heat, providing a reliable and sustainable energy source. These facilities can contribute to local economic development by creating jobs in construction, operation, and maintenance, as well as by attracting investment in renewable energy infrastructure [80].

The GCC economies are heavily reliant on oil and gas export revenues, with a narrow focus on these sectors: oil and gas accounted for 53% of Bahrain’s exports, 91% in Kuwait, 75% in Oman, 94% in Qatar, 77% in Saudi Arabia, and 74% in the UAE in 2018 [11]. These revenues significantly contribute to government budgets, making up 82.4% of Bahrain’s total revenues in 2018, 89.6% in Kuwait, 78.2% in Oman, 83.3% in Qatar, 67.5% in Saudi Arabia, and 36.1% in the UAE. Additionally, in 2019, oil and gas revenues contributed to 42.1% of Kuwait’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP), 24.2% in Saudi Arabia, 24.9% in Oman, 16.9% in Qatar, and 16.2% in the UAE [11]. This dependency exposes the region to oil price fluctuations, prompting the countries to pursue economic diversification plans focused on enhancing private sector participation, creating jobs, building human capacity, and developing trade, services, logistics, tourism, and manufacturing sectors.

Investments in renewable energy are seen as a crucial component of these diversification strategies, with studies indicating that government spending on renewables could generate five times more jobs per million dollars invested compared to hydrocarbons [81]. By 2050, the number of additional jobs created through renewable investments could be four times higher than current levels [82]. A study on the Gulf states suggests that high penetration of renewable energy could yield multiple benefits, including job creation, enhanced energy security, reduced air pollution, and lower healthcare costs, potentially creating 50,000 to 500,000 jobs, reducing energy demand by up to 60%, and saving 1–3% of GDP in healthcare costs by 2050 [83].

Bahrain, for instance, launched its Economic Vision 2030 in 2008 to reduce reliance on oil and focus on sustainability. This vision aligns with the Sustainable Development Goals 2030 and includes a target of 700 MW of renewable energy capacity by 2030 [84]. The country also set goals to generate 5% of its energy from renewables by 2025 and 10% by 2035. As of 2020, Bahrain’s electricity was fully generated from natural gas, but a 100 MW solar plant was planned to be operational by 2021. Kuwait, aiming for 10% renewable energy in its energy mix by 2020 and 15% by 2030, has made progress with projects like the Shagaya Phase I, which includes 10 MW solar PV, 10 MW wind, and 50 MW Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) [85]. The Shagaya Phase II project is expected to add 1.5 GW of solar capacity and meet 15% of the Kuwait National Petroleum Company’s energy needs. The UAE launched its National Energy Strategy 2050 in 2017, targeting 50% clean energy by 2050 (44% from renewables and 6% from nuclear) and aiming for a 70% reduction in carbon emissions. The UAE led the region in renewable energy development, hosting the headquarters of the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) and accounting for 68% of the Gulf’s total renewable energy capacity in 2018 [11]. Saudi Arabia’s National Renewable Energy Program aims to implement over 35 renewable energy projects, targeting a 50% energy mix from renewables and gas by 2030. The country, with its strong geographic advantage for solar and wind production, ranked sixth globally for solar energy potential and 13th for wind [86]. By 2021, Saudi Arabia had achieved 700 MW of renewable capacity, including 400 MW from wind (Domat Al-Jandal project) at USD 0.199 per kWh and 300 MW from solar PV (Sakaka project), achieving the lowest solar PV price at USD 0.234 per kWh [11].

To present financial projections on the return on investment (ROI) for renewable waste management solutions in the Gulf region, several studies provide valuable insights. For instance, research on anaerobic digestion (AD) technology for waste management indicates strong financial potential, with an internal rate of return (IRR) of up to 31.26% for renewable electricity and heat sales, underlining the profitability of these investments despite significant initial costs [87]. Further economic evaluations of biogas production in Europe show that while the ROI for smaller projects may decline (from 10% to 5% over six years), larger projects remain financially resilient owing to waste treatment gate fees—an approach that could be adopted in the Gulf region [88]. This suggests that industrial-scale renewable waste management plants could yield a higher ROI. Additionally, studies on energy management systems reveal payback periods ranging from 0.7 to 5.4 years for commercial applications, showcasing the economic viability of integrated waste-to-energy initiatives [89]. The Gulf region could leverage similar models to capitalize on both energy production and waste reduction. Overall, these projections indicate that, with the right policies, financial incentives, and infrastructure, renewable waste management solutions in the Gulf region could provide significant environmental and financial returns.

7. Environmental Impact

The adoption of renewable waste management practices offers significant environmental benefits, including the reduction in greenhouse gas emissions and the conservation of natural resources. One key environmental benefit is the mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions. Renewable waste management practices include WTE technologies, such as anaerobic digestion and incineration. WTE processes can reduce methane emission by up to 90% compared to traditional landfilling practices [90], divert organic waste from landfills where it would otherwise decompose and release methane, a potent greenhouse gas. Instead, these technologies harness the energy potential of waste materials, converting them into electricity, heat, or biogas, thereby offsetting the need for fossil fuels and reducing overall greenhouse gas emissions.

Additionally, advanced recycling methods enable the recovery of materials from waste streams, reducing the demand for virgin resources and the associated carbon emissions from extraction and production processes [91]. Studies show that recycling aluminum saves up to 95% of the energy required to produce it from raw mineral materials [92]. Moreover, renewable waste management practices contribute to the conservation of natural resources by promoting a circular economy approach. By recycling and recovering valuable materials from waste streams, these practices reduce the extraction of raw materials, such as metals, plastics, and paper, thereby conserving finite resources and minimizing habitat destruction and environmental degradation associated with resource extraction [73].

The environmental advantages of renewable waste management in the Gulf region are significant, with various technologies playing a crucial role in promoting sustainability. WTE processes, such as incineration and gasification, transform municipal waste into electricity and heat, drastically cutting methane emissions from landfills, a gas with a far higher global warming potential than carbon dioxide. For instance, Dubai’s Waste Management Centre is projected to handle 1.9 million tons of waste annually, producing 200 MW of electricity, in line with the city’s objective of achieving zero waste to landfills by 2030 [93]. Additionally, biogas production from organic waste, including food and agricultural residues, helps mitigate methane emissions from landfills.

Saudi Arabia’s “Green Riyadh” initiative could harness biogas projects to support its renewable energy goals, with a potential reduction of around 5 million cubic meters of biogas annually [94]. Recycling also plays a vital role in resource conservation, significantly reducing energy consumption compared to the extraction of raw materials. Bahrain’s “Trash for Cash” program has recycled over 20,000 tons of materials since its launch, minimizing landfill waste [95]. Furthermore, the treatment and reuse of wastewater, particularly in the UAE, conserve freshwater and reduce reliance on energy-intensive desalination processes. In 2022, the UAE recycled approximately 42% of its wastewater, highlighting its role in sustainable water management [96]. In Oman, landfill gas capture is a key focus, where methane is converted into electricity, further addressing greenhouse gas emissions [97]. Reducing landfill use also minimizes land conversion and protects natural habitats, supporting biodiversity conversation.

Public awareness and education are critical to the success of renewable waste management initiatives. launching awareness campaigns can help educate communities about the environmental benefits of recycling, biogas production and WTE technologies. Behavioral changes initiatives such as community-based recycling programs and school curriculum focused on sustainability can foster long term cultural shifts towards sustainable waste practices.

Renewable waste management practices align strongly with global sustainability objectives, particularly, the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), such as SDG 12, responsible consumption and production, and SDG 13, climate action [98].

Projections suggest that widespread adoption of renewable waste technologies in the gulf region could reduce greenhouse gas emissions by up to 15% by 2035, significantly contributing to climate resilience and environmental preservation

These efforts collectively showcase how renewable waste management in the Gulf region contributes to reducing greenhouse gases, conserving resources, and generating alternative energy, aligning with global sustainability initiatives.

8. Case Studies and Best Practices

Countries around the world have developed innovative WTE systems that address their unique environmental and waste management challenges. Sweden’s WTE program stands out for its success in reducing landfill waste, with less than 1% of domestic waste ending up in landfills [99]. Sweden uses incineration to convert non-recyclable waste into both heat and electricity, with its facilities processing around 2.3 million tons of waste annually. This energy powers over a million homes and heats 780,000 households [100]. Sweden’s achievement of diverting almost 99% of waste from landfill, producing significant amounts of renewable energy, highlights a model that the Gulf region could adopt with similar systems to minimize landfill use while addressing energy demands.

In the United States, San Francisco focuses on waste diversion rather than WTE. The city’s comprehensive recycling and composting programs, including a mandatory composting law, have helped achieve an 80% waste diversion rate [101]. While the Gulf may focus more on energy production from waste, adopting San Francisco’s emphasis on organic waste composting could complement WTE strategies, especially in regions with agricultural industries that can benefit from nutrient-rich compost. Importantly, San Francisco’s success was heavily tied to extensive community engagement and educational programs that emphasized public participation, critical elements that Gulf countries can replicate. Rotterdam in the Netherlands is a prime example of advanced chemical recycling through its “Waste-to-Chemicals” project, which breaks down non-recyclable plastics into raw materials for the chemical industry, reducing both waste and reliance on fossil fuels [102]; given the emerging importance of chemical recycling technologies in circular economy models, adapting Rotterdam’s technology could be pivotal in reducing plastic waste and enhancing circular economy initiatives. Denmark’s Copenhagen integrates WTE with district heating, converting municipal waste into both electricity and heat, which are distributed through an extensive heating network. This system heats Copenhagen’s buildings, reducing landfill waste and fossil fuel dependence [103]. Gulf countries with growing urban centers can adopt such dual-purpose WTE plants to tackle waste issues while providing sustainable energy solutions to residential and industrial areas. Kalundborg, Denmark, is notable for its industrial symbiosis, where companies exchange waste and by-products, creating a circular economy model. For instance, excess heat from a power plant is used by nearby businesses [104]. Adopting such industrial symbiosis in the Gulf could improve resource efficiency, especially in regions with concentrated industrial activities. In Ljubljana, Slovenia, methane production from waste is achieved through anaerobic digestion at the city’s wastewater treatment plant, converting organic waste into biogas [105]. This biogas is then used to generate electricity and heat, showcasing how Gulf countries could turn food waste and sewage sludge into renewable energy, contributing to their renewable energy goals while managing organic waste.

Japan’s Kamikatsu Zero Waste Program offers a model of community-driven waste reduction efforts [106]. Although Japan focuses more on waste reduction and recycling, Gulf countries could incorporate similar public awareness campaigns to reduce waste generation while enhancing recycling initiatives in tandem with WTE technologies. Singapore, facing space limitations, relies heavily on incineration in WTE facilities to generate electricity while using advanced air pollution control systems to minimize emissions [107]. Singapore also emphasizes recycling, with dedicated collection systems and initiatives to reduce waste. This model can inspire Gulf countries, especially those with limited land, to invest in efficient incineration technologies and comprehensive recycling programs to manage waste sustainably.

From Brazil, the bioethanol industry, which uses bagasse (a by-product of sugarcane) to produce renewable fuel [108], presents a successful agricultural-waste-to-energy model. Gulf countries with agricultural sectors could explore similar bioenergy solutions, utilizing organic by-products to generate fuel, create jobs, and reduce reliance on fossil fuels. In India, initiatives like “Trash for Cash” program in Pune incentivizes waste segregation and recycling through monetary rewards [109]. The country also implements WTE projects like the Okhla plant in Delhi [110], though it faces challenges such as public opposition and financial constraints. For Gulf countries, adapting India’s community-driven approaches to waste segregation could increase recycling rates and foster public support for WTE initiatives. Malaysia’s efforts to integrate renewable energy with WTE initiatives highlight how the Gulf could simultaneously pursue waste reduction and renewable energy goals. Malaysia focuses on using municipal solid waste to generate electricity, providing a sustainable solution for growing waste management needs. Greece, facing landfill challenges, is investing in WTE technologies like incineration and gasification to diversify its energy mix [111]. Though there are public concerns over emissions, Greece’s commitment to reducing landfill reliance offers valuable lessons for the Gulf, where waste management infrastructure is still developing. In Serbia, WTE solutions like incineration are part of a broader strategy to tackle waste management and energy independence. Serbia’s exploration of technologies such as gasification and pyrolysis could offer Gulf countries insights into diversifying WTE approaches to maximize energy production and minimize environmental impact. Saudi Arabia is advancing its WTE initiatives with the goal of achieving 3 GW of capacity by 2030 while aiming to divert 90% of its waste from landfills by 2040 [112]. The Saudi Investment Recycling Company (SIRC) is a key player in Saudi Arabia’s push toward a circular economy as part of its Vision 2030 strategy. SIRC serves as a prime example of a state-owned entity leading the development of the national recycling sector. By investing in and operating various recycling plants, SIRC is building the necessary infrastructure to manage and process different waste streams, including construction and demolition waste, municipal solid waste, and industrial waste. Its efforts highlight a top–down, planned approach to establishing a robust and sustainable waste management industry, demonstrating how government-led initiatives can create a viable market for resource recovery and recycling [113]. Collaborative projects, like the partnership between Sadara and Veolia, focus on using industrial waste for energy production, showing how WTE technologies can be tailored to the region’s industrial needs. Egypt faces challenges in WTE implementation due to infrastructure and regulatory gaps, similar to those in Gulf countries. However, Egypt’s focus on improving waste management practices and investing in WTE technologies provides a roadmap for Gulf nations to overcome these obstacles through international collaboration and investment. In Oman, waste reduction strategies are a key focus in Salalah, with initiatives promoting the use of reusable goods, waste reduction, and responsible consumption habits. Meanwhile, Qatar’s Integrated Waste Management Facility (IWMC) provides a strong regional model for a holistic and multi-process approach to waste management. The facility does not just rely on a single technology but instead integrates several key processes, including sorting, recycling, composting, and thermal treatment. This comprehensive approach allows for the maximum recovery of resources from different waste types, ensuring that a minimal amount of waste ends up in landfills. The IWMC is a clear example of how a nation can invest in a single, large-scale facility that manages the entire waste stream, from collection to final disposal, showcasing an efficient and environmentally sound strategy for the region. These case studies from around the world offer valuable insights into how Gulf countries can adapt various WTE technologies to their specific environmental, economic, and waste management needs, paving the way for sustainable and energy-efficient waste solutions.

The UAE has taken significant steps toward adopting WTE technologies as part of its broader strategy to reduce waste and transition to renewable energy sources. The Dubai Waste Management Centre, set to be one of the largest WTE plants globally, aims to process 1.9 million tons of waste annually. The plant will generate 200 MW of electricity, which will power approximately 120,000 homes. This initiative supports Dubai’s goal to achieve zero waste to landfills by 2030 while also reducing greenhouse gas emissions by diverting waste from landfills [114]. Masdar City, a flagship sustainable urban development project in Abu Dhabi, focuses on integrating renewable energy sources, including solar and WTE technologies, into its infrastructure. Masdar City aims to be a carbon-neutral city, and WTE initiatives within the city have contributed to reducing waste and increasing renewable energy generation. This project showcases how integrating WTE into urban planning can reduce environmental impacts and support sustainability goals in the region [114]. The Dubai Waste Management Centre (DWMC) is a flagship example of the GCC’s commitment to adopting advanced waste management technologies. As one of the largest waste-to-energy (WtE) facilities in the world, the DWMC showcases a comprehensive, integrated approach. The plant is designed to process up to 5666 tonnes of solid waste per day, which would otherwise go to landfill, and convert it into clean energy. This massive project, which began operations in 2023, is a tangible demonstration of how large-scale, modern infrastructure can significantly contribute to a circular economy, reduce methane emissions, and provide a new source of renewable energy for urban centers [115]. In Kuwait, efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions have led to the implementation of WTE solutions to manage municipal solid waste and generate renewable energy. Kuwait Energy’s electrification project replaced scattered diesel generators with centralized gas-driven electric power grids, significantly reducing diesel consumption and greenhouse gas emissions by over 68%. This project serves as a model for sustainable energy generation in the region, promoting a shift from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources [115]. Kuwait has also explored gasification technologies as part of its strategy to increase renewable energy production and reduce landfill dependence. Gasification projects in the country have helped divert waste from landfills while generating electricity from municipal solid waste. These projects align with Kuwait’s renewable energy goals and contribute to long-term energy diversification [116]. These examples from the UAE and Kuwait demonstrate how the Gulf region is successfully implementing WTE projects to reduce landfill waste, generate renewable energy, and support sustainability goals.

The global case studies presented highlight a critical insight for the Gulf region: there is no single, one-size-fits-all solution for waste-to-energy (WTE) and sustainable waste management. Instead, a successful transition hinges on a diversified and integrated approach that is tailored to local conditions and goals. The experience of countries like Sweden and Singapore demonstrates that a strong policy framework, including landfill bans and carbon taxes, is a foundational element for driving WTE adoption. Their success in diverting over 99% of waste from landfills proves that WTE is a viable and effective strategy for managing urban waste on a large scale while simultaneously producing significant energy.

However, the examples of San Francisco and Japan underscore that waste management is not just about technology; it is also about behavior and community engagement. The GCC’s ambitious WTE targets, such as Saudi Arabia’s 3 GW goal by 2030, will not be fully realized without robust public awareness campaigns and programs like Pune’s “Trash for Cash” to encourage waste segregation at the source. The high percentage of organic waste and low recycling rates in the region, as noted in the introduction, present a significant challenge. Adopting a model like Ljubljana’s anaerobic digestion or Brazil’s bioethanol production, which specifically targets organic and agricultural waste, could be a highly effective complementary strategy to incineration-based WTE.

Furthermore, the cases of Rotterdam and Kalundborg highlight the importance of viewing waste not as a liability but as a valuable resource within a circular economy. The current practice of landfilling in the Gulf represents a missed economic opportunity. By embracing advanced chemical recycling for plastics, as seen in the Netherlands, and fostering industrial symbiosis, the region can create new value chains, reduce reliance on fossil fuels, and generate new jobs. The ongoing projects in the UAE, Kuwait, and Saudi Arabia demonstrate that this is a tangible goal. The Dubai Waste Management Centre and the Sadara–Veolia partnership are prime examples of the region moving from theory to practice, showcasing a commitment to tailored, large-scale solutions.

Ultimately, the global examples reveal that the key to a sustainable waste-to-energy future for the Gulf is a multi-faceted strategy. This strategy must integrate strong regulatory frameworks, technological diversification, and proactive public engagement. While San Francisco’s model may not align with the Gulf’s energy needs, its focus on community engagement is a vital lesson. Similarly, while Denmark and Sweden’s incineration-heavy approaches offer a blueprint for energy production, they must be complemented by circular economy principles to fully realize the economic and environmental benefits. By learning from these diverse global practices, the GCC can build a resilient and sustainable waste management system that not only meets its energy and waste goals but also positions it as a leader in environmental stewardship.

9. Recommendations and Future Directions for Renewable Waste Management

To advance renewable waste management in a comprehensive manner, several recommendations are proposed. First, integrated waste management systems, which employ diverse techniques like recycling, composting, and WTE, are essential for maximizing efficiency. The Dubai Waste Management Centre (DWMC) stands as a prime regional example of this approach. The facility integrates waste sorting with WTE technology, ensuring that only non-recyclable waste is processed for energy recovery, thereby maximizing resource efficiency and minimizing landfill use [94]. Additionally, the development of clear and comprehensive policies that support renewable waste management initiatives is crucial. Regulations that facilitate the adoption of WTE technologies and incentivize private sector investment, similar to successful models in the UAE, should be encouraged. Streamlining regulatory processes, such as creating a ‘one-stop shop’ for permits and approvals for WTE projects, can significantly reduce barriers to entry and accelerate project development. For instance, the Dubai Integrated Waste Management Master Plan has successfully implemented a streamlined process for WTE projects, which has been crucial in developing facilities like the Dubai Waste Management Centre, one of the largest in the world [94]. This model provides a concrete example of how a unified regulatory framework can foster large-scale investment. The adoption of circular economy principles should be encouraged, focusing on product reuse, remanufacturing, and recycling. By promoting extended producer responsibility and designing products with end-of-life recycling in mind, countries can move toward a circular economy that reduces waste and conserves resources. Another critical recommendation is enhancing organic waste management systems. Expanding infrastructure for anaerobic digestion and composting can transform organic waste into valuable resources like biogas and compost, benefiting agriculture and energy production. Financial measures, such as targeted tax breaks and subsidies, are crucial for incentivizing private sector investment. Saudi Arabia’s Vision 2030 specifically outlines goals to leverage public–private partnerships (PPPs) to support its massive WTE projects. This framework is a clear example of how government incentives and partnerships can attract private funding to meet ambitious renewable energy targets. To further support sustainable waste management, allocating funding for research and innovation is crucial. This investment should drive the development of new technologies, improve the efficiency of existing processes, and discover innovative uses for materials recovered from waste. Specifically, investment in R&D should focus on innovative waste management technologies such as gasification and pyrolysis, which could be adopted to gulf region conditions. Collaborations with international experts and organizations would help share best practices and keep the region at the forefront of technological advancement. Establishing a policy and regulatory framework that enforces stringent waste management rules is equally essential. Recycling targets, waste separation mandates, and financial mechanisms like carbon pricing or landfill taxes can incentivize sustainable practices. Additionally, public awareness and education initiatives must be enhanced to encourage recycling and waste reduction. For example, the ‘My City, My Environment’ campaign launched in Saudi Arabia’s Jeddah Province provides a tangible model for how community-led initiatives can boost public engagement and compliance with waste segregation programs [117]. These local campaigns, often using digital platforms and community workshops, are highly effective in cultivating a culture of environmental responsibility. Developing comprehensive public awareness campaigns, inspired by the initiatives such as India’s ‘trash for cash,” and implementing educational programs in schools to teach sustainability and waste management can cultivate a culture of environmental responsibility from early age. To tackle the challenges of managing renewable waste, fostering collaborative partnerships among governments, businesses, communities, and research institutions is necessary. Such cooperation can result in the sharing of expertise, best practices, and resources, which supports the development and implementation of effective waste management strategies. Clear and consistent regulations for WTE projects will also reduce uncertainty and encourage investment in these initiatives, ensuring their long-term success. Financial incentives like tax credits and subsidies should be introduced to offset the high initial costs of WTE projects, stimulating private sector involvement. Moreover, government–private partnerships can be a powerful tool for leveraging resources, driving innovation, and improving the efficiency of WTE projects. To further advance WTE technologies, research grants and demonstration projects should be promoted, enabling the adoption of more efficient and sustainable solutions. Conducting public awareness campaigns that highlight the environmental and economic benefits of WTE can garner public support, which is crucial for the success of these projects. Additionally, investing in waste management infrastructure such as recycling facilities, composting sites, and WTE plants will ensure a steady supply of feedstock for WTE projects and improve overall waste-processing capabilities. Establishing monitoring and evaluation frameworks is recommended to assess the effectiveness of waste management initiatives. Setting clear performance metrics and regularly reviewing progress will help ensure that goals are achieved. Implementing feedback mechanisms will also allow stakeholders, including the public, to provide input and help refine waste management practices. Providing accessible information to the public on waste management practices, recycling policies, and collection schedules through diverse platforms like websites, social media, and mobile apps can encourage greater participation and compliance. Additionally, training programs for government officials and waste management professionals should be developed to ensure they have the expertise required to manage and implement WTE projects effectively. Finally, integrating renewable waste management goals into broader national policies will ensure consistency, alignment with environmental and economic development objectives, and long-term planning. By adopting these recommendations, a robust environment for renewable waste management practices, including WTE, can be fostered, driving both environmental sustainability and economic growth.

The Gulf region has made significant progress in policy advancements and technological adoption related to waste management, particularly through the efforts of the GCC. Countries such as Saudi Arabia and the UAE have integrated waste-to-energy, WTE, technologies into their long-term sustainability strategies, with Saudi Arabia’s Vision 2030 targeting the generation of 3 GW of energy through WTE and diverting 90% of waste from landfills. Large-scale projects like the Dubai Waste Management Centre, one of the largest WTE plants globally, demonstrate the region’s commitment to reducing landfill waste and generating renewable energy [94]. Cross-border collaboration is vital for addressing shared environmental challenges, including waste management. The GCC countries, despite political differences, have cooperated on environmental initiatives such as managing marine resources and controlling transboundary pollution. These collaborative efforts have shown promise, though frameworks for cooperation are still evolving [118]. Cross-border research and innovation also play a key role, with studies showing that regional partnerships in research and development enhance technological diffusion and contribute to advancements in WTE and other sustainable technologies. This collaboration can improve the efficiency of waste management systems and foster innovation in renewable energy technologies [119,120]. In conclusion, the Gulf region’s policy and technological advancements, coupled with cross-border cooperation, are essential to achieving sustainability goals, particularly in waste management and renewable energy development. By fostering partnerships and investing in research, the region can lead the way in waste management innovation.

Gulf governments, particularly in Saudi Arabia, can advance waste management and renewable energy through targeted policy measures that align with Saudi Arabia’s Vision 2030 and regional sustainability goals. Governments should implement stricter waste management regulations, mandating waste segregation, recycling, and penalties for improper disposal, which would reduce landfill use and support sustainable waste treatment like WTE technologies [117]. Offering financial incentives such as tax breaks and subsidies can encourage private sector investment in WTE, fostering public–private partnerships to reach Saudi Arabia’s goal of 3 GW WTE capacity by 2030 [121]. Establishing clear renewable energy targets for WTE within the energy mix will accelerate technology adoption, supporting the country’s plan to generate 50% of its energy from renewable sources by 2030 [122]. Governments should develop national WTE roadmaps that incorporate regulatory frameworks and financing strategies, as part of a circular economy approach, to minimize waste and recover resources [123]. Investing in research and development for WTE technologies can optimize efficiency and adapt to the Gulf’s specific conditions, enhancing local expertise and addressing environmental challenges [124]. Public awareness campaigns promoting waste segregation and the benefits of WTE are essential for societal participation, aligning citizen behavior with the sustainability goals of Vision 2030 [125]. Finally, integrating WTE into national energy grids and prioritizing the purchase of electricity from renewable sources will stabilize revenue streams and encourage sectoral investment, further diversifying energy sources and reducing fossil fuel reliance. These policies would enhance waste management, reduce landfill dependency, and promote renewable energy production, all in line with Vision 2030’s goals.

10. Summary of Key Findings from This Review

This review on renewable waste management in the Gulf region, focusing on Saudi Arabia, highlights growing interest driven by sustainability needs:

• Growing regional interest in renewable waste management: The Gulf region, particularly Saudi Arabia, is showing increasing attention towards renewable waste management as a crucial element of achieving sustainability goals. This signifies a shift in acknowledging the importance of diversifying energy sources and managing waste responsibly.
• Abundant renewable resources as a foundation: The region possesses significant renewable resources, such as solar and wind energy, which can be effectively integrated with advanced waste management strategies. This synergy presents opportunities for both sustainable waste treatment and the generation of clean energy.
• Nascent policy progress requiring further development: While there has been some progress in policy development related to renewable waste management, this review indicates a clear need for more comprehensive and robust frameworks. Additionally, the implementation of effective financial incentives is crucial to stimulate investment and drive innovation in this sector.
• WTE technologies as promising solutions: technological advancements, particularly in WTE technologies, are identified as offering significant potential for addressing both waste management challenges and bolstering energy security within the region.
• Significant investment opportunities in Saudi Arabia: Saudi Arabia, in particular, presents substantial opportunities for investment in the renewable waste management sector, driven by its ambition for sustainability and potential for large-scale projects.
• Persistent challenges across regulatory, financial, and public perception domains: Despite the opportunities, this review highlights key challenges that need to be addressed. These include navigating regulatory complexities, securing adequate financial resources for projects, and overcoming potential public misconceptions or resistance towards new waste management technologies.
• Critical role of stakeholder collaboration: This review underscores the fundamental importance of collaboration among various stakeholders, including government entities, private sector companies, research institutions, and local communities, to effectively advance sustainable waste management practices throughout the Gulf region.

11. The Importance of Transformation in the Gulf Region

The shift to renewable waste management and recycling in the Gulf region is crucial not only for environmental sustainability but also for the economic future of the region. The environmental impacts of gas and oil exploitation must be mitigated, and transitioning to renewable waste management plays a vital role in this. Additionally, for energy security and diversification, relying solely on gas or oil is unsustainable. Embracing multiple energy sources, including renewable waste, is essential to address varying circumstances and preserve fossil fuel reserves. Most importantly, the shift aligns with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). By integrating the Gulf region’s objectives with these global goals, significant progress in sustainable waste management can be achieved.

12. Conclusions

This review differs from the existing literature by providing a comprehensive analysis that uniquely integrates the Gulf region’s specific socio-cultural barriers and policy challenges with technological solutions, a dimension often overlooked in technology-focused reviews. The novelty of this study lies in its synthesis of these disparate factors into a single framework, offering a tailored roadmap for sustainable waste management. It provides compelling evidence that transitioning to renewable waste management in the Gulf region is not only a strategic necessity but an urgent priority that demands immediate action. The region’s rapid economic growth and escalating waste generation underscore the critical need to accelerate efforts toward sustainable waste management. This transition is vital for mitigating climate change by reducing greenhouse gas emissions, conserving valuable resources, and protecting ecosystems, public health, and the quality of air, water, and soil.

For stakeholders across the GCC, the next steps must focus on immediate and coordinated action. Cross-sector collaboration among governments, private enterprises, and research institutions is critical to driving technological innovation in waste management. Public engagement through education campaigns and school curricula will play an essential role in fostering a culture of sustainability, where communities understand the value of waste as a resource rather than a burden. Investment from both the profit and non-profit sectors must increase to fund the infrastructure required for large-scale renewable waste management projects, which will serve as a primary energy source in the future. Evaluations of renewable waste management projects show significant environmental and economic benefits, such as reducing landfill waste, minimizing harmful pollutant release, stimulating local economies, and creating job opportunities. The growth of the renewable energy sector also presents a substantial opportunity for regional economic diversification, aligning with long-term sustainability goals like Saudi Arabia’s Vision 2030.

Looking forward, the immediate priorities include strengthening regulatory frameworks, incentivizing private sector investment, and scaling up the deployment of WTE technologies. Cross-border cooperation among GCC countries will enhance the effectiveness of these initiatives, allowing for shared expertise and technology transfer, which are crucial for regional sustainability efforts. By viewing waste as a valuable resource and embracing renewable waste management, the Gulf region can move towards a circular economy—one that maximizes resource recovery, minimizes waste, and significantly reduces environmental impacts. Through decisive action and collaboration, policymakers, businesses, and individuals can help create a cleaner, healthier, and more sustainable future for the Gulf and beyond.