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Article

Growth, Condition, and Seasonal Changes in the Population Structure of the Invasive Chinese Sleeper Perccottus glenii (Dybowski, 1877) in a River Subjected to Severe Anthropological Pressure

by
Przemysław Czerniejewski
1,
Adam Brysiewicz
2,*,
Lucyna Kirczuk
3,4,
Katarzyna Dziewulska
3,4,
Janusz Ligięza
5 and
Jacek Rechulicz
6
1
Department of Commodity, Quality Assessment, Process Engineering and Human Nutrition, Westpomeranian University of Technology in Szczecin, Kazimierza Królewicza 4 Street, 71-550 Szczecin, Poland
2
Institute of Technology and Life Sciences-National Research Institute, Falenty 3 Hrabska Avenue, 05-090 Falenty, Poland
3
Department of Hydrobiology, Institute of Biology, University of Szczecin, Felczaka 3c Street, 71-412 Szczecin, Poland
4
Molecular Biology and Biotechnology Center, University of Szczecin, Wąska 13 Street, Szczecin, 71-415 Szczecin, Poland
5
National Inland Fisheries Research Institute, Oczapowskiego 10 Street, 10-719 Olsztyn, Poland
6
Department of Hydrobiology and Protection of Ecosystems, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, Dobrzańskiego 37 Street, 20-262 Lublin, Poland
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2025, 17(19), 8782; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17198782
Submission received: 8 August 2025 / Revised: 18 September 2025 / Accepted: 29 September 2025 / Published: 30 September 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Sustainability, Biodiversity and Conservation)
Browse Figures
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Abstract

Managing invasive species such as the Chinese sleeper (Perccottus glenii) supports the goals of sustainable development by preserving native biodiversity. This study investigated the population structure, growth, and ecological impact of P. glenii in a small, anthropogenically altered tributary of the Vistula River (central Poland). Electrofishing surveys conducted between 2017 and 2023 assessed sex ratio, age structure, body size, condition (Fulton’s index), and growth parameters, as well as changes in the local fish community. The sex ratio was nearly balanced (♀:♂ = 1.00:0.99), and average standard length and weight were 6.54 cm/9.11 g (females) and 6.36 cm/7.69 g (males). Dominant individuals were from age group of 2+ years. The Fulton condition factor ranged from 2.54 to 2.58, while positive algometric growth was observed for both sexes. The von Bertalanffy growth model parameters (L∞ = 175.37 mm, k = 0.104, t0 = −1.711) revealed slower growth compared to other Eurasian populations. In the individual months of the study, changes in the sex structure, length, weight, and age of the fish were observed. This seasonality may have resulted from physiological changes (including fish growth and reproductive processes), their migration, and environmental changes, such as food availability and hydrochemical parameters, occurring during this period. Additionally, over the study period, the abundance and density of P. glenii increased significantly, coinciding with a marked decline in native fish species. These findings highlight the adaptability of this invasive fish and emphasise the need for targeted management strategies in degraded freshwater ecosystems.

1. Introduction

Invasive fish species pose a major threat to local aquatic ecosystems, adversely affecting biodiversity, trophic structure, and the ecosystem functioning [1,2,3]. As with invasive crustaceans [4], fish may also disperse via water transport or, in smaller water bodies, through the introduction of stocking material. Effective management of invasive species populations is an important element of sustainable development efforts, especially in the context of protecting native aquatic biodiversity. They expand due to both human activities and their natural adaptability to environmental changes, including adverse hydrochemical conditions [5,6]. The introduction of new species into aquatic ecosystems often leads to the displacement of native species through competition for food or the transmission of alien pathogens to which native species often have no resistance [7,8,9,10]. One species that has been particularly successful in spreading in Europe is a member of the Odontobutidae family, the Chinese sleeper (Perccottus glenii Dybowski, 1877), which is native to the Amur, Ussuri, and other East Asian River basins. The earliest reports of the Chinese sleeper’s expansion in European waters appeared at the beginning of the 20th century, when the species was introduced into surface waters of Eastern Europe—mainly due to aquarium releases and aquaculture activities [11]. In Poland, the species was first found in 1993 in an oxbow lake of the Vistula near Dęblin [12]. In subsequent years, it was recorded in the Vistula River and its oxbow lakes along the stretch from Solec to the mouth of the Wieprz River in 1996 and near Otwock in 1997 [13]. Typical ecosystems for the Chinese sleeper are medium- and small-sized lakes and ponds, drainage channels, and beaver dams, where the lack of competition allows the fish to reach high densities and maximum sizes [14]. The invasive success of the Chinese sleeper can be attributed to its ability to adapt in diverse environmental conditions, including low oxygen levels, aggression towards other fish and amphibians, broad ecological tolerance, and high fecundity [15,16]. Hence, it is often found in heavily anthropogenically altered environments where it adapts better to environmental conditions than other native fish species [17]. The above factors may contribute to the formation of a monospecific fish community comprising only the Chinese sleeper [18].
Genetic studies on populations of this species in Europe have shown low levels of genetic variation, suggesting that the invasion may have started with a small number of individuals [19]. An analysis of the population structure of P. glenii in different regions of Europe indicates different ecological and behavioural strategies that may influence the expansion of this species. A study by Ercoli et al. [20] found that the isotopic niche of the Chinese sleeper varies according to the co-occurring native fish species, which may indicate trophic flexibility and the ability to avoid direct food competition. Hence, it is very important to know the biological and population characteristics of the Chinese sleeper in different water bodies to undertake appropriate forms of eradication from the aquatic environment. This is important because the expansion of the Chinese sleeper in Central European waters has a significant impact on local aquatic ecosystems [21,22] and, due to its invasive nature, it has been recognised as one of the most dangerous alien fish species in Europe [23,24].
Despite numerous studies on the ecology of this species, there is still a lack of detailed information on the population structure and its dynamics in new environments, including the annual life cycle—particularly in reservoirs subject to strong influence from human activities. For example, maintenance works on rivers, construction of bank reinforcements and spurs, as well as the impact of distributed and point sources of pollution, cause significant changes in fish ecosystems and habitats [25]. This adverse effect is compounded by invasions of alien species, which adapt more easily to new conditions as a result of climate change (e.g., increase in watercourse temperatures) [26]. This can lead to changes in the structure of the ichthyofauna in a watercourse and even changes in the density and population structure of the invading species [27,28]. Understanding these aspects is crucial for assessing the impact of the Chinese sleeper on ecosystems, especially in regions where habitats of high natural importance predominate.
The aim of the present study was to analyse and assess the population structure of the Chinese sleeper over an annual cycle in terms of age, length, weight, individual condition, and fish growth under highly anthropogenically altered river conditions. The study was part of research on the population ecology of the Chinese sleeper in small rivers in the European ecoregion of ‘Central Plains’. It is important for establishing a management plan to mitigate the potential environmental damage caused by rapidly spreading populations of this invasive species.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Site

Chinese sleeper populations were monitored in the highly anthropogenically altered, small river Wilanówka, which is a left-bank tributary of the Vistula River (Central Poland, Warsaw, GPS: 52°08′18.3″ N 21°08′16.5″ E) (Figure 1). The Wilanówka is a 16.5 km long river, in its lower part (being the study site), flowing for 10.0 km within the built-up area of the capital city of Warsaw. In this section, maintenance works (cutting of aquatic vegetation and dredging of the bed) are carried out every two years. Moreover, there are numerous hydrotechnical structures and shoreline reinforcements, which are regularly maintained every year.
The average depth of the watercourse at the study site was 0.4–0.7 m. At this location, the bottom was covered by a layer of stones (0–10%), gravel (5–25%), sand (2–20%) with a dominant share of silt (20–60%), varied with depressions and submerged (mainly stiff hornwort) and emergent (mainly common reed) vegetation. The density of vegetation was variable and dependent on the time of the maintenance works. The mean values of the basic hydrochemical parameters of the water at this site are shown in Table 1.

2.2. Fish Catch

In order to determine the structure and density of the ichthyofauna in the study watercourse, fish were collected once during the autumn periods (September) from 2017 to 2023. For detailed monitoring of biological and population characteristics, individuals were taken from monthly catches between April 2022 and March 2023 (fishing frequency 30 ± 5 days). Fishing was carried out with an approved aggregator (Hans Grassl Gmbh IG, ELT60IIHI, Schönau am Königssee, Bavaria, Germany) along a 100 m stretch, across the entire width of the river channel using the wading method, and at higher water levels, the work was supported with a small boat. The fishing activity followed recommendations of European Union and Polish norms (CEN EN 14011 2003 [29], PN-EN ISO 5667-6:2016-12 [30]), as obtaining reliable information on the distribution and dominance of species in rivers requires electrofishing, taking into account the specific characteristics of the watercourse. The species affiliation of the fish collected and the number of individuals of each species were determined at each site. Chinese sleeper individuals were taken for further analysis, while the remaining fish, after being counted and taxonomically identified, were released alive at the sites.

2.3. Species Structure and Fish Density

During electrofishing, after each fish was caught, its species affiliation was determined using taxonomic characteristics. A total of eight fish species were caught. This enabled the presentation of changes in the species composition of the ichthyofauna in the studied section of the Wilanówka River. Based on the results of the 2017–2023 monitoring surveys, the species structure of the ichthyofauna was determined in each year, reported in the paper as the relative abundance of individuals of a given species to all fish collected (N, %), and the density of a species (D, ind.), defined as the number of fish of a given species per 1 m2.

2.4. Length, Weight, and Condition

A total of 597 Chinese sleeper specimens were collected (Figure 2) and, after transport to the laboratory, measured (total length—TL, mm and standard length—SL, mm) using an electronic calliper with an accuracy of 0.1 mm (115/B, Toolpack, Poland) and weighed with an accuracy of 0.1 g, using a digital balance (WLY 1/D, Radwag, Poland). Sex was determined by histological examination of the gonads [31]. Fulton’s coefficient was calculated using the formula [32]:
CF = 100 × W/TL3
where
W is total weight (g), TL—total length (cm).
The parameters of the weight–length relationship (WLR) were determined using the following equation:
W = a × TLb
Both variables underwent logarithmic transformation to linearise the regression (log W = a + b × log TL), where “a” is the y-intercept, and “b” is the slope of the regression line. The value of the slope (b) of the WLR relationship indicates whether growth is isometric (b = 3) or allometric (b ≠ 3) [33].

2.5. Age and Growth

For age assessment, two otoliths were taken from each fish. Before analysing the age of the fish, the otoliths were kept in a 10% sodium hypochlorite solution for 10 min and the surrounding tissues were removed under a binocular microscope [34]. The age of otoliths was read by two independent researchers from annual rings seen in transmitted and reflected light [35] using a Nikon Eclipse E600 stereo microscope equipped with an HD video camera and Lucia image analysis software (Laboratory Imaging, Prague, Czech Republic). The growth of fishes was described using the von Bertalanffy equation [36]:
L t = L i n f   ( 1 − e − K ( t − t 0 )   )
where
Lt is length (cm) at time t (age in years), Linf is standard length (cm) at time infinity (the predicted mean maximum length for the population), K is a growth constant which describes the rate at which Linf is attained, t is age (years) and to is the time at which length = 0. The parameters of the above equation were calculated in the R programming environment with FSA packages, nlstools, magrittr, dplyr, and nnnet [37]. Because the parameters Linf and k are inversely correlated [38], the index of growth performance φ′ [39] was calculated as follows:
φ ′ = l o g 10   k + 2 l o g 10 ( L i n f   )
where
Linf is the asymptotic standard length (in mm), and k is the rate at which the asymptotic length is approached.

2.6. Statistical Analysis

Before performing comparative statistical analyses, tests for the normality of variable distribution were performed using the Shapiro–Wilk test and for homogeneity of variance using the Levene test. To compare the two groups in terms of length (TL and SL), weight, and condition, the Mann–Whitney–Wilcoxon test [40] was applied. In addition, to assess the significance of differences in the number of males and females per month (sex ratio), the χ2 test, with Yates correction, was used.
In statistical analyses, a significance level of p ≤ 0.05 was adopted. Statistical calculations were performed using the STATISTICA 14.0 PL package (StatSoft, Kraków, Poland).

3. Results

3.1. Fish Structure in the Study River

Between 2017 and 2023, the composition and structure of the ichthyofauna in the studied watercourse changed. Each year, a decrease in the number of species and a percentage increase in the proportion (N, %) and density (ind./m2) of the Chinese sleeper were recorded. For example, in 2017, seven fish species were present in the surveyed section, among which the Chinese sleeper accounted for 16.2% at its density of 0.0014 ind./m2, while between 2022 and 2023 the Chinese sleeper accounted for more than 98% of the catch (density was more than 0.450 ind./m2), and besides this invasive species, only the presence of perch was recorded in the watercourse (Table 2).

3.2. Sex Structure

In the captured group of fish (total of 597 individuals), there was no statistically significant disparity in sex structure for the whole sample (χ2 = 0.008, p > 0.935); however, differences were recorded in April (χ2 = 7.348, p = 0.007) and July (χ2 = 4.587, p = 0.032) (Table 3).

3.3. Length, Weight, and Age Structure

The total length (TL) of the fish ranged from 5.00 to 13.68 cm (average 7.67 cm), and the standard length (SL) ranged from 4.01 to 11.50 cm (average 6.51 cm). The average weight of these fish was 8.27 g (range 0.37–52.8 g). There were no statistically significant differences in these parameters between females and males (Table 4), despite sexual dimorphism.
However, as expected, these differences in standard length (SL) and body weight (W) were recorded by month of the year (Figure 3).

3.4. Fish Condition

The mean value of Fulton’s condition coefficients for the entire fish sample was 2.54 ± 0.54. In general, males had greater Fulton coefficient than females (CFF = 2.50 ± 0.40, CFM = 2.58 ± 0.65) (Mann–Whitney–Wilcoxon test, W = 22.0, p = 0.038). Significant differences in the values of this parameter between sexes during the study period were recorded only in January, June, October, and November (Figure 4). The analysis of fish condition across the annual cycle showed that after a period of spring stabilisation of CF values (range from 1.95 to 3.49), from June to August, a decrease was recorded in CF even below 1.80. This phenomenon could have been caused by the catching of fish with poorer condition after spawning. The autumn-winter period, apart from an unexplained decline in fish condition observed in October, was marked by an initial increase in the condition factor (CF), followed by its stabilisation between November and January at 2.40.
Analysis of the length–weight relationships (LWR) showed that the growth of the Chinese sleeper was allometric (b > 3.0), with a statistically significant (p < 0.001) and high correlation (R > 0.96) (Table 5).

3.5. Age and Growth Rate

Eight age groups were recorded in the population structure of both males and females, among which males were dominated by fish aged 1+ and 2+, accounting for 63.28%, while females were dominated by fish aged 2+, 3+ and 4+, accounting for 87.98%. At the same time, when analysing the age structure of fish over the annual cycle (Figure 5), fish aged 2+ and 3+ were recorded in all months of the year, while fish aged 1+ and 4+ were recorded in seven and ten months of the year, respectively. The presence of older fish was inconsistent, suggesting that they may have periodically entered the study section of the river from the estuarine area (Figure 6).
The growth curves of the von Bertalanffy model were fitted to the SL data in each year of the fish’s life. The estimated parameters of the von Bertalanffy equations for the whole population were as follows: L∞ = 175.37 mm (±24.38 mm), k = 0.104 (±0.024), t0 = −1.711 (±0.242), with a growth performance φ′ of 1.505. Differences in individual growth parameters were recorded between females and males (Table 6), indicating differences in the growth of these groups of fish (Figure 7).

4. Discussion

Since the end of the 20th century, the Chinese sleeper has spread rapidly in eastern and central Europe [7,15] and in recent years also in the northern part of the continent [41]. This species is an aggressive predator that preys on aquatic organisms, including juvenile fish [5] and amphibians [42]. For this reason, as well as due to competition for food with native species [5,43], it is considered an invasive species [44,45]. Settlement in new areas and increasing densities of this species is favoured by rapid maturation, high fecundity, and multiple spawning [31], as well as easy adaptation to new environmental conditions [46]. These characteristics, as well as the annihilation of juvenile stages of native fish species [5], were probably the reasons for the change in the structure of the ichthyofauna in the studied watercourse over a period of 2017–2023 (Table 2). However, these changes may have resulted from the deterioration of environmental conditions, chiefly the decline in oxygen levels below 1 mg/dm3 in the studied watercourse because of human activity [25], which likely disadvantaged native fish with higher environmental requirements (Table 1). Compared to native species, invasive species adapt more easily to new habitat conditions [26]. This is indirectly supported by the fact that in 2017, seven fish species—including six native ones—were recorded in the studied river section, whereas in 2023, mainly the invasive Chinese sleeper was consistently captured throughout the year, accounting for 98.6% of the catch. Additionally, only a low number of perch were observed—a species known for its relative resilience to anthropogenic changes in the aquatic environments [47]. The high nutrient content in the water of the studied watercourse, combined with oxygen levels periodically falling below 1.0 mg/dm3—a threshold unfavourable for most native fish species—appears to have allowed the Chinese sleeper to survive under these conditions, albeit with reduced growth and maximum body sizes compared to other populations of this species. A similar phenomenon has been documented in numerous other fish species [48,49], attributed to a reduction in food intake under adverse environmental conditions [50]. In the studied section of the Wilanówka River, the maximum body length (SL) of males was 9.90 cm and of females 11.50 cm, while in the Vistula River for both sexes it was on average 6.45 cm [16]. By contrast, the largest individuals of this species—reaching the total length of 25.0 cm—were recorded in Lake Glubokoe, Russia [51]. However, similar maximum standard lengths (SL) of Chinese sleeper to those recorded in our study were also found in a shallow oxbow lake near Tisha River (max SL for females was 12.71 cm, and for males 11.56 cm) [52]. This similarity is likely due to comparable environmental conditions and the pronounced dominance of Chinese sleeper in both ecosystems [own data, [52]].
The influence of environmental factors, population density, and ichthyofauna structure on the attained lengths and growth of the Chinese sleeper has been noted in both native and non-native populations [53]. The variability of water chemical parameters over the annual cycle is an important factor influencing the variation in length and condition of these fish [46] and may have been the cause of disparities found in the fish studied in the Wilanówka River. Oxygen content is one of the parameters showing significant fluctuations throughout the year in the polluted waters of this stream (Supplementary Table S1). The lowest oxygen levels were recorded in the summer (from July to August, oxygen levels fell below 1 mg/dm3), which is unacceptable for most native fish species in rivers [54,55]. Although Perccottus glaenii is resistant to oxygen deficits (it survived oxygen concentrations of 0.4 mg/dm3, but not lower than 0.3 mg/dm3 for several hours—Lushchak and Bagnyukova [56]), low oxygen content below the optimum level, as in other fish, may cause stress, reduced appetite, slow growth, susceptibility to diseases and mortality [57], as well as lead to temporary reduction in population size [58].
Although these fish are known for their high tolerance to extreme environmental conditions and considerable phenotypic plasticity [59], a monthly analysis of the mean standard length (SL) and individual weight (W) of specimens from the Wilanówka River showed the highest values in April, followed by their decline in subsequent months. Given that this period corresponds to the pre-spawning season [31] and considering the river’s connection with the Vistula, this trend may be explained by the migration of Chinese sleeper from the Vistula River to spawn in habitats that offer more favourable conditions for reproduction and juvenile development. Hence, during this period there was a greater abundance of fish over 70 mm in length (these fish accounted for more than 37%), and the appearance of fish in older age groups (age groups 5+–8+ in April accounted for 9%). According to Reshetnikov [51] and Grabowska et al. [16], during the pre-spawning and spawning periods, these fish often show increased activity associated with territorial defence and the search for breeding sites, which may make them more vulnerable to capture. Furthermore, the lower number of predators in the Wilanówka River compared to the Vistula River, along with the greater coverage of submerged vegetation on the riverbed, may influence their choice of spawning sites by offering better shelter and more favourable conditions [60].
In general, similar to the populations from the Vistula River [16] and Rakamazi-Nagy-morotva [52], the sex ratio did not deviate from parity (1:1). However, a disturbingly higher proportion of females compared to males was observed during the reproductive period [31], particularly between May and July (1:1.07–1:1.74). This may result in increased reproduction and, consequently, the appearance of a greater number of juvenile Perccottus glaeni individuals in this waterbody in subsequent months. When planning management measures in this stream, removal of this invasive species should be carried out prior to this period. Such actions will reduce the capacity of rapid increases in density and population size, thereby mitigating the negative impact on native species.
The fish fitness index reflects the interaction between all abiotic and biotic factors of the aquatic environment and the organism [61]. At the same time, it also indirectly indicates the welfare, health, and reproductive status of the fish and the quality of habitat and availability of food [62,63]. The condition values obtained for Chinese sleeper from the Wilanówka River—an environment under strong anthropogenic pressure—were lower than those recoded in the Canal Habdziński [7] and in an oxbow lake near the Tisza River [52]. The relation between total length (TL) and body mass (W) was described using an exponential regression curve, represented by the equation: W = 0.011 × TL3.1634 (R2 = 0.975). The b-value of the TL-W regression calculated for all fish from the Wilanówka River and separately for both sexes and together was bigger than 3, indicating positive allometric growth. This indicates that, within the studied population, body mass gain exceeds linear growth, resulting in individuals becoming less elongated and more oval in shape [33]. This pattern is not only a species-specific characteristic, but it is also determined by food availability and resources, water chemistry, and population density [64].
The positive type of TL-W relationship is typical for the species [65], however b-values usually range between 2.25 (Ciemięga River, Poland) [66] and 3.08 (Maoershan National Forest Park, Heilongjiang, China) [67]. In some water bodies, the increase may even approach isometric proportions [16]. The relatively high values of the Fulton coefficient and b parameter in fish from the Wilanówka River indicates that conditions in this watercourse, such as habitat quality and food availability, are more favourable than in the Vistula River [16] and Marmara Lake [68]. However, most often small watercourses located in urban catchments, often regulated and subject to maintenance works, are characterised by low biodiversity and species richness [25].
In many populations of Chinese sleeper, the maximum recorded age of individuals is 4+ [35]; however, some populations include individuals aged up to 7+ [16,52]. In the population we studied, the maximum observed age was 8+, although fish aged 7+ and 8+ were recorded only sporadically, mainly during the fishing season in April, May, and September, collectively representing approximately 1.75% of the total population. These older and larger individuals likely enter this watercourse primarily for reproductive purposes and subsequently migrate back to the Vistula River after spawning (unpublished information from anglers). In contrast, the population dominated by younger age groups of 1+ to 3+, which together accounted for 72.18% of the population. This age distribution aligns with findings from other European populations of this species [52,53].
In general, the Chinese sleeper is a species easily acclimatised to new environmental conditions, which influences the colonisation of new areas [15,17]. However, it prefers heavily overgrown, stagnant areas of water bodies, usually with muddy bottoms, where periodic oxygen deficits are common [69]. Consequently, significant variation in life-history traits can be observed among different populations, reflecting the influence of diverse local environmental conditions [16,52,53]. The considerable disparities in the habitat conditions across geographical range of the Chinese sleeper contribute to significant differences in growth patterns among populations [52]. These variations are primarily driven by differences in climate, food availability, and population density [16]. The impact of such factors has been reported in both native and introduced populations in the former Soviet Union [53], as well as in Central Europe [16]. The population studied in the Wilanówka River exhibited rather rapid growth during the first year of life, followed by a more pronounced decline in annual length increments in subsequent years compared to other documented populations (Supplementary Table S2). This pattern may be attributed to early sexual maturity, which appears to occur sooner than in other populations [16,53]. According to Kirczuk et al. [31], individuals from the Wilanówka River population reach sexual maturity as early as at age 1+. Moreover, the observed difference in length increments across subsequent age classes reflect the unfavourable and unstable environmental conditions for all fish species prevailing in the studied section of the river. It is important to note that this section of the watercourse is regularly subjected to maintenance operations, leading to significant abiotic and biotic disturbances [70].
Our analyses also showed that male Chinese sleepers exhibited a faster growth rate than females during the first three years of life. However, in subsequent years, although both sexes showed a decline in annual growth increments, females consistently attained greater standard lengths (SL) than males. This pattern may be attributed to the earlier sexual maturation of females (at age 1+) in non-native populations—often at age 1+—compared to males, which typically mature at age 2+ [52]. It is plausible that females allocate energy earlier to gonadal development at the expense of somatic growth, a trade-off commonly observed in life-history strategies [70,71]. In contrast, most males reach maturity at age 2+, both in the native range [72] and in invaded areas [47]. Hence, the reduced length increments observed in females during the early years of life may be attributed to the energetic costs of early gonadal development. Conversely, the slower growth of males in subsequent years may result from the energetic demands of reproductive behaviours—particularly nest guarding and fanning of eggs with the pectoral fins—to prevent oxygen deficiency in developing embryos [47].

5. Conclusions

The Chinese sleeper is a species highly adaptable to watercourses subjected to anthropogenic pressure, even in habitats with unfavourable and unstable conditions. Our study demonstrated that in small watercourses undergoing regular maintenance, such habitat degradation can lead to a decline in native fish species richness and a simultaneous increase in the density of this invasive species. Nevertheless, despite the Chinese sleeper’s high tolerance and ecological plasticity, environmental stressors—such as those resulting from maintenance works—may induce changes in key life-history traits. In the studied population, the length of fish sampled (ST) ranged from 4.01 to 11.50 cm (average 6.51 cm), with individual body mass ranging from 0.37 to 52.8 g (average 8.27 g) and was lower than that reported for other populations of this species. Moreover, in the studied population, in addition to individuals aged 1+–4+—which dominate in most Perccottus glaenii populations—older individuals were also recorded. Additionally, Chinese sleepers exhibited lower fitness and reduced growth rates compared to other populations of the species. In addition, periodically, during the breeding season, periodic migrations likely occur from the Vistula River into this anthropogenically altered watercourse, which remains hydrologically connected to other flowing waters.
Understanding the population structure and invasion dynamics of Perccottus glenii is crucial for developing effective management and control strategies in Europe. Further research on genetic variability, ecology preferences, and interactions with native species is needed to assess the species’ invasive potential and mitigate its negative impacts on local aquatic ecosystems. Such knowledge is vital for designing evidence-based strategies to manage and control the spread of invasive populations.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/su17198782/s1, Table S1: Seasonal changes in the physicochemical parameters of the Wilanówka River water; Table S2: Standard lengths (SL, mm) at age of native and non-native population of Perccottus glenii [16,52,53,73,74,75,76,77,78,79,80,81].

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, P.C. and A.B.; methodology, P.C., A.B., J.L. and J.R.; software, P.C., A.B., L.K. and K.D.; validation, P.C., A.B., J.L. and J.R.; formal analysis, P.C., A.B., K.D., J.L. and J.R.; investigation, P.C., A.B., L.K., K.D. and J.L.; resources, P.C., A.B., J.R. and J.L.; data curation, P.C. and A.B.; writing—original draft preparation, A.B. and P.C.; review and editing, K.D., L.K., J.L. and J.R.; visualization, A.B.; supervision, P.C., A.B., K.D., J.R. and L.K.; project administration, A.B.; funding acquisition, P.C., A.B., L.K., K.D., J.L. and J.R. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

The research financed under the multiannual program by the Institute of Technology and Life Sciences and titled “Engineering and landscaping projects for innovative, resource-efficient and low-carbon economy in rural areas”, Activity 5 “Information support for preparation, completion and acceptance of land improvement equipment” (154/2016_RM-111-156-16). Co-financed by the Minister of Science under the “Regional Excellence Initiative” Program for 2024–2027 (RID/SP/0045/2024/01).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable. Conducting electrofishing and determining the number and species composition of fish do not require the consent of the ethical committee. The consent for electrofishing was obtained from those eligible for fishing during the multiannual program (154/2016_RM-111-156-16).

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors on request.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank Jarosław Dąbrowski for consultation and assistance in performing statistical analyses and graphically presenting the results.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

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Figure 1. Location of the study site in the Wilanówka River section (GPS: 52°08′18.3″ N 21°08′16.5″ E).
Figure 1. Location of the study site in the Wilanówka River section (GPS: 52°08′18.3″ N 21°08′16.5″ E).
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Figure 2. Male and female of Perccottus glaenii (photo by Jacek Wolnicki).
Figure 2. Male and female of Perccottus glaenii (photo by Jacek Wolnicki).
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Figure 3. Fish standard length (SL, cm) (a) and individual body weight (W, g) (b) of female (F) and male (M) Chinese sleeper collected in individual months. Values marked with different letters (a, b) indicate statistically significant differences between females and males in each month (Mann–Whitney–Wilcoxon test, p < 0.05); mean ± SD.
Figure 3. Fish standard length (SL, cm) (a) and individual body weight (W, g) (b) of female (F) and male (M) Chinese sleeper collected in individual months. Values marked with different letters (a, b) indicate statistically significant differences between females and males in each month (Mann–Whitney–Wilcoxon test, p < 0.05); mean ± SD.
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Figure 4. Monthly fluctuations in the condition factor (CF) values for female (F) and male (M) of Chinese sleeper from the Wilanówka River. Values marked with different letters (a, b) indicate statistically significant differences in CF between females and males in each month (Mann–Whitney Wilcoxon test, p < 0.05); mean ± SD.
Figure 4. Monthly fluctuations in the condition factor (CF) values for female (F) and male (M) of Chinese sleeper from the Wilanówka River. Values marked with different letters (a, b) indicate statistically significant differences in CF between females and males in each month (Mann–Whitney Wilcoxon test, p < 0.05); mean ± SD.
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Figure 5. Age structure of male and female Chinese sleepers from the Wilanówka River.
Figure 5. Age structure of male and female Chinese sleepers from the Wilanówka River.
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Figure 6. Monthly percentage distribution of age groups in Chinese sleeper from the Wilanówka River.
Figure 6. Monthly percentage distribution of age groups in Chinese sleeper from the Wilanówka River.
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Figure 7. Comparison of length growth (SL) of male and female Chinese sleeper using von Bertalanffy models.
Figure 7. Comparison of length growth (SL) of male and female Chinese sleeper using von Bertalanffy models.
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Table 1. Mean annual values of hydrochemical parameters of the Wilanówka River at the sampling site from April 2022 to March 2023 (own data).
Table 1. Mean annual values of hydrochemical parameters of the Wilanówka River at the sampling site from April 2022 to March 2023 (own data).
ParameterpHConductivity
[µS-cm−1]		O2
[mg-dm−3]		N-NO3
[mg-dm−3]		N-NH4
[mg-dm−3]		P-PO4
[mg-dm−3]
Mean value7.767093.912.190.941.24
SD0.241551.580.890.410.83
Table 2. Number of individuals (%) and density (ind./m2) of fish at the Wilanówka River study site.
Table 2. Number of individuals (%) and density (ind./m2) of fish at the Wilanówka River study site.
Species2017201820192020202120222023
N [%]Density
[ind./m2] 		N. [%]Density
[ind./m2]		N. [%]Density
[ind./m2]		N. [%]Density
[ind./m2]		N. [%]Density
[ind./m2]		N. [%]Density
[ind./m2]		N. [%]Density
[ind./m2]
Chinese sleeper
(Perccotus glaenii)		16.20.01462.30.08072.00.10391.80.18198.20.36198.50.45398.60.459
Weatherfish
(Misgurnus fossilis)		73.50.06319.50.0250.00.0001.90.0040.00.0000.00.0000.00.000
Tench
(Tinca tinca)		2.90.0032.60.0038.00.0110.60.0010.00.0000.00.0000.00.000
Pike
(Esox lucius)		2.90.0037.80.01016.00.0233.20.0060.70.0030.00.0000.00.000
Prussian carp
(Carassius gibelio)		1.50.0011.30.0020.00.0000.00.0000.40.0010.00.0000.00.000
European perch
(Perca fluviatilis)		1.50.0013.90.0050.00.0000.60.0010.70.0031.50.0250.00.000
Stickleback
(Gasterosteus aculeatus)		1.50.0010.00.0000.00.0001.30.0030.00.0000.00.0001.40.018
Roach
(Rutilus rutilus)		0.00.0002.60.0034.00.0060.60.0010.00.0000.00.0000.00.000
Table 3. Sex structure of the Wilanówka River Chinese sleeper by month, together with the results of the χ2 test.
Table 3. Sex structure of the Wilanówka River Chinese sleeper by month, together with the results of the χ2 test.
MonthMales
(M)		Females
(F)		Sex Ratio (M:F)χ2p2
January111:101
March18221:1.220.40.527
April59331:0.567.3480.007
May43461:1.070.1010.75
June24271:1.120.1760.674
July23401:1.744.5870.032
August431:0.750.1430.705
September36421:1.170.4620.497
October7131:1.861.80.18
November25191:0.760.8180.366
December18101:0.562.2860.131
Total2582561:0.990.0080.93
Table 4. Mean (±SD) total length (TL), standard length (SL) (in cm) and body weight (in g) of females, males and immature specimens of Chinese sleeper from the Wilanówka River, together with the results of the Mann–Whitney–Wilcoxon test.
Table 4. Mean (±SD) total length (TL), standard length (SL) (in cm) and body weight (in g) of females, males and immature specimens of Chinese sleeper from the Wilanówka River, together with the results of the Mann–Whitney–Wilcoxon test.
GroupTotal Length (TL)Standard Length (SL)Weight (g)
females7.80 ± 2.006.63 ± 1.738.91 ± 7.64
males7.52 ± 1.636.38 ± 1.457.67 ± 5.31
Juvenile *4.28 ± 0.474.22 ± 0.961.63 ± 0.90
Mann–Whitney–Wilcoxon test results (females vs. males)
W35,00135,24134,480
p0.2740.2160.432
* undetermined sex.
Table 5. Parameters of the length–weight relationships (LWR) (W = a × TLb) of the Chinese sleeper from the Wilanówka River.
Table 5. Parameters of the length–weight relationships (LWR) (W = a × TLb) of the Chinese sleeper from the Wilanówka River.
abRp
Whole sample0.0113.1630.975<0.001
Females0.0113.1620.978<0.001
Males0.0103.1820.969<0.001
Juveniles0.0252.5920.702<0.001
Table 6. Parameters of the von Bertalanffy model of male and female Chinese sleeper together with growth performance φ′.
Table 6. Parameters of the von Bertalanffy model of male and female Chinese sleeper together with growth performance φ′.
ParameterFemaleMale
EstimateStd. ErrorT ValuepEstimateStd. ErrorT Valuep
Linf18.8332.1428.791<0.000110.7260.50821.114<0.0001
K0.1290.0245.457<0.00010.2410.0327.459<0.0001
to−0.3530.135−2.6120.0095−1.3880.205−6.757<0.0001
φ1.6601.443
Lifespan711
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Czerniejewski, P.; Brysiewicz, A.; Kirczuk, L.; Dziewulska, K.; Ligięza, J.; Rechulicz, J. Growth, Condition, and Seasonal Changes in the Population Structure of the Invasive Chinese Sleeper Perccottus glenii (Dybowski, 1877) in a River Subjected to Severe Anthropological Pressure. Sustainability 2025, 17, 8782. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17198782

AMA Style

Czerniejewski P, Brysiewicz A, Kirczuk L, Dziewulska K, Ligięza J, Rechulicz J. Growth, Condition, and Seasonal Changes in the Population Structure of the Invasive Chinese Sleeper Perccottus glenii (Dybowski, 1877) in a River Subjected to Severe Anthropological Pressure. Sustainability. 2025; 17(19):8782. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17198782

Chicago/Turabian Style

Czerniejewski, Przemysław, Adam Brysiewicz, Lucyna Kirczuk, Katarzyna Dziewulska, Janusz Ligięza, and Jacek Rechulicz. 2025. "Growth, Condition, and Seasonal Changes in the Population Structure of the Invasive Chinese Sleeper Perccottus glenii (Dybowski, 1877) in a River Subjected to Severe Anthropological Pressure" Sustainability 17, no. 19: 8782. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17198782

APA Style

Czerniejewski, P., Brysiewicz, A., Kirczuk, L., Dziewulska, K., Ligięza, J., & Rechulicz, J. (2025). Growth, Condition, and Seasonal Changes in the Population Structure of the Invasive Chinese Sleeper Perccottus glenii (Dybowski, 1877) in a River Subjected to Severe Anthropological Pressure. Sustainability, 17(19), 8782. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17198782

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