The Use of Multimedia in the Teaching and Learning Process of Higher Education: A Systematic Review

Abstract

The integration of multimedia technologies is transforming teaching and learning in higher education, offering innovative ways to improve student engagement and learning outcomes. Although numerous studies investigate the impact of multimedia, there is still a clear need for a synthesis that brings together the latest evidence from a variety of disciplines and contexts. To address this need, this systematic review aims to summarize the empirical evidence and provide a clearer understanding of how multimedia is applied in higher education, to outline how educators can effectively design and the implications for curriculum design. This article focuses on three key research questions: (1) How does the integration of multimedia in higher education classrooms influence student engagement and learning outcomes? (2) How does the use of multimedia affect the development of specific skills? (3) What are the challenges and opportunities to integrate multimedia technologies into higher education? Relevant studies were systematically retrieved and screened from major academic databases, including ScienceDirect, Web of Science, IEEE Xplore, Wiley Online Library, Springer, Taylor & Francis, and Google Scholar. In total, 48 studies were selected from these sources for detailed analysis. The findings showed that multimedia tools enhance student engagement, motivation, and performance when integrated with clear pedagogical strategies. In addition, multimedia helps to develop skills such as creativity, digital literacy, and independent learning. However, challenges such as technical limitations, uneven infrastructure, and the need for ongoing teacher training remain significant difficulties in fully exploiting the benefits in higher education. Addressing these challenges requires coordinated institutional support, investment in professional development, and careful alignment of multimedia tools with pedagogical goals.

1. Introduction

The integration of multimedia technologies into higher education is becoming increasingly widespread, transforming traditional teaching and learning processes. Multimedia, which includes various forms of digital content such as text, images, audio, video, animation, and interactive elements, has been shown to enhance student engagement and improve learning outcomes [1,2,3,4]. The use of multimedia-rich educational environments stems from the need to adapt to new educational paradigms and meet the expectations of digitally literate students in an increasingly connected world [2,5]. However, it is important to note that the effectiveness of these technologies depends on how they are integrated into teaching practices and the specific context [3].

Multimedia implementation can support blended learning models that combine traditional face-to-face learning with online components, which can be associated with improved student satisfaction and academic performance [5]. By supporting blended models, institutions can reduce their environmental impact by using less printed material and more efficiently using physical spaces. Social sustainability is promoted by increasing accessibility and inclusion, allowing participation by diverse student groups, including those living in remote or underserved areas. In addition, the reuse of digital resources contributes to sustainability by allowing institutions to optimize costs while maintaining or improving the quality of the learning experience. Although this review does not directly assess sustainability and accessibility outcomes, it is important to recognize that multimedia technologies contribute to broader sustainability goals in such institutions. Burbules, Fan, and Repp [6] identify five interrelated trends shaping the future of education and technology, including changes in educational ecosystems that extend learning beyond the traditional classroom. Multimedia integration is a key driver of these changes, enabling more flexible, accessible, and sustainable learning environments.

Research highlights the potential of various multimedia tools and technologies to enrich the teaching and learning experience. For example, the use of social media platforms as electronic portfolios has gained popularity, providing students with opportunities for reflection, collaboration, and skill development [7]. In contrast, the integration of interactive multimedia systems into study courses offers additional support for strengthening students’ independent learning skills [8]. Technologies such as virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR) are at the forefront of this transformation, offering immersive experiences that extend traditional classroom environments [9,10]. Multimedia tools have proven to be most effective in disciplines that require spatial awareness, visual learning, and practical skills, such as architecture, engineering, chemistry, and physics [11]. However, their effectiveness is less pronounced when used to explain abstract concepts in fields such as biology, astronomy, language learning, and cultural heritage studies [11]. For example, VR simulations allow medical students to practice surgical procedures in a non-risk environment, while AR applications allow for the demonstration of complex tasks without physical risk [10].

The effective implementation of multimedia tools requires a balance between technological innovation and pedagogical validity. Educators need to integrate these tools into curricula in a way that enhances, rather than distracts from, learning objectives. This requires technical skills as well as new pedagogical strategies adapted to the multimedia environment [9,12]. At the same time, infrastructure and technical support remain barriers, as many institutions lack adequate audio–visual equipment, stable internet connections, and technical staff [5,13]. Teacher training and competence also pose challenges, as educators often struggle to use multimedia tools effectively due to limited experience and support [5,7,14].

Quality assurance and evaluation of multimedia-based educational content remain areas of concern, as the lack of standardized criteria to assess their effectiveness hinders their wider adoption [5]. Furthermore, while multimedia can enrich learning, if mismanaged, it can also contribute to cognitive overload. The cognitive theory of multimedia learning emphasizes the need to balance essential processing with minimal extraneous processing to optimize learning outcomes [1]. Ensuring the accessibility and inclusiveness of multimedia learning materials for all students remains an ongoing responsibility of higher education institutions [8].

Reviews published up to 2024 have mainly focused on the impact of specific multimedia tools, such as video [2], gamification [15], or VR/AR applications [16] in the education process. While these reviews provide valuable insights into specific technologies, they remain fragmented. On the contrary, this study provides a systematic overview of multiple multimedia approaches across many higher education fields, providing a better understanding of how different technologies shape teaching and learning.

Although several studies demonstrate the potential of multimedia tools to improve learning outcomes and student engagement, these findings often remain discipline-specific and vary widely in scope and methodological rigor. By systematically collecting and analyzing existing empirical research, this article intends to provide a comprehensive overview of how multimedia technologies are currently being integrated into higher education, what impact they have on learning and teaching, and what challenges and opportunities educators face in this process. This systematic review aims to provide insights that will help educators make informed decisions about how to design and use multimedia-enriched learning environments in practice, supporting more engaging and effective higher education. To address this aim, this review focuses on the following research questions:

RQ1: How does the integration of multimedia in higher education classrooms influence student engagement and learning outcomes?

RQ2: How does the use of multimedia affect the development of specific skills?

RQ3: What are the challenges and opportunities to integrate multimedia technologies into higher education?

Question 1 could help to analyze the overall effectiveness of multimedia tools in enhancing student engagement and learning outcomes. Question 2 investigates the role of multimedia tools in skill development in different disciplines. Finally, Question 3 examines the practical challenges and potential benefits associated with implementing multimedia technologies in higher education, based on research that examines the perspectives of both students and educators. Together, these questions provide an opportunity to examine how multimedia technologies are used, applied, and valued in higher education.

2. Theoretical Background

This review draws on several theoretical perspectives to explain how multimedia supports learning in higher education, focusing both on how information is processed and on how students are motivated and engaged.

The cognitive theory of multimedia learning (CTML) offers a comprehensive framework for understanding how students learn from combinations of words and graphics and is therefore directly relevant to the use of multimedia in higher education. The theory is based on three main assumptions: dual channels, which posit that people process verbal and visual information through separate channels; limited capacity, which emphasizes the significant limitations of working memory; and active processing, which suggests that meaningful learning requires the selection of relevant information, organization into coherent structures, and integration with prior knowledge. CTML emphasizes the importance of instructional methods that guide the cognitive processes of learners and promote a meaningful integration of new material. Based on these assumptions, Mayer’s research program developed fifteen evidence-based design principles, based on more than 200 experiments, that provide practical guidelines for minimizing extraneous processing, managing essential processing, and promoting generative processing. These principles directly inform the effective implementation of multimedia in higher education, suggesting strategies to reduce cognitive overload and promote transferable long-term learning [1,17].

While CTML explains how learners process information from words and images, cognitive load theory (CLT) provides a broader perspective on the limitations of working memory and the role of instructional design in multimedia learning [18,19]. CLT emphasizes that working memory is very limited in terms of capacity and duration, and therefore, the way information is presented is crucial to learning. It distinguishes between intrinsic load, which is related to the complexity of the material itself, and extraneous load, which is caused by poor design or irrelevant elements. In higher education, this distinction is particularly important for multimedia learning: well-designed materials can reduce unnecessary load and aid comprehension, while unnecessary or overly complex tools can overwhelm students. However, it is important to note that none of the experimental effects or teaching procedures derived from CLT are universal; their success depends on the specific learning context and the balance of cognitive load. CLT therefore provides a valuable framework for explaining why multimedia in higher education sometimes works and sometimes does not [19].

Although CTML and CLT emphasize the cognitive mechanisms of multimedia learning, it is equally important to consider academic engagement, which provides an additional motivational and behavioral perspective. Academic engagement is often conceptualized through a multidimensional model of school engagement [20]. This model distinguishes three dimensions: (1) behavioral engagement, which refers to participation and effort in academic tasks; (2) emotional engagement, which includes positive and negative reactions to teachers, peers, and learning; and (3) cognitive engagement, which reflects investment and willingness to exert effort in mastering complex ideas and skills [20,21]. Engagement is understood to be flexible and responsive to contextual features, making it a valuable lens to analyze how different learning environments and teaching methods shape students’ engagement in higher education.

The cognitive theory of multimedia learning, the cognitive load theory, and the school engagement offer complementary perspectives to analyze multimedia integration in higher education. Although cognitive multimedia learning theory and cognitive load theory explain the cognitive and instructional mechanisms that determine whether multimedia facilitates or hinders learning, the engagement framework emphasizes the motivational and contextual factors that shape student engagement.

3. Materials and Methods

This study employed a systematic search and review methodology to examine the application of multimedia tools in higher education across disciplines. The study selection process was based on the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysis (PRISMA) 2020 guidelines [22]. No prior protocol for this review was registered in OSF, PROSPERO, or any similar platform.

3.1. Data Sources

To ensure a comprehensive selection of data for analysis, the following seven databases were selected for sampling: ScienceDirect, Web of Science, IEEE Xplore, Wiley Online Library, Springer, Taylor & Francis, and Google Scholar. ScienceDirect, Wiley Online Library, and Springer offer extensive collections of peer-reviewed journal articles in the sciences and social sciences, making them ideal for capturing empirical studies on multimedia applications in education. The Web of Science provides robust citation indexing and quality filters, which help to identify high-impact research and track citation networks. IEEE Xplore is essential for retrieving the latest engineering and technology-oriented publications, particularly those focused on digital tools and multimedia system design. Taylor & Francis hosts a range of applied educational and pedagogical journals, including both empirical studies and comprehensive review articles. Google Scholar serves as a complementary platform to catch additional sources, ensuring maximal coverage. Access to the data sources was obtained in June 2024.

3.2. Search Criteria

This search strategy was designed to achieve broad coverage of related studies while maintaining a tight focus to filter out unrelated results. The string of words used in the selected databases’ search is:

(“Multimedia tools” OR “multimedia technology” OR “Multimedia application” OR “multimedia component”) AND (Learning OR Teaching) AND (“ higher education “).

The period of 2019–2024 was selected for analysis. To ensure both comprehensiveness and relevance, the search strategy was refined with custom filters specific to each database. These filters addressed the type of publication, publication year, language, and type of article, depending on the capabilities of each platform.

• Google Scholar: Filters were applied to include only items published in scholarly journals and within a defined publication year range of 2019–2024, omitting books, conference proceedings, and non-English language materials.
• Springer: The search was restricted to articles published in English, focusing on peer-reviewed journal articles from selected years 2019–2024.
• Taylor & Francis: The results were filtered to include only scholarly articles and review articles published in the defined year range of 2019–2024.
• Web of Science: The search was refined to retrieve only journal articles and review articles, within the selected years 2019–2024.
• IEEE Xplore: Due to differences in search functionality, the following adapted string was used to align with the general structure of the main search:
• (“All Metadata”:”Multimedia tools”) OR (“All Metadata”:”multimedia technology”) OR (“All Metadata”:”Multimedia application”) OR (“All Metadata”:”multimedia component”) AND (“All Metadata”:Learning) OR (“All Metadata”:Teaching) AND (“All Metadata”:”higher education”).
• The search was limited to articles published within the specified time frame of 2019–2024.
• ScienceDirect: The criteria included publication year, article type, and review articles to ensure academic precision.
• Wiley Online Library: The scope was limited to journal publications published in 2019–2024, omitting books, conference proceedings, and other non-journal materials.

By implementing these database-specific criteria, the search process was optimized to retrieve only the most relevant literature for review. This approach minimized the inclusion of gray literature, retrieved articles, and non-peer-reviewed content, thereby enhancing the reliability of the review findings.

3.3. Selection Criteria

Setting clear selection criteria is essential to ensure that only articles that are directly relevant to the research objectives are included in the analysis. When investigating the use of multimedia in higher education, selection criteria help filter studies according to factors such as academic level, type of multimedia tool used, whether the use of multimedia helps to develop specific skills, and contribution to learning or teaching outcomes by incorporating multimedia in the academic process. Only articles published in English were considered for further inclusion; this language criterion was applied during the initial title screening stage. Only articles presenting empirical research were included in the review due to their ability to provide measurable data and evidence-based findings, which are essential to draw valid and reliable conclusions about the effectiveness of multimedia in higher education. The study inclusion and exclusion criteria are presented in

Table 1. Study selection criteria.

Inclusion Criteria	Exclusion Criteria
Articles published in English	Articles not published in English
Published from 2019 to 2024	Published before 2019
Empirical research	Non-empirical research
Focus on higher education level	Focus on non-higher education level
Studies address the use of multimedia tools, technologies, applications, or components for learning or teaching in higher education	Studies did not explicitly include multimedia use

.

3.4. Exclusion Process from Pooled Articles

A total of 2832 records were identified from seven different database searches. The distribution of the exclusion results from the various databases is presented in

Table 2. Summary of database search results and number of studies excluded at each selection stage.

Database	Initial Set of Results	Excluded Records				Final Set
		Duplicates	Title	Abstract	Full Text
ScienceDirect	163	0	122	26	7	8
Web of Science	447	179	228	20	14	6
IEEE Xplore	586	0	549	18	12	7
Wiley Online Library	127	1	105	13	7	1
SPRINGER	719	0	682	18	10	9
Taylor & Francis	80	0	67	8	4	1
Google SCHOLAR	710	94	494	50	56	16
Total	2832	274	2247	153	110	48

. After removing 274 duplicate entries, 2558 titles were screened. Of these, 2247 were excluded due to being irrelevant to the topic. The remaining 311 entries were screened based on the abstract, resulting in 153 studies considered as potentially eligible for further review. Full-text evaluation of 158 articles was performed, and 110 were excluded because they did not meet the inclusion criteria.

Ultimately, 48 studies were included in the systematic review. A flow chart of the selection process is presented in Figure 1.

To ensure reliability, a cross-screening approach was performed during the study selection process. In the initial identification phase, titles were divided between the two authors according to the number of publications retrieved from each database. During the second stage, each author screened half of the abstracts with a reversed allocation. At the final eligibility stage, full-text articles were subsequently cross-checked by the other co-author to validate the inclusion criteria. Any disagreements were resolved through discussion until a consensus was reached.

4. Results

The results section presents the findings of a systematic review of the use of multimedia in teaching and learning in higher education. Key patterns and insights from selected studies are highlighted, including the types of multimedia tools used in higher education, their impact on student participation and learning outcomes, their role in skill development, and the challenges and opportunities associated with their integration.

The systematic review includes articles originating in 27 countries, highlighting a diverse international scope. Figure 2 presents a map of the distribution of selected articles by county.

China stands out as the most frequently represented country, contributing eight articles. Spain follows with four articles, while Indonesia and Malaysia each contribute 3. A group of countries, including Jordan, Morocco, the United States, Palestine, Mexico, Ireland, and Saudi Arabia, is represented twice. The remaining countries, such as France, Israel, Ukraine, Thailand, Peru, and others, contribute one article each. This distribution indicates a strong presence of research from Asia, alongside notable contributions from Europe, the Middle East, Africa, and Latin America.

Analysis of multimedia use in different higher academic levels showed that the majority of studies focused on undergraduate programs, accounting for about 89.6% of all included cases. A smaller proportion, about 8.3%, examined the use of multimedia in postgraduate studies. In one case, multimedia was applied in both undergraduate and graduate studies. 4.2% of the studies did not specify the academic level. No studies explicitly examined doctoral studies. This distribution suggests that while multimedia integration is widely studied in undergraduate teaching, research in graduate and doctoral studies is still lacking.

The analysis of the studies revealed a diverse use of multimedia components. As shown in Figure 3, video appeared to be the most commonly integrated element in the studies (19.2%). Gamification (15.1%) and VR/AR technologies, including holograms (12.3%), were also widely used to support interactive and immersive learning experiences. In addition, studies often included static visuals such as images and pictures (6.8%), along with various forms of interactive media (11.0%), text resources (8.2%), and animation (8.2%). Components related to web-based and mobile-based content (6.8%), educational games (4.1%), audio elements (4.1%), and communication platforms (4.1%) were less frequently observed. This reflects a tendency to combine traditional multimedia with emerging technologies to improve instructional design.

As shown in Figure 3, videos emerged as the most used multimedia component in all the studies reviewed. Videos ranged from traditional lecture recordings to highly interactive, integrated scenarios. The authors used recorded lectures [23,24], instructional videos [25], and even movie trailers [26]. Videos were integrated into instructional design and as preparation materials before lessons, as in-class demonstrations, and as supplementary resources [25]. Engagement was enhanced through the use of a variety of platforms, including learning management systems or YouTube [25]. Several studies demonstrated a more contextualized use of videos. Azard [27] presents how educational videos were systematically integrated into a learning management system to illustrate fashion design techniques. Nyirahabimana et al. [28] in their study employed YouTube videos along with animations and simulations, in which students were asked to make predictions before watching them, based on initial explanations of concepts through animation. Another study used video-recorded case-based scenarios to explore mental health disorders, presenting authentic patient interactions and clinical scenarios [29]. These videos served as a basis for students to develop diagnostic reasoning and care planning. Additionally, short videos were embedded as interactive learning objects in digital games, activated by specific game events [30]. These segments typically included theoretical explanations followed by multiple-choice questions related to the course content. Wang et al. [31] incorporated design features such as narration, subtitles, and visual cues to direct learners’ attention and structure the flow of information. Their study also compared the effects of different cue conditions in video-based instruction. In another study, Zhao et al. [32] compared the use of videos with traditional teaching methods to investigate differences in instructional delivery. Elmabaredy et al. [33] used adaptive multimedia techniques to adapt the presentation of content, such as videos, images, or text, to the individual preferences of students. In engineering education, videos have played a significant role in demonstrating practical applications, often accompanied by additional material such as programming codes [34].

Gamification was implemented in the learning and teaching process using a variety of multimedia-integrated tools and platforms. Kahoot! was used as a game-based student response system that transformed classroom activities into a game format, incorporating elements such as points, timers, and leaderboards [35]. The Quizizz tool was used in a similar context, allowing both individual and group tests with multimedia features such as mixed questions, memes, music, and visual feedback [36]. During the COVID-19 pandemic, Rincon-Flores and Santos-Guevara [37] applied both platforms as assessment tools in an online learning environment, incorporating avatars, badges, and a reward system that allowed one to earn and redeem points. Zainuddin [38] also used Kahoot! and Quizizz in formative assessment tasks, emphasizing the integration of interactive elements such as music and live feedback, as well as their availability on mobile devices. A broader implementation was observed in the Carrión Candel and Colmenero study [39], in which Kahoot!, Quizizz, Socrative, and Cuadernia were combined to diversify the multimedia formats used for assessment and review. In institutional systems, Hasan et al. [40] integrated game principles into a Moodle-based environment, embedding point tracking and progress features directly into the course platform. Gamified activities have also been applied to support vocabulary practice and extend learning beyond traditional classroom time [41]. Gamification elements highlighted by Nuci et al. [36] included points, badges, leaderboards, timers, and audio–visual enhancements. These examples illustrate how gamification served as a multimedia-based framework for educational content in a digital learning environment.

Several studies incorporated VR and AR technologies as key multimedia components. For example, Halabi [42] allowed students to interact with and evaluate 3D models of their engineering designs in a large-scale immersive virtual environment, allowing them to identify design challenges and make improvements in real time. Similarly, Khalilia et al. [43] created a 3D outdoor crime scene scenario where students could explore virtual evidence, interact with forensic tools, and view embedded instructional videos in the environment. Their system also included interactive panels to assist with brainstorming and problem-solving tasks related to crime scene investigation. In another study, Liu et al. [44] combined real video images with 3D virtual objects in both virtual and augmented reality scenes. Their project integrated footage of a real teacher with realistic lighting, shadows, and physics effects to increase authenticity. A different approach was taken by Elfeky and Elbyaly [45], who, using the AR app, allowed fashion design students to access instructional videos by pointing their smartphones at design images in textbooks. Ali and Ramlie [46] developed a holographic tutor presented as a 3D cartoon character. The projection was created using a single-screen system, where a high-resolution LCD projector cast the image onto a 45° transparent screen. To enhance the experience, a prerecorded audio of the teacher was synchronized with the visual content. Students received a 30-min lecture from this life-sized holographic projection in a traditional classroom.

Some studies explored the integration of multimedia interactive components to enhance learning. For example, Praheto et al. [24] used Adobe Flash-based multimedia to develop language skills, while Halabi [42] adapted the CAVE system with 3D visualizations to help assess product design. Praheto et al. [24] developed an Adobe Flash-based interactive multimedia tool that combined images, text, video, animation, sound, and user interaction for language learning, designed for use both in and out of the classroom. Multimedia was also integrated into teaching resources such as high-definition videos and interactive e-books, as demonstrated by Sautière et al. [25]. Rogti’s study [47] used a mobile app that combined lessons, videos, and games to support learning. Simulations were particularly relevant in the context of quantum physics, where both Cao et al. [48] and Nyirahabimana et al. [28] implemented them to illustrate complex physical concepts. Triviño-Tarradas et al. [49] developed 3D modeling exercises for technical drawing that allowed students to observe geometric features from different angles and viewpoints.

Text-based multimedia components have also been integrated in various forms. Abu-Eisheh and Ghanim [50] used both illustrative texts and hypertexts to facilitate the explanation of concepts and navigation through the learning content. Several authors [27,32,33] included standard written text in the learning materials, while Bykonia et al. [51] used a multimedia textbook format to combine text with other visual and interactive elements. In some cases, text acted as the main element in multimedia presentations, for example, Wang et al. [31] inserted textual cues to direct the learner’s attention.

Meanwhile, several studies have used animation components to illustrate a topic dynamically. Three-dimensional animation was used in a holographic tutorial developed by Ali and Ramlie [46]. In the field of mental health education, Dubovi [29] used animation-based visualizations to depict patient situations. Nyirahabimana et al. [28] applied animations in instructions to increase conceptual clarity. Interactive graphic animation, which allows learners to interact with the content directly, was introduced in a study by Rajae and Idrissi [52]. Furthermore, Shin and Park [53] used 3D educational animation to teach anatomical and physiological processes.

Various studies integrated image-based multimedia components into teaching methods. Supporting images were used to enhance conceptual understanding in course materials [50]. In an adaptive multimedia-based system, images were incorporated to support content presentation strategies [33]. The integration of images was also evident in a multimedia teaching platform designed to improve English listening skills [32]. Teachers have also used multimedia presentations with images to increase the effectiveness of classroom teaching [27]. Wang et al. [31] added visual cues, including dynamic lines, bold colors, and moving dots, to short videos of geographic features. These visual elements were designed to emphasize the information structure of the video and illuminate the relationships between components.

Also, certain studies integrated web-based and mobile-based delivery tools. Romero-Rodríguez et al. [54] introduced a mobile app to help university professors use mobile devices for teaching. In engineering education, a mobile app with interactive 3D models used marker recognition to overlay virtual objects and display animations and diagrams [55]. Another app was developed as a mobile e-learning platform for technical higher education, offering course catalogs, registration, and digital materials [56]. Han’s study [57] evaluated two existing vocal training apps, focusing on their pedagogical effectiveness.

In addition to the main multimedia categories, several studies have highlighted the growing role of audio, video, and communication platforms in the design of interactive, technology-enhanced learning environments. Audio components were used in tasks designed to develop listening skills, especially in the context of language learning [32]. Game-based approaches emerged in various forms, including digital board games, educational video games, and structured game-based instruction, demonstrating a shift toward more immersive and engaging pedagogical strategies [30,58,59,60]. Communication platforms such as Instagram, TikTok, and Zoom have been integrated not only to distribute content, but also to facilitate interaction, collaboration, and learner presence [38,61]. In their study on social networks, Valencia et al. [34] also included visual media such as images and animations, highlighting the multimedia richness of these tools. Furthermore, Meirbekov et al. [61] observed a clear preference among students for authenticity-based visual content, highlighting the importance of recognizable and contextually meaningful media.

RQ1: How does the integration of multimedia in higher education classrooms influence student engagement and learning outcomes?

To address RQ1, the reviewed studies were analyzed to identify how multimedia technologies were integrated and what their impact was on student engagement and learning outcomes. The reviewed studies employed a range of research designs, reflecting the diversity of methodological approaches used to investigate multimedia applications in higher education. As detailed in the Supplementary Material Table S1, the most common designs were quasi-experimental (used in 18 studies) and survey-based approaches (17 studies), with several studies combining both methods. A smaller portion of studies adopted experimental designs (9 studies), while others followed a case study methodology (6 studies).

Table 3. The influence of multimedia integration on student engagement and learning outcomes.

Authors	Learning Outcomes	Engagement
Abu-Eisheh and Ghanim, 2022 [50]	Multimedia use improved performance by 14–30% and ABET outcomes by 10–25%.	Multimedia increased student satisfaction and engagement.
Alhulail and Singh, 2023 [62]	Multimedia technology enhances learning agility and creativity.	Multimedia technology increases student engagement.
Ali and Ramlie, 2021 [47]	Positive UX, increased interest, and motivation.	Increased excitement and motivation.
Alsswey et al.,2024 [35]	Kahoot! reduces anxiety, enhances learning experience, and promotes retention.	Kahoot! enhances engagement and encourages active participation.
Azad, 2024 [27]	MMCs are more effective than traditional classes.	Students are more attentive and interactive in multimedia-based classes.
Boude et al., 2023 [58]	48% improved vocabulary acquisition.	Increased by competitive component, decreased with repetition, and reengaged with dynamic changes.
Bykonia et al., 2019 [51]	Improved educational gains compared to traditional methods.	Increased engagement through independent computer-assisted work and motivation.
Cao et al., 2022 [48]	The virtual simulation teaching method, resources, and learner experience all contribute to improved learning.	Multimedia use increased learning motivation and interactivity.
Carrión Candel and Colmenero, 2022 [39]	Multimedia tools improved learning outcomes.	Multimedia tools increased student engagement through immersive and interactive learning experiences.
Cheraghi and Motaharinejad, 2023 [63]	Video boosts motivation and understanding.	Video materials increase student engagement.
Dubovi, 2019 [29]	Agent-based visualizations resulted in higher learning gains.	Agent-based visualizations enhance cognitive engagement through interactivity.
Elfeky and Elbyaly, 2021 [45]	Higher success and acceptance in all aspects.	Augmented reality motivated and excited students, creating an engaging environment.
Elmabaredy et al., 2020 [33]	Multimedia use significantly improved achievement and performance.	N/A
Halabi, 2020 [42]	VR improved the grade of the project and course outcomes related to the project design.	Increased enthusiasm and interest by 13.3% and 23.5%, respectively.
Han, 2023 [57]	Higher scores with multimedia use.	Increased engagement due to flexibility and interest.
Hasan et al., 2019 [40]	N/A	Gamification improved engagement through structured objectives and rewards.
Yusof, 2019 [64]	Gamified assessment improved achievement.	Gamified assessment increased engagement; the multimedia application was less engaging due to a lack of interactivity.
Khalilia et al., 2022 [43]	VR supports the learning process and improves forensic science knowledge	VR enhances interactive learning engagement.
Liu et al., 2021 [44]	No significant differences in learning outcomes.	No significant difference in engagement between groups.
López-Fernández et al., 2021 [30]	Similar effectiveness in knowledge acquisition	Game-based learning increased student motivation and engagement.
López-Fernández et.al., 2023 [65]	Similar effectiveness in knowledge acquisition and motivation in both formats.	The face-to-face format enhances participation and fosters a more positive overall opinion.
Malak, 2024 [66]	Reduced stress and anxiety; improved self-efficacy and academic achievement.	N/A
Meinawati et. al., 2021 [26]	Significant increase in English essay writing test scores.	Online learning activities made the virtual environment more enjoyable.
Meirbekov et al., 2024 [61]	N/A	Boosted motivation and interest in learning English.
Mimouni, 2022 [67]	Gamified quizzing with reflective class feedback increases achievement scores.	Gamified quizzes with reflective class feedback enhance participation.
Neffati et al., 2021 [56]	Improved understanding by using visual data.	Multimedia use increased engagement through interactive and collaborative features.
Nuci et al., 2021 [36]	73% vs. 57.5% correct answers with quizzes.	Systematic in-lecture quizzes increase engagement.
Nyirahabimana et al., 2024 [28]	Multimedia use significantly increased conceptual understanding of quantum physics.	N/A
Pan and Mow, 2023 [59]	Gamified teaching significantly improved test scores.	Significant increase in engagement (behavioral, cognitive, emotional).
Panmei and Waluyo 2022 [41]	No significant difference in overall vocabulary scores.	Gamification adds interest and intrigue, fostering autonomy and positive perceptions.
Park et al., 2019 [23]	N/A	Multimedia technology encourages active learning engagement.
Praheto et al., 2020 [24]	Interactive multimedia improves learning outcomes.	Increased engagement through an interactive, dynamic, and fun learning environment.
Rajae and Idrissi 2021 [52]	Students using animation performed significantly better in understanding synaptic transmission.	Multimedia captures attention longer and makes learning more engaging.
Rincon-Flores and Santos-Guevara, 2021 [37]	Gamification improved academic performance.	Gamification increased engagement through rewards and interactions.
Rogti, 2024 [47]	Engagement and cooperation increased. Positive attitudes towards multimedia use.	Increased engagement through active participation and interaction.
Sautière et al., 2019 [25]	The learning feedback on animal anatomy was slightly increased.	High engagement is achieved through the utilization and appreciation of multimedia tools.
Tepe and Tüzün, 2023 [68]	VR increased the academic achievement of the students.	Increased motivation and satisfaction with 3D resources.
Triviño-Tarradas et al., 2022 [49]	Motivation improved significantly, especially in terms of relevance (M = 4.01).	Increased motivation and satisfaction with 3D resources.
Urbina Coronado et al., 2022 [55]	Improved understanding of mechanical components	AR increased engagement by increasing the amount of time spent on exercises and attention.
Vagg et al., 2020 [69]	Multimedia enhances the understanding of the topics covered in the class.	71.05% of students find the multimedia engaging.
Valencia et al., 2023 [34]	Improved student performance and understanding of the sequence and modularity.	Videos enhance engagement by fostering collaboration, alleviating boredom, and promoting active intervention.
Wang et al., 2020 [31]	Cues improved retention and transfer test scores.	Cues increased focus on engagement.
Xiao, 2022 [70]	N/A	72.2% of classmates found the digital multimedia VR art courses effective
Zainuddin, 2024 [38]	Gamification-based quizzes significantly improved learning outcomes.	Gamification increased engagement with interactive quizzes and leaderboards.
Zhao et al., 2019 [32]	Multimedia-based teaching increased scores by 6.9% and 9.2%.	N/A
Zhao et al., 2022 [60]	Games improved understanding and results. Significant differences in knowledge acquisition by location.	Games increased engagement with active elements and multimedia.

Note: N/A—information not reported in the article. Engagement refers to indicators such as participation, motivation, attention, and self-reported interest. Learning outcomes include academic achievement (e.g., grades, test scores).

summarizes the observed student engagement and learning outcomes reported by each author.

Numerous studies confirm that the integration of multimedia technologies positively influences student learning outcomes and engagement. Bykonia et al. [51] found that students using a multimedia-based textbook in a flipped classroom model demonstrated greater learning flexibility, creativity, and motivation, with 48% improving their vocabulary. Similar effects were observed in engineering technology students, where a virtual simulation learning system increased motivation, interest, and academic performance [48]. Virtual and augmented reality approaches have also shown clear benefits. Halabi [42] reported that virtual reality significantly improved students’ project evaluations, especially in the implementation phase. At the same time, Tepe and Tüzün [68] demonstrated that low-cost virtual reality implementations increased achievement compared to traditional teaching. Dubovi [29] cautioned that while virtual reality improved overall outcomes, its specific effects varied depending on the level of academic achievement of students. The students’ understanding of mechanical engineering concepts was enhanced through AR, which also increased engagement levels [55]. Carrión Candel and Colmenero [39] confirmed that augmented reality contributes to improved motivation and engagement.

Abu-Eisheh and Ghanim [50] reported significant improvements in student academic performance, ranging from 14% to 30%, while the outcomes of the course improved by 10–15%, supported by higher satisfaction and participation. Similarly, Alhulail and Singh [62] demonstrated that the availability and effective use of multimedia technologies play a crucial role in promoting student learning agility and creativity, while simultaneously increasing their engagement. Ali and Ramlie [46] found that the implementation of a cartoon-like 3D holographic teacher provided a positive user experience, significantly increasing students’ interest, excitement, and motivation during classroom activities. Triviño-Tarradas et al. [49] confirmed that 3D visualization resources in graphic design courses significantly improved student motivation levels, especially in terms of relevance.

Game-based and gamified learning approaches appear particularly effective in increasing motivation and participation. Game-based platforms such as Kahoot! were shown to reduce learning anxiety, increase motivation, and strengthen engagement [35]. Malak [66] observed reduced symptoms of stress and anxiety, as well as improved self-efficacy and academic achievement among students who used the game-based Kahoot! platform. Azad [27] identified that multimedia-based classes enhanced students’ motivation to learn, leading to better exam results. Han [57] found that mobile apps for vocal training led to higher evaluation scores on multiple criteria, with experimental groups outperforming control groups. The inclusion of gamification elements in online learning management systems was associated with higher student motivation and achievement, and students in the experimental group showed significantly higher engagement rates [40]. Rincon-Flores and Santos-Guevara [37] noted that the application of game elements using a reward-based system improved student motivation, active participation, and academic performance in an online learning environment. López-Fernández et al. [65] found that game-based learning using teacher-created educational video games was as effective as traditional instruction in knowledge acquisition, but significantly increased student motivation and engagement. Game-based learning experiences were described as more motivating, fun, and acceptable than traditional teaching methods [30]. Students who participated in mobile game-based tests with reflective classroom feedback scored significantly higher on achievement tests compared to those who participated without feedback [59,67]. Zainuddin et al. [38] found that game-based assessments enhanced motivation and perceived learning during online lessons.

The use of multimedia in social media contexts further demonstrates positive outcomes. Meirbekov et al. [61] found that students strongly preferred authentic educational videos on social media for language learning, showing high engagement. Learning English through gamified social media apps like Instagram and TikTok boosted motivation and interest [44]. The use of movie trailer learning tools also improved English essay writing scores [26]. Xiao [70] reported that multimedia-based teaching platforms for English listening improved students’ test scores, and Zhao et al. [60] observed that game-based programming instruction improved understanding and results. The study showed that students noticed that educational games made programming more interesting and engaging [60].

Other studies underline the general effectiveness of adaptive and interactive multimedia tools. Elmabaredy et al. [33] showed that adaptive online delivery techniques help students outperform peers using traditional methods. This aligns with Praheto et al. [24] finding that students using interactive multimedia performed better than those using traditional teaching tools. At the same time, Rajae and Idrissi [52] confirmed that learners using interactive animations outperformed those using static images. Park et al. [23] highlighted that multimedia technologies positively affect learners’ perception of usefulness, which supports the adoption of these tools. The use of video and multimedia content encourages active participation [34], and Vagg et al. [69] found that medical students widely recognized multimedia as an effective resource for hands-on learning, with 73.02% agreeing that interactive multimedia is a good resource.

In summary, numerous studies suggest that the integration of multimedia technologies into higher education has a positive impact on student motivation, engagement, and academic performance. Virtual and augmented reality, game-based learning, social media applications, and interactive tools help create more flexible, motivating, and effective learning experiences. This demonstrates how well-developed multimedia environments can effectively support varied approaches to teaching and learning.

RQ2: How does the use of multimedia impact the development of specific skills?

Of the 48 studies included in the overall systematic review, 25 explicitly mentioned skills development as a study finding or observation. This analysis is based only on studies that reported specific outcomes in the development of skills.

Research from the study shows that the use of multimedia in higher education has effectively contributed to the development of specific skills in various disciplines. The distribution of these disciplines according to the location in which this skill development was observed is shown in Figure 4.

In the engineering field, which emerged as one of the most represented field in the review, five studies mentioned how multimedia helps develop a variety of technical and cognitive skills. Valencia et al. [34] recognized the potential of integrating video into interprofessional education to promote collaboration and problem-solving skills, particularly in fields such as medicine, which could provide transferable value to engineering students. Augmented reality tools were applied by Urbina Coronado et al. [55] to develop spatial thinking and a deeper conceptual understanding of mechanical systems. Similarly, Triviño-Tarradas et al. [49] conducted a survey in which students reported improvements in spatial vision and graphic expression when performing design tasks with the aid of VR and AR, highlighting the perceived benefits of immersive technologies in developing visual-spatial skills in engineering studies. Cao et al. [48] found through a student questionnaire that interactive virtual simulations help students develop experimental skills while also promoting innovation and higher-level thinking through immersive human–computer interaction. Halabi [42] investigated the use of immersive VR to teach design skills in a project-based engineering course. The results of the study showed that using VR significantly improved the performance of the project.

English as a Foreign Language (EFL) was also featured in five studies reporting improvements not only in language skills but also in cognitive abilities through the use of multimedia. Zhao et al. [32] found that a multimedia-based English teaching listening platform improved students’ listening skill development than the traditional teaching method. Based on the findings, Rogti [47] assumes that the use of multimedia-based interactive tools in the EFL class improved the thinking and cooperation skills of students. Meirbekov et al., Boude et al. and Panmei and Waluyo [41,58,61] found that the use of digital and multimedia tools, from short video platforms such as Instagram and TikTok to vocabulary-based educational games and game-based quiz apps, was effective in developing vocabulary skills in EFL learners, while Meirbekov et al. [61] reported additional improvement of listening and speaking skills. The reviewed studies on English for special purpose (ESP) and academic English reveal various ways to improve students’ and teachers’ skills by integrating multimedia resources. Cheraghi and Motaharinejad [63] found that the use of videos and other multimedia tools in English lessons helped students improve all four communication skills, improved their academic performance, and increased their confidence in public speaking. For teachers, these technologies improved their teaching methods and their ability to facilitate classroom communication. Bykonia et al. [51] research found that using a multimedia textbook in a flipped classroom model to teach business English to economics students significantly improved writing skills, perception of non-adapted texts, and faster oral responses in professional contexts such as meetings and presentations. Students also developed better skills in summarizing, paraphrasing, synthesizing, and organizing, as well as better problem-solving and time-management skills. Meinawati et al. [27] found that the use of movie trailers as an instructional tool significantly improved students’ English essay writing skills, with almost 80% of students noticing positive changes in test scores after the intervention, as well as greater creativity in generating ideas for their essays.

In the field of biology, Rajae and Idrissi [52] found that the use of interactive 3D animations significantly improved students’ conceptual understanding and ability to schematically represent complex scientific processes, while Sautière et al. [25] reported that multimedia e-learning tools significantly improved students’ practical laboratory skills and autonomy. In the healthcare field, Tepe and Tüzün [68] stated that the implementation of VR reduces the risk factors encountered in real emergencies and is beneficial in developing kinesthetic skills in healthcare training, while Dubovi [29] reported that computer-based multimedia simulations, especially interactive agent-based models, significantly improved clinical reasoning learning gains in nursing students.

In the field of pedagogy, Wang et al. [31] suggest that the use of visual and textual cues in educational videos could promote students’ ability to organize and integrate information, resulting in better retention and transfer of knowledge. Elmabaredy et al. [33] concluded that web-based adaptive multimedia techniques led to significant improvements in both theoretical achievement and practical skills, especially when using digital teaching tools such as Google Classroom.

In disciplines where only a single study or field was reviewed, multimedia technologies were shown to provide notable skill development. Khalilia et al. [43] reported that using virtual reality in crime scene investigation courses allowed students to practice and develop practical, analytical, and problem-solving skills in realistic forensic scenarios. Han [57] found that the use of mobile applications for vocal training led to significant improvements in students’ vocal skills, as evidenced by higher assessment scores compared to traditional instruction alone. In the field of fashion design, Elfeky and Elbyaly [45] demonstrated that the use of augmented reality in fashion design courses significantly improved students’ functional, esthetic, and creative design skills compared to traditional instruction. Additionally, Nyirahabimana et al. [28] found that multimedia applications such as simulations and visual materials improved students’ problem-solving and inference skills in physics and logic, as well as their creative expression in both verbal and visual forms. These results indicate that even in less commonly represented disciplines, multimedia can play a significant role in developing discipline-specific skills in higher education.

The distribution of multimedia components across subject areas is summarized in

Table 4. Distribution of multimedia components across subject areas.

Subject/Field	Multimedia Components
Engineering	Interactive learning media [42,48,49]; VR/AR/hologram [42,55]; web-based and mobile-based delivery tools [55]; video [34]; communication platforms [34]
English as a foreign language (EFL)	Games [58]; communication platforms [61]; gamification [41]; interactive learning media [47]; audio [32]; video [32]; text [32]; images/other non-interactive visuals [32]
English special purpose (ESP)	Text [51]; video [26,63]
Various disciplines	Gamification [35]
Healthcare	Animation [29]; video [29]; VR/AR/hologram [68]
Biology	Animation [52]; interactive learning media [25]; video [25]
Pedagogy	Images/other non-interactive visuals [31,33]; text [31,33]; video [31,33]
Music	Web-based and mobile-based delivery tools [57]
Crime scene investigation (Law)	VR/AR/hologram [43]
Quantum Physics	Interactive learning media [28]; animation [28]; video [28]
Fashion design	VR/AR/hologram [45]; video [45]
Design	VR/AR/hologram [42]; interactive learning media [42]

, which shows how certain tools, such as video or interactive media, are widely applied across disciplines. In contrast, others, such as gamification, tend to be concentrated in specific areas.

In studies addressing a variety of disciplines, multimedia technologies have significantly improved a range of academic and cognitive skills. Alsswey et al. [35] showed that the game-based learning platform Kahoot! helped improve critical thinking, problem-solving, and knowledge retention through interactive formative assessments. Similarly, Alhulail and Singh [62] reported that the implementation of advanced multimedia tools, including VR and AR, was effective in developing students’ creativity and learning agility in a variety of educational contexts.

RQ3: What are the challenges and opportunities to integrate multimedia technologies into higher education?

Integration of multimedia technologies into higher education offers significant benefits but also poses several challenges.

Table 5. Challenges and opportunities of multimedia integration in higher education for teaching and learning purposes.

Research	Teaching	Learning	Challenges	Opportunities
Abu-Eisheh and Ghanim, 2022 [50]		+	N/A	Civil engineering departments are encouraged to include a multimedia-enhanced course as an elective for senior year and urban planning students to improve their learning experience.
Alhulail and Singh, 2023 [62]	+	+	N/A	The availability and use of multimedia technologies are crucial in promoting innovation, learning agility, and creativity.
Ali and Ramlie, 2021 [46]	+		Long lessons and limited interaction with the hologram teacher reduced students’ concentration and self-confidence, making them passive observers rather than active learners.	The hologram teacher offers a potential alternative to using real human figures in teacher design.
Alsswey et al.,2024 [35]		+	N/A	Integrating Kahoot! into higher education improves learning outcomes, enhances material retention, and fosters a positive, engaging classroom environment.
Azad, 2024 [27]	+	+	Large class sizes, lack of proper equipment in classrooms, insufficient training, and time constraints.	N/A
Boude et al., 2023 [58]		+	After a few sessions of the game, the students lost interest, which could be addressed by adjusting the integration of the material into the lesson.	N/A
Bykonia et al., 2019 [51]	+	+	21% of the students reported difficulties due to complex content, procrastination, or a dislike of the teaching method.	N/A
Cao et al., 2022 [48]	+	+	Frequent use of virtual devices can lead to fatigue and a diminished sense of novelty.	Virtual simulations encourage interaction, innovation, and critical thinking, and also allow teachers to use virtual experiments and multimedia tools effectively.
Carrión Candel and Colmenero, 2022 [39]	+	+	N/A	ICT and gamification can enhance music teaching and support traditional methods.
Cheraghi and Motaharinejad, 2023 [63]	+		Lack of trained lecturers, insufficient teacher training, and adequate resources.	N/A
Dubovi, 2019 [29]		+	N/A	Extending the use of visualizations to broader healthcare scenarios.
Elfeky and Elbyaly, 2021 [45]	+		N/A	AR provided learners with a creative learning space, leading to effective and visibly better design results.
Elmabaredy et al., 2020 [33]	+	+	N/A	Improving student learning in higher education through the development of effective methods for designing and presenting educational courses.
Halabi, 2020 [42]	+		N/A	VR can be effectively integrated into STEM education, especially with the advent of affordable standalone headsets.
Hasan et al., 2019 [40]		+	N/A	The future system can help identify which game elements impact the most student engagement and improve learning outcomes.
Khalilia et al., 2022 [43]		+	N/A	Modern technologies are essential for inclusive learning, but they should be combined with traditional teaching methods.
Liu et al., 2021 [44]	+	+	Complex light and shadow generation in AR scenes and collision detection in interactive virtual environments.	AR technology effectively enhances education and teaching activities.
López-Fernández et.al., 2023 [65]		+	N/A	Most of the students (97.2% face-to-face, 94.2% online) preferred game-based learning over traditional videos or presentations.
Meinawati et. al., 2021 [26]	+	+	N/A	Innovative writing lessons utilize digital media and technology while strengthening teachers’ ability to integrate multimedia tools into their teaching process.
Meirbekov et al., 2024 [61]		+	N/A	Most of the participants expressed a desire to use blogs as an additional English learning strategy outside of class.
Mimouni, 2022 [67]		+	N/A	Game-based quizzes are more effective when combined with reflective class feedback, which improves student achievement by encouraging reflection, peer-tutor interaction, and detailed feedback.
Neffati et al., 2021 [56]		+	N/A	Students viewed the Mobile e-Learning application as an effective teaching platform and recommended its use in all courses.
Nuci et al., 2021 [36]			N/A	The results of the in-lecture quiz were used to adjust the rest of the lecture.
Park et al., 2019 [23]		+	Gender differences affect the ease of adoption and use of multimedia technologies.	N/A
Praheto et al., 2020 [24]		+	Monotonous learning, an unattractive classroom atmosphere, and a lack of student involvement.	N/A
Rajae and Idrissi, 2021 [52]	+	+	The use of multimedia in education remains limited due to insufficient digital resources, a lack of teacher training, and inadequate teaching materials.	Animations reflect reality better than a purely oral explanation.
Rincon-Flores and Santos-Guevara, 2021 [37]	+	+	Calculus class required greater content adaptation during academic confinement due to the complexity compared to face-to-face teaching.	Gamification is a versatile teaching strategy suitable for various disciplines and learning contexts.
Romero-Rodríguez et.al., 2020 [54]	+		The limited use of mobile devices is largely due to a lack of training, resistance to change, and concerns about distraction and usefulness.	Knowledge of the benefits of mobile devices and belief in their value now and in the future helped teachers develop good mobile teaching practices.
Sautière et al., 2019 [25]		+	Distance learning tools cannot replace face-to-face inductive teaching or hands-on experimental activities that are essential for learning in biology and other STEM fields.	The tools can be extended to broader contexts—51.2% of respondents support their use in all practical life science modules, including physics and chemistry.
Shin and Park, 2019 [53]		+	N/A	A hybrid of dynamic and static visualizations can be widely applied in learning contexts such as VR storytelling, AR games, and various game development services.
Tepe and Tüzün, 2023 [68]		+	Prolonged use of head-mounted displays can cause fatigue and nausea, and should be limited in use.	Students noted that learning environments using virtual reality offer various benefits and consider it necessary for future lessons.
Vagg et al., 2020 [69]		+	N/A	Students preferred simulators for their future studies (64.07%).
Valencia et al., 2023 [34]	+	+	Videos sometimes do not fully cover the topics discussed in class, presenting only partial segments. Lack of widespread structured, ordered, and sequential design of technological platforms.	Incorporation of elements that enable digital learning and teaching style. Potential to utilize artificial intelligence in creating digital scientific discourses.
Wang et al., 2020 [31]		+	A short video of the training material (5 min 27 s) was used to avoid student fatigue; future studies should consider longer videos to obtain more reliable data.	The study showed that visual and combined text-visual cues effectively support cognitive processes in video-based learning by helping to select, organize, and integrate information.
Xiao, 2022 [70]	+		Limited resources, need for curriculum update, poor teacher experience in digital multimedia, and regional inequality.	30.8% of music teachers believe that virtual reality activities could be integrated into regular teaching practices.
Yusof, 2019 [64]	+		N/A	The results encourage educators to use game elements to improve participation in classrooms and make learning more enjoyable.
Zainuddin, 2024 [38]		+	N/A	Quizizz encouraged independent work during synchronous assessments by presenting different questions at the same time and limiting opportunities for unwanted collaboration.
Zhao et al., 2019 [32]	+		Only 5.7% of the students were aware of multimedia-based learning, and most blamed outdated materials and a weak language environment for their poor listening skills.	Multimedia technologies have a greater positive impact on listening than traditional teaching methods.

Note: N/A—information not reported in the article.

presents a summary of studies that examine the challenges and opportunities of integrating multimedia technologies into higher education.

Several studies have highlighted resource and training issues, including inadequate and insufficient teacher training, lack of appropriate technological infrastructure, and limited access to digital resources, which significantly hinder the effective implementation of multimedia [27,52,63,70]. Furthermore, resistance from educators due to insufficient digital competency, outdated curricula, and concerns about distractions has negatively impacted multimedia implementation [32,54,70]. Technical and user experience challenges, such as fatigue, limited interactivity, and complexity of multimedia design, also emerged as recurring barriers. Fatigue and decreased sense of novelty were particularly observed with the prolonged use of virtual and augmented reality technologies [44,48,68]. In particular, Liu et al. [44] stated that the complex requirements for realistic visual effects, including detailed shadow generation and collision detection in augmented reality environments, posed significant technical challenges. Ali and Ramlie [46] similarly highlighted the limitations of interactivity, specifically related to the use of hologram teachers. They noted that the lack of two-way interaction forces students to become passive observers, negatively affecting their concentration and self-confidence, although acknowledging their potential as replacements for human tutors. This highlights the need to improve interactive design across a variety of multimedia formats, including VR, AR, and hologram-based technologies. Studies have also identified specific student-related challenges, such as reduced motivation due to monotonous multimedia use, content complexity, and procrastination, suggesting the need for adaptive teaching strategies [24,51,58]. Conversely, Sautière et al. [25] stated that distance learning tools cannot fully replace hands-on STEM activities yet acknowledged broader applicability across science modules. Valencia et al. [34] discussed partial topic coverage and lack of structured platform design, as well as Rincon-Flores and Santos-Guevara [37], who emphasized content adaptation needs in complex subjects like Calculus. Park [23] emphasized how gender differences influenced the adoption and effectiveness of multimedia technologies, suggesting the need for inclusive design to optimize learning outcomes.

Despite these challenges, research has highlighted some opportunities to improve learning outcomes using multimedia. Effective multimedia integration has improved student engagement, retention, and overall learning experience through innovative platforms such as simulators, game-based quizzes, and mobile learning apps. Students would recommend and prefer the integration of these technologies in their future studies [35,38,54,56,64,65,67,69]. These methods align with sustainable higher education practices by reducing reliance on printed materials. They enable distance and blended learning and create reusable digital resources adaptable to various courses and disciplines. Additionally, Nuci et al. [36] emphasized the value of in-class quizzes as a means of real-time assessment, allowing instructors to adjust their teaching based on direct student responses. Furthermore, the use of multimedia has significantly enriched teaching and learning in a variety of disciplines, including engineering, science, technology, mathematics, music, language learning, healthcare, and urban planning, by providing interactive, dynamic, and practical content [25,29,32,34,37,39,40,42,50]. Rajae and Idrissi [52] noted that animations more effectively reflect real-world scenarios compared to oral explanations, while Wang et al. [31] demonstrated that short video materials, especially those combining visual and textual cues, enhanced cognitive processing by supporting better selection and integration of information. However, Wang et al. [31] also pointed out a challenge: video-based learning can lead to student fatigue when the content is too lengthy, suggesting that video design must be optimized for attention and comprehension. Hybrid visualization methods and creative environments using augmented reality or virtual reality have been identified as effective strategies to promote creativity, critical thinking, and educational design [44,45,48,53,68,70]. The Meirberkov study states [61] that students have positively evaluated extracurricular multimedia programs, such as the use of blogs for self-directed learning outside the traditional classroom. Elmabaredy et al. [33] and Meinawati et al. [26] have highlighted the general potential of multimedia to improve instructional design, demonstrating its flexibility and applicability to a variety of educational contexts. Alhulail and Singh [62] emphasized the importance of multimedia technologies in fostering innovation and flexibility in higher education, highlighting their potential to improve student learning agility and creativity. Similarly, Khalilia et al. [43] supported the use of modern technologies in education but underscored that their effectiveness is maximized when integrated alongside traditional teaching methods.

While technical, institutional, and pedagogical challenges remain, the evidence strongly supports the pedagogical value of multimedia in enhancing student-centered, inclusive, and effective higher education. Addressing infrastructure gaps and investing in teacher training are essential steps to realizing the potential of multimedia.

5. Discussion

The observed effects of multimedia can be interpreted based on well-established theoretical foundations. According to CTML, multimedia learning is enhanced by the simultaneous use of visual and auditory channels, since the theory is based on the dual-channel assumption that people have separate information processing channels for verbal and visual information. These effects also resonate with the multidimensional model of school engagement, which distinguishes behavioral, emotional, and cognitive dimensions of engagement. VR can foster behavioral engagement by encouraging active participation, emotional engagement through increased interest and immersion, and cognitive engagement by enabling deeper information processing. Gamification can also foster behavioral and emotional engagement, but long-term effectiveness may be less clear, especially if repeated use reduces novelty. In addition, poorly integrated game elements can cause an extraneous cognitive load, that is, unnecessary mental effort caused by design features that do not contribute to learning but instead distract attention from the content. These insights suggest that multimedia technologies are most effective when they support multiple aspects of engagement rather than relying on short-term motivational effects. However, it is essential to note that the benefits of VR and gaming approaches also depend on equity and accessibility. Students with limited access to technology or disabilities may face barriers if the tools are not designed to be inclusive, so it is important to ensure that multimedia innovations do not exacerbate existing inequalities in higher education.

The studies included in this review consistently reported their findings at the group level, without examining potential differences between individual learners. While this provides valuable insights into the overall effectiveness of multimedia interventions, it remains an open question as to how such approaches might impact students with different learning priorities or cognitive profiles. In the literature, this issue is often discussed in relation to learning styles, such as the visual, auditory, reading/writing, and kinesthetic modalities described in the VARK model [71]. Although these frameworks have been strongly criticized for lacking robust scientific evidence, the underlying idea that students benefit from varied forms of input remains relevant. From this perspective, the strength of multimedia may lie in its multimodal design, which combines visual, auditory, and interactive elements, thus supporting diverse learners even when individual differences are not explicitly addressed in empirical studies [71,72].

At the epistemological level, multimedia technologies provide indirect but mediated experiences. While higher education has traditionally relied on direct engagement in laboratory activities or clinical training, multimedia conveys knowledge through the mediation of technology. Such experiences can be presented on a continuum, from indirect modes of representation, such as recorded lectures, to interactive simulations and immersive VR/AR environments that approximate real-world practice. This interpretation is consistent with Dewey’s principle. The educational value of an experience depends on its quality and continuity with future experiences [73]. Similarly, Kolb’s experiential learning cycle defines learning as a process in which concrete experience, reflection, abstraction, and active experimentation complement each other [74]. In this sense, multimedia can provide valuable opportunities for reflection and conceptualization that complement or prepare learners for subsequent direct engagement.

Acknowledging this continuum highlights that multimedia can significantly enhance learning, but it cannot fully replace the value of direct, first-hand experience in higher education.

6. Conclusions

A systematic review confirms that the thoughtful integration of multimedia technologies has great potential to enrich teaching and learning in higher education. Evidence from a variety of disciplines suggests that multimedia not only promotes student engagement and motivation but also helps develop a range of technical, cognitive, and practical skills. Tools such as virtual reality, augmented reality, interactive simulations, game-based learning platforms, and digital media applications demonstrate their value by making complex concepts more accessible, stimulating creativity, and encouraging deeper, more active learning.

At the same time, the findings highlight that the impact of multimedia depends mainly on how well these tools are aligned with pedagogical objectives and adapted to the specific learning context. While clear benefits have been observed for learning outcomes and skill development, issues such as limited technical infrastructure, insufficient teacher training, and the risk of poor curriculum design remain significant barriers. These issues can hinder the effective use of multimedia and reduce its intended impact on student learning experiences. In summary, the findings demonstrate that the integration of multimedia in higher education can significantly enhance student engagement and learning outcomes (RQ1), while also supporting the development of diverse skills ranging from cognitive and technical to practical competencies (RQ2). At the same time, the review makes clear that successful adoption of these technologies requires careful alignment with pedagogical objectives and adequate institutional support, highlighting both the challenges and opportunities that shape their effective integration into higher education (RQ3).

To maximize multimedia impact in higher education, institutions and educators need to focus not only on implementing innovative technologies, but also on creating the conditions for meaningful use. This includes investing in reliable infrastructure, ensuring ongoing professional development for faculty, and creating learning environments that integrate multimedia in ways that motivate students and promote active, self-directed learning. Although multimedia integration has transformative potential for student learning, maximizing this impact requires robust teacher training and institutional support to update and improve educational practices effectively. Overall, these insights reinforce that multimedia is not just an additional tool but a valuable component that can enhance student-centered, engaging, and skill-based learning.

The results of this review suggest that the effective use of multimedia can also help to support more sustainable practices in higher education. The improvements in engagement, learning outcomes, and skills development observed across disciplines suggest the potential for more efficient use of resources, wider access to learning opportunities, and greater flexibility in educational delivery. This indicates that effective multimedia integration not only improves teaching and learning but can also be a practical way to promote sustainability in higher education.

Based on the findings of this review, several practical recommendations can be made for higher education institutions. First, universities should invest in continuous teacher training to ensure that faculty are able to integrate multimedia effectively into their teaching practices. Second, institutions should adopt multimedia tools that are clearly aligned with pedagogical objectives, rather than implementing technologies only for their novelty. Third, careful planning is needed to ensure balanced use of multimedia resources, avoiding cognitive overload and fatigue among students. Finally, institutions are encouraged to explore sustainable hybrid and blended learning models, where multimedia complements face-to-face teaching to create flexible, inclusive, and engaging learning environments.

This study had some limitations. Due to time constraints, language limitations, and uneven coverage of subject areas, important studies that could have provided additional insights may have been overlooked. In addition, due to the methodological heterogeneity of the included studies, which spanned a variety of disciplines, research designs, and objectives, no formal quality assessment tool (e.g., MMAT, JBI, or CASP) was applied. Moreover, many of the included studies relied on self-reported measures of interest or engagement, which are subjective and may introduce bias. Furthermore, although the heterogeneity of methods and outcomes provided a broad perspective, it also meant that no formal meta-analysis was possible due to methodological differences, which restricted the strength of the conclusions. Finally, although the selection process, which included reverse abstract review and cross-checking of full texts, was designed to increase reliability and reduce bias, no inter-rater reliability index (e.g., Cohen’s Kappa) was calculated, which may limit the objectivity of the reviewer consensus assessment.

While this review highlights the pedagogical value and increasing integration of multimedia technologies in higher education, it is important to note that sustainability-related impacts, such as reduced paper use or physical travel, were not directly addressed in the included studies. While it is often assumed that multimedia tools contribute to environmental goals through digital delivery, empirical evidence clearly linking multimedia integration to measurable sustainability outcomes is still scarce. This suggests a promising direction for future research: studies could examine how specific multimedia applications affect material consumption and travel needs in hybrid or face-to-face learning contexts. Such studies would not only strengthen the educational case for multimedia implementation but also align it with institutional and global sustainability agendas.

Future research should aim to cover a broader range of disciplines and examine the long-term impact of multimedia on learning outcomes. Furthermore, research that examines the cost-effectiveness and scalability of multimedia tools would provide valuable information for institutional decision making and sustainable implementation.