Integrating Local Plant Knowledge into Elementary Curriculum: A Scalable Model for Community Sustainability

Abstract

Plants are crucial for sustaining community livelihood and should be thoroughly integrated into education; however, students often suffer from Plant Awareness Disparity (PAD). This phenomenon causes students to fail to appreciate the value of plants, often because they fail to notice or value them in their surroundings. Although numerous interventions have been suggested to address PAD, we still lack a comprehensive instrument with which to measure the interconnectedness of plant awareness knowledge and the effectiveness of such interventions. To address this gap, this study developed and validated a new scale to measure plant awareness knowledge in elementary school students. We used the Nipa palm (Nypa fruticans Wurmb) as a specific case study within the Pak Phanang Basin of Nakhon Si Thammarat Province, Thailand. This study was conducted in two phases, following the standards for education and psychology testing. In the first phase, a systematic literature review based on the Plants, People, and Planet (PPP) concept was used to identify the dimensions and components of the scale. In the second phase, the scale was developed, and its construct validity was analyzed through exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). The EFA and CFA provided evidence of a three-factor structure, confirming three distinct yet correlated dimensions of plant knowledge. The three subscales are as follows: Nature of Life, which focuses on students’ knowledge of the physical and biological characteristics of the plant; Interconnectedness of All Things, which measures knowledge of the plant’s relationship with its ecosystem and the community’s way of life; and Greatest Public Benefit, which assesses knowledge of the plant’s economic and cultural value to the community. The scale, comprising 13 items, demonstrated satisfactory internal consistency, with Cronbach’s alpha values above 0.75 across the three subscales. These findings provide educators with a valuable tool for assessing plant awareness and implementing interventions that foster ecological literacy and community sustainability.

1. Introduction

Globally, Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) has emerged as a critical framework for fostering ecological literacy and empowering communities to engage in sustainability challenges. Anchored in SDG Target 4.7, which emphasizes integrating global citizenship, cultural diversity, and sustainability principles into education, ESD calls for curricula to effectively reflect local contexts and their values [1,2]. In Thailand, particularly in the Pak Phanang Basin, Nakhon Si Thammarat Province, the Nipa palm (Nypa fruticans Wurmb) is a valuable local plant species that thrives in mangrove forests. It plays a significant role in the local economy and contributes to community sustainability [3]. Traditionally, the Nipa palm has been utilized to produce a range of products, including roofing materials, edible fruits, and various types of sugar. Its sugar-rich sap is especially valuable for fermentation into vinegar and alcohol. Furthermore, it can be processed into molasses and syrup, enabling communities to earn substantial daily income through Nipa palm sugar production [4].

Beyond its economic value, the Nipa palm makes a significant contribution to the biodiversity and stability of mangrove ecosystems by supporting a variety of wildlife and protecting against coastal erosion [5,6]. Its sustainable cultivation and harvesting practices are crucial for maintaining ecological balance and enhancing local livelihoods, making it an essential resource both locally and globally [7]. However, anthropogenic activities, environmental changes, and industrial development have posed serious threats to the genetic conservation of the Nipa palm. These challenges underscore the urgent need for effective conservation strategies informed by knowledge of its genetic diversity [8,9]. Since 2014, Her Royal Highness Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn has spearheaded the initiative to conserve plant genetics, including the Nipa palm, in the Pak Phanang Basin. Notably, the Nipa palm has been designated as one of the ten priority species in the Plant Genetic Conservation Project under the Royal Initiative, reflecting its ecological and cultural significance in Thailand [10].

Despite the Nipa palm’s ecological and cultural importance, public and educational awareness of similar local plant species remains strikingly low. This limited awareness is part of a broader challenge known as Plant Awareness Disparity (PAD). Enhancing awareness and understanding of the Nipa palm is essential for effective conservation. However, this effort is often hindered by PAD, formerly known as plant blindness. PAD describes a cognitive bias that causes individuals to overlook the importance of plants due to limited exposure to and knowledge of plant diversity [11]. Studies show that PAD is pervasive across educational levels, especially among elementary school students, who exhibit a stronger preference for animals over plants [12]. This bias is primarily influenced by the dynamic and relatable traits of animals, such as their movement and social behaviors, which make them more engaging than comparative static plants [13,14]. The dominance of this animal-centric view, termed zoochauvinism, reflects the tendency to elevate animals over plants in social and educational contexts [15]. Moreover, educational systems that fail to integrate plant science meaningfully, combined with biology textbooks that favor animal examples, have further diminished students’ abilities to identify and understand local flora [16,17].

Despite the ecological richness of Thailand’s coastal and rural communities, many students in these regions lack adequate access to formal plant science education. Studies suggest that rural learners, especially those in biodiversity-rich areas such as the Pak Phanang Basin, are often disconnected from the scientific understanding of their local flora due to curriculum standardization and urban-centric content [18,19]. This educational gap not only exacerbates PAD but also prevents children from engaging meaningfully with species that are part of their community identity and livelihoods. This pattern reflects a wider societal disconnect from the natural world, particularly from local plant species [20,21], which contributes to the undervaluing of plants in ecological and cultural contexts [22,23]. These outcomes present substantial obstacles to achieving several Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), especially those related to quality education (SDG 4), climate action (SDG 13), and life on land (SDG 15) [24].

Traditionally, education interventions aimed at addressing PAD have focused primarily on enhancing students’ factual knowledge about plants. Numerous studies emphasize the importance of enhancing plant literacy, ecological understanding, and general awareness of flora [11,25]. This approach aligns with the deficit model of science communication, which assumes that public misunderstanding or indifference stems from a lack of scientific knowledge. In this model, information flows in one direction, i.e., from experts to learners, who are viewed as passive recipients in need of correction [26]. However, this model has been increasingly criticized for its limitations in fostering genuine awareness. Scholars argue that plant awareness is not merely about accumulating botanical facts but also involves recognition of the fundamental roles that plants play in both ecosystems and human life [27,28]. Developing this deeper awareness requires direct, meaningful interactions with plants, not just abstract knowledge, and the transference of emotional connection, curiosity, and respect toward plant life, which are essential for overcoming PAD [20,28].

Therefore, addressing PAD in school curricula should go beyond textbook revisions and content enhancement. It must incorporate experiential, inquiry-based, and place-based learning experiences rooted in the local environment, connecting students with culturally and ecologically significant plant species. Such pedagogical shifts are critical to building lasting plant awareness and supporting broader goals of biodiversity education and sustainability [29]. Thus, cultivating plant awareness must be viewed not only as an educational goal but also as a societal imperative for fostering long-term resilience. Numerous strategies have been proposed to address PAD in educational settings, especially among elementary school students. One practical approach involves integrating plant studies with other subjects, such as chemistry, art, or literature, through multidisciplinary learning, which has been shown to make plant-related content more engaging and relatable [30]. Additionally, digital tools, including tablets and plant identification apps, offer interactive experiences that enhance students’ botanical knowledge while correcting misconceptions [31,32].

Hands-on activities, including indoor gardening and field trips, have also proven beneficial by allowing students to interact directly with plants, thereby enhancing their aesthetic awareness and familiarity [33,34]. Interestingly, combining plant education with animal-related content, especially that of vertebrates like birds or bats, can further enhance student engagement. These interactions foster both engagement and a protective attitude toward both flora and fauna [25,35]. To improve readability and information delivery, presenting these approaches as structured curriculum elements or thematic modules can help educators select and adapt strategies more effectively. While these educational strategies offer valuable insights into effective PAD interventions, a significant challenge remains: the lack of a comprehensive tool to assess general plant knowledge about plant awareness and appreciation [22,28]. A validated tool is essential not only for curriculum improvement but also for tracking meaningful shifts in ecological literacy over time. Addressing this gap is crucial for evaluating and refining curricula designed to enhance students’ plant-related learning.

To address the lack of comprehensive instruments for evaluating plant awareness in the context of local flora, this study aimed to develop and validate a quantitative scale that measures local plant knowledge, explicitly focusing on the Nipa palm (Nypa fruticans), a culturally and ecologically significant local plant species in the Pak Phanang Basin, Thailand. The scale is designed to be administered to elementary school students within this region, recognizing their pivotal role in future community sustainability efforts. While the initial development focuses on the Nipa palm as a representative species, the underlying framework and validation process are designed to be adaptable, offering a scalable model for assessing knowledge of other culturally and ecologically significant local plants in diverse regions. The development of this validated assessment tool represents a foundational component of a broader, scalable model for integrating local plant knowledge into elementary school curricula, which ultimately supports community sustainability. Grounded in the principle of Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) and structured around the three core conceptual dimensions of plants, people, and the planet [36,37], this scale will serve as a crucial instrument for evaluating the effectiveness of future curriculum interventions and demonstrating their impact on student learning across diverse local contexts.

Specifically, this study addressed the following research questions: (1) Do exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses (EFA and CFA) confirm the scale’s three-dimensional structure? (2) Does the instrument demonstrate acceptable reliability (Cronbach’s alpha) and temporal stability? Beyond its academic contribution, this study seeks to support community sustainability by promoting local ecological knowledge and enhancing plant awareness from an early age. By embedding culturally relevant plant education into the formal curriculum, this research provides a foundation for fostering local identity, environmental stewardship, and sustainable livelihoods within the community. Crucially, this approach aims to nurture a sense of place and cultural connectedness among students, empowering them to see themselves as stewards of their local ecosystems. When learners engage with species that are integral to their everyday lives, such as the Nipa palm, they begin to form emotional and cultural bonds that reinforce community identity and ecological responsibility. This scale also has strong potential for adaptation in other regions, reinforcing its value as a scalable educational tool for biodiversity-focused curriculum design. Ultimately, this study contributes to the development of evidence-based strategies for transformative education that not only address PAD but also empower communities through culturally grounded, ecologically informed learning aligned with both the SDGs and local sustainability goals.

The subsequent sections of this study are organized as follows: Section 2 delves into the integration of Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) to promote local plant awareness. Here, we review the conceptual dimensions underpinning ESD, including plants, people, and the planet, and discuss their relevance to the research context. Section 3 outlines the comprehensive research design, detailing the conceptual framework, methodology, and systematic steps involved in developing the assessment scale. Section 4 presents the quantitative results, including the findings from exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), which validate the newly developed scale measuring local plant knowledge among elementary school students. Section 5 discusses these findings in relation to existing literature and examines their implications for curriculum development. Section 6 concludes the study by summarizing its key contributions to educational theory and practice. Section 7 addresses the study limitations and offers directions for future research aimed at enhancing plant awareness and advancing place-based sustainability initiatives.

2. Literature Review

2.1. Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) and Its Principles

Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) is a transformative educational paradigm that has garnered global recognition for its essential role in equipping individuals with the knowledge, skills, and values necessary to address socioecological challenges and promote sustainable behavior [38]. In contrast to the traditional education model, ESD goes beyond knowledge transmission; it cultivates a deep understanding of the interconnectedness of the environmental, social, and economic dimensions of sustainability, promoting a holistic approach to global challenges [39,40]. It aims to empower learners to become active, responsible global citizens capable of making informed decisions and acting for a more just and sustainable world [41].

At its core, ESD is fundamentally intertwined with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), a universal call to action to end poverty, protect the planet, and ensure prosperity for all. Specifically, ESD is anchored in SDG Target 4.7, which emphasizes integrating global citizenship, cultural diversity, and sustainability principles into education by 2030 [1]. This target highlights the crucial role of education in achieving all 17 SDGs by promoting critical thinking, systemic understanding, and a commitment to collective action [42]. ESD initiatives often encourage pedagogical shifts towards interdisciplinary, participatory, and problem-based learning approaches, moving away from rots memorization to foster deeper engagement and relevance to real-world issues, making education more relevant and impactful [43].

The implementation of ESD necessitates curricular reforms that are adaptable to local contexts, reflecting unique cultural, social, and environmental values, rather than adhering to a standardized global curriculum [44,45]. This localized approach ensures that sustainability education resonates with learners’ lived experiences, cultural heritage, and immediate environmental concerns. By emphasizing critical reflection on local challenges and opportunities, ESD fosters a sense of agency and collective responsibility, enabling communities to develop tailored solutions to their specific sustainability issues [46]. Ultimately, ESD aims to transform learners into agents of change, equipping them with the competencies necessary to shape a more equitable and environmentally sustainable future for both current and future generations [2].

2.2. Plant Awareness Disparity (PAD) and the “Plants, People, Planet” (PPP) Framework

Building up the principle of ESD, this section explores a critical cognitive and educational gap in plant-related education known as Plant Awareness Disparity (PAD). PAD, formerly known as “plant blindness”, describes a cognitive bias where individuals tend not to notice or appreciate plants in their surrounding environment. This phenomenon often leads to a diminished recognition of plants’ importance, perceiving them as mere backdrops for animal life or as less significant to human affairs and the biosphere [22,23]. This bias is not a lack of visual capability, but rather a result of a visual cognition bias in which the human visual system evolved to prioritize moving objects and those resembling humans, thereby disadvantaging static plants in terms of attention [47]. Consequently, PAD negatively impacts students’ understanding of the critical role that plant life plays in ecosystems and human well-being. Its widespread presence has far-reaching consequences, contributing to a lack of appreciation and understanding of plant biodiversity, diminished interest in plant conservation efforts, and even perpetuating misconceptions that impede the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) [48]. In recognizing the need to address PAD and its ableist implications, there have been calls to shift the goal of botanical education from “preventing plant blindness” to actively “fostering plant awareness” [22].

Historically, interventions aimed at addressing PAD have primarily relied on the knowledge deficit model. This model assumes that simply providing more scientific information will improve public understanding of and support for science [49]. However, this model has been largely unsupported in science communication, as it often overlooks the personal, cultural, and experiential dimensions of knowledge acquisition [50,51]. Scholars argue that fostering genuine plant awareness goes beyond merely accumulating botanical facts; it necessitates recognizing plants’ fundamental roles in ecosystems and human life through direct, meaningful interactions [20,52]. This shift requires cultivating emotional connection, curiosity, and respect toward plant life to truly overcome PAD.

To foster this more profound connection and understanding, various conceptual frameworks have emerged. Among these is the “Plants, People, Planet” (PPP) framework developed by Hiscock et al. [36]. This is emphasized further by Fiel’ardh et al. [53], who provide a valuable holistic perspective for organizing plant knowledge and promoting deeper plant awareness. This framework integrates three interconnected dimensions, aligning with the three pillars of sustainability, namely, economic, social, and environmental [54]: (1) Plants—This dimension includes biological and ecological knowledge about plants, including their diversity, anatomy, physiology, and their role in natural processes. (2) People—This section focuses on the multifaceted relationships between humans and plants, which extend beyond mere utility to include cultural, historical, economic, and spiritual connections. This dimension emphasizes the integral role of plants in community livelihoods and identities [55]. (3) Planet—This addresses the broader role of plants in mitigating global environmental challenges, such as climate regulation, biodiversity conservation, and ensuring food security. This highlights the importance of protecting and restoring ecosystems and natural resources, as well as the sustainable use and conservation of plant biodiversity, for the future of our planet.

Importantly, the PPP model is not only a conceptual lens but also a practical tool for curriculum design and assessment. It helps frame plant education in ways that integrate knowledge, affective engagement, and action, especially in biodiversity-rich communities.

2.3. The Role of Local Plant Knowledge in Community Sustainability and Educational Gaps

The integration of local plant knowledge into education is crucial for fostering genuine community sustainability, especially in biodiversity-rich regions like Thailand’s Pak Phanang Basin. In this context, the Nipa palm (Nypa fruticans Wurmb) serves as a valuable local plant species that thrives in mangrove forests, playing a significant role in both the local economy and community sustainability [10]. Traditionally, its versatile uses range from roofing materials and edible fruits to various types of sugar, with its sugar-rich sap being particularly valuable for fermentation into vinegar and alcohol, providing substantial daily income through Nopa palm sugar production [10,56]. Beyond its economic contributions, the Nipa palm makes a profound contribution to the biodiversity and stability of mangrove ecosystems, supporting diverse wildlife and protecting against coastal erosion [57,58]. Its sustainable cultivation and harvesting practices are thus essential for maintaining ecological balance and enhancing local livelihoods, positioning it as a vital resource both locally and globally.

Despite the Nipa palm’s ecological and cultural importance, public and educational awareness of such local plant species remains strikingly low, forming part of the broader challenge known as Plant Awareness Disparity (PAD). This limited awareness is exacerbated by educational systems that often fail to integrate plant science meaningfully, coupled with biology textbooks that tend to favor animal examples, thereby diminishing students’ abilities to identify and understand local flora [23]. Rural learners, particularly those in biodiversity-rich areas like the Pak Phanang Basin, are often disconnected from their local flora due to curriculum standardization and urban-centric content. This educational gap not only intensifies PAD but also hinders children in their meaningful engagement with species that are integral to their community identity and livelihoods, reflecting a wider societal disconnect from the natural world and contributing to the undervaluing of plants in ecological and cultural contexts [59]. Such outcomes present substantial obstacles to achieving several Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), especially those related to quality education (SDG 4), climate action (SDG 13), and life on land (SDG 15) [24].

The urgent need for effective conservation strategies for the Nipa palm is underscored by significant threats from anthropogenic activities, environmental changes, and industrial development, which pose a threat to its genetic conservation [60]. Recognizing its ecological and cultural significance in Thailand, Her Royal Highness Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn has spearheaded initiatives since 2014 to conserve plant genetics, including the Nipa palm in the Pak Phanang Basin, designating it as the seventh priority species in the Plant Genetic Conservation Project under the Royal Initiative [10]. Therefore, fostering local ecological knowledge and enhancing plant awareness from an early age are critical. By embedding culturally relevant plant education, such as focusing on the Nipa palm, into the formal curriculum, this research provides a foundation for cultivating local identity, environmental stewardship, and sustainable livelihoods within the community. This approach aims to nurture a sense of place and cultural connectedness among students, empowering them to see themselves as stewards of their local ecosystems and to reinforce community identity and ecological responsibility through engagement with species integral to their everyday lives. Furthermore, the conceptual framework and validation process developed in this study offer strong potential for adaptation in other regions, reinforcing its value as a scalable educational tool for biodiversity-focused curriculum design.

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Study Design

This study aims to develop and validate a basic knowledge scale for local plant study for elementary school students. This study was conducted in two distinct phases [61,62], adhering to the established Standards for Educational and Psychological Tests [63]. The first phase focused on establishing a conceptual base and identifying the dimensions and components of local plant knowledge relevant to elementary education. The second phase involved the rigorous development and validation of a basic knowledge scale for local plant study for elementary school students. The overall framework illustrating the data analysis process is presented in Figure 1.

Phase 1: Conceptual basis—identification of dimensions and components. This initial phase aimed to define the foundational dimensions and components of basic local plant knowledge, consistent with the methodology outlined by Bernal-Guerrero et al. [64]. This phase comprised two key steps:

• Systematic literature review: The primary objective of this review was to define the dimensions of the fundamental components of local plant knowledge relevant for elementary school students. A systematic bibliographic review was conducted, guided by the principles of the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Protocols (PRISMA-P) protocol [65]. The search for relevant literature was carried out across the Web of Science, ERIC, and Scopus databases. The search equation employed was based on the core concepts of “local plant study in elementary school toward sustainable development”. A more explicit search string was conducted using Boolean operators and keywords to ensure a comprehensive literature review. The search string included combinations of the following terms: (“local plant knowledge” OR “local flora” OR “ethnobotany”) AND (“elementary school” OR “primary education” OR “pedagogy”) AND (“sustainability” OR “sustainable development” OR “community sustainability). The inclusion criteria focused on articles published in scientific journals from 2020 to 2025. This limitation was applied to ensure that the literature review focused on the most current perspectives and findings, given the recent evolution of key concepts. These include the increasing academic recognition of Plant Awareness Disparity (PAD) as a significant issue [23,66], and the emergence of new pedagogical frameworks for Education for Sustainable Development in the latest research, providing a contemporary foundation for our scale. Following this rigorous selection process, 18 potential articles were identified for thematic and inductive content analysis, which was performed using a systematic coding system.
• Qualitative study: To further enrich the conceptual basis and refine the identified dimensions, a qualitative study involving in-depth interviews was conducted. Twelve experts in education and local plant knowledge were interviewed to ascertain their perceptions, knowledge, and experience related to the basic knowledge of local plants suitable for elementary school curricula. The selection criterion for experts was their experience in developing or coordinating relevant educational programs. Additionally, 16 in-depth interviews were conducted with elementary schools to understand their perspectives on local plant knowledge and identify key characteristics of the knowledge contained in relevant programs. All interviews were recorded, transcribed, and systematically coded to identify the components of local plant knowledge, with the content analysis facilitated by NVivo 12. The expert panel also scrutinized the interview scripts for validity and pertinence of items, aiming for a consensus level above 80%. The analysis concluded when information saturation was reached.

This approach, combining a systematic literature review with a qualitative study, yielded an initial set of 21 items for the scale, structured across seven identified dimensions: General Plant Knowledge, Soil Resource Knowledge, Water Resource Knowledge, Plant Information Systems, Plant-Related Wisdom, Plant Added Value, and Plant-Related Occupations.

Phase 2: Instrument development and validation. This phase encompassed the rigorous development and validation of the basic knowledge scale for local plant study for elementary school students, following established psychometric standards and best practices in scale development. This phase involved several systematic steps to ensure the scale’s validity and reliability.

(1)

Item generation commenced with the creation of an initial pool of 21 items, structured across the eight identified dimensions, based on the conceptual dimensions and components established in Phase 1. The phrasing of these items was meticulously crafted to be appropriate for the cognitive level of elementary school students. Subsequently, the research team conducted a thorough review of these initial items, identifying three as redundant or superfluous, which were then eliminated, resulting in a refined pool of 18 items. The dimensions included local plant knowledge as the central construct, and sub-dimensions such as general plant knowledge, soil resources knowledge, water resources knowledge, plant information systems, plant-related wisdom, plant added value, and plant-related occupations. Regarding the response format, a 5-point Likert scale was adopted for this study, ranging from “Strongly Disagree” to “Strongly Agree,” to measure the extent of agreement with each statement pertaining to local plant knowledge.

(2)

Content Validity was established through a multi-stage expert review process [67], consistent with the methodology used by Bernal-Guerrero et al. [64]. An initial panel of 10 specialists in elementary education, plant science, environmental education, and psychometrics carried out an initial review of the items, scrutinizing their formal structure, clarity of wording, and suitability for the intended Likert-type scaling. This was followed by a quantitative content validity assessment using the Content Validity Ratio (CVR) and the Content Validity Index (CVI). An additional panel of 10 experts evaluated each item’s necessity, relevance, clarity, and simplicity. For the CVR calculation, items were rated on a Likert scale with values: 1 = essential; 2 = useful, but not essential; 3 = not essential. Based on Lawshe’s scores, items achieving a score equal to or greater than 0.56 were retained [68]. For the CVI, each item was calculated on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = not relevant; 2 = slightly relevant; 3 = moderately relevant; 4 = highly relevant; 5 = extremely relevant) [69], with items achieving a value equal to or higher than 0.80 being selected. Following this rigorous process, five items were eliminated due to not fulfilling the specified CVI criteria, resulting in a refined pool of 13 items retained for subsequent factor analysis. The total CVR and CVI scores for the scale were 0.88 and 0.96, respectively, demonstrating a robust degree of content validity [70].

(3)

Face validity was then established through cognitive interviews utilizing think-aloud protocols, a widely recognized method for assessing how target users interpret survey items [71,72]. A sample of 14 elementary school students, selected through convenience sampling, participated in these interviews. These students possessed characteristics like those of the study’s target group, which ranged in age from 10 to 12 years old. They were drawn from elementary schools located in the Pak Phanang Basin, representing the demographic and contextual characteristics of the intended target group. The small sample size of 14 students was appropriate for this stage, as the purpose of cognitive interviews is not statistical generalization but rather to gain in-depth qualitative feedback on the clarity and comprehension of each item from the perspective of the target population [73]. Students were selected from a wide age span (8–12 years old) to ensure that the final scale’s wording and content were suitable for all students within the upper elementary age range. The primary objective of these interviews was to identify any ambiguity, assess the understandability and difficulty of each item, and explore the interpretation of each item. During the interviews, each student was presented with the scale and encouraged to verbalize their thoughts as they read and responded to each item. Subsequent revisions to the instrument were made based on the insights and feedback garnered from these student interviews, thereby ensuring the clarity, comprehensibility, and cultural appropriateness of the scale for the intended elementary school student audience.

(4)

Construct validity was established through a two-stage factor analysis process to understand and confirm the instrument’s underlying structure [74]. Initially, exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was performed to ascertain the scale’s composition and structure. Subsequently, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted to verify the alignment between the collected data and the theoretical model identified through the EFA [75]. LISREL version 11 was specifically utilized for the CFA. For the model assessment, a comprehensive set of Goodness-of-Fit indices was employed, including the chi-square test, Comparative Fit Index (CFI), Goodness-of-Fit Index (GFI), Adjusted Goodness-of-Fit Index (AGFI), Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA), Root Mean Square Residual (RMR), Normed Fit Index (NFI), Parsimonious Normed Fit Index (PNFI), Incremental Fit Index (IFI), and Parsimonious Goodness-of-Fit Index (PGFI). These indices collectively provide a robust evaluation of how well the identified factors fit the sample data [76,77].

(5)

Reliability of scale was assessed through both its internal consistency and temporal stability. Internal consistency for each dimension and the overall scale was determined by calculating the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient, along with the Composite Reliability (CR). Cronbach’s alpha is a widely used measure that estimates the reliability of a psychometric test by assessing the degree of correlation between items on a scale, with values between 0.70 and 0.90 generally considered acceptable for internal consistency [78,79]. To evaluate the scale’s temporal stability, a test–retest procedure was conducted [80]. This involved administering the scale twice to a subgroup of 50 students, with a time interval of two weeks between administrations. The test–retest reliability was then evaluated using the Intraclass Correlation Coefficient (ICC). For the ICC, values above 0.75 were considered indicative of appropriate stability [81].

(6)

External validity, specifically convergent and discriminant validity, was also examined. Convergent validity was assessed by evaluating the Average Variance Extracted (AVE) and the Composite Reliability (CR) for each factor [82]. Discriminate validity was established by analyzing the AVE for each construct in relation to the squared Interco struct correlations associated with the factor.

3.2. Participants and Sampling

(1)

Target population and sampling procedure: The target population for this study consisted of all upper elementary students (aged 10–12 years old) from 46 elementary schools located in the Pak Phanang Basin, Nakhon Si Thammarat Province, Thailand. This specific geographical and age group was chosen as a critical development stage for fostering foundational knowledge about local plants, particularly the Nipa palm, and addressing potential Plant Awareness Disparity from an early age [12]. The total population of students within this demographic across the 46 schools was 2662. A stratified random sampling method was employed to select a representative sample from this population [83]. This method was chosen to ensure that each elementary school, representing a distinct stratum, was proportionally represented in the final sample based on its upper elementary student enrollment numbers. The appropriate sample size was determined. Yamane’s formula [84] resulted in a total sample of 347 participants at a 95% confidence level. Within each selected school, students were randomly chosen to participate as individuals, rather than as intact classes. This approach was critical to ensure the assumption of independence among student responses, which is a core requirement for both EFA and CFA. This rigorous sampling method ensures that the data collected are suitable for subsequent statistical analyses and that the findings are robust and generalizable to the target population. Although this method ensures geographical representativeness, this study did not specifically account for the socio-economic background of the students, which is a potential limitation that can be explored in future research. Throughout the sampling process, strict adherence to ethical considerations was maintained, including obtaining informed consent from parents or guardians and assent from the students.

(2)

Data collection procedure: This study was conducted through the following systematic procedure: (1) The eligible elementary schools were initially informed of the study’s objectives and procedures. Subsequently, the school directors provided formal written consent for their schools’ involvement. (2) The school administration facilitated the dissemination of information about the study to the parents or legal guardians of potential student participants. Written informed consent was obtained from parents or legal guardians for the participation of students. (3) Researchers visited the participating schools to administer the questionnaires directly to the students. During these sessions, clear instructions for completing the questionnaire were provided, and the researchers were present to help the participants, when necessary, with the supervision of the corresponding class tutor. (4) Before commencing the questionnaire, the students were thoroughly informed of the study’s aim and their voluntary participation. They were assured of their anonymity and the confidential treatment of all information provided. (5) The students completed the self-report questionnaire in a paper-based format during a designated session within their respective classrooms. Each questionnaire was pre-coded with a unique identification number by the research team to maintain anonymity and facilitate data management without linking responses to individual students. The entire session typically lasted approximately 20–30 min.

3.3. Data Analysis

The collected data was subjected to a comprehensive set of statistical analyses to ensure the validity and reliability of the developed local plant knowledge scale. A metric analysis of the 18 items (resulting from the content validity process) was performed, including measures of central tendency (Means), dispersion (Standard Deviation), and distribution (Skewness and Kurtosis). Corrected item–total correlations between each item and its respective dimensions were also examined. To provide evidence for factor validity, a total sample of 347 participants was utilized. An exploratory factor analysis (EFA) [85] was initially conducted on a randomly selected subsample of 173 participants. The EFA was performed using the Parallel Analysis method, employing Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) estimation via the Unweighted Least Squares (ULS) technique with direct oblimin rotation, which is appropriate when correlations between the dimensions are assumed [86]. The suitability of the sample for factor analysis was assessed using the Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) measure and Bartlett’s sphericity test [87]. The number of factors to retain was determined by considering eigenvalues greater than 1, and the percentage of variance was explained. Factor loadings above 0.40 were considered adequate for item retention.

Subsequently, a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted on the remaining subsample of 174 participants to validate the structure of the scale obtained from the EFA [74]. This analysis also employed the parallel analysis method with the ULS technique and direct oblimin rotation. Following the recommendations of Hoyle [88] and acknowledging the sensitivity of the chi-square value to small model variations in large samples, a combined strategy of different Goodness-of-Fit indices was used [89]. Good fit values were indicated if the Goodness-of-Fit Index (GFI) and Comparative Fit Index (CFI) were ≥0.96, the Tucker–Lewis Index (TLI) was ≥0.95, and the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) was ≤0.05. Moderate fit was considered if the CFI, GFI, and TLI were ≥0.90 and the RMSEA was ≤0.08. The Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMSR) with values of 0.08 or lower also indicated a good fit [89,90].

Reliability analysis was performed for each dimension and the total scale using Cronbach’s alpha coefficient, with values over 0.70 (or 0.75) as an indicator of good internal consistency. Composite Reliability (CR) was also calculated as a measure of internal consistency. For temporal stability, the Intraclass Correlation Coefficient (ICC) was utilized, with values over 0.75 considered acceptable [91,92]. Evidence of external validity was based on convergent and discriminant validity. Convergent validity was assessed via the Average Variance Extracted (AVE). As a criterion for acceptance, the AVE was required to be 0.50 or greater, and CR equal to or greater than 0.70 [93]. Discriminant validity between constructs was established when the square root of the AVE was greater than the correlation between the constructs [93]. All statistical analyses were conducted using IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version 25.0, and LISREL, Version 11.

4. Results

4.1. Descriptive Statistics and Kruskal–Wallis H-Test

A metric analysis of the 13 items was performed to provide an overview of the data’s central tendency, dispersion, and distribution. The average item scores (means) for the scale ranged from 1.97 to 4.08, while the Standard Deviation values were all above 0.50, indicating adequate dispersion. The analysis of distribution showed that Skewness values ranged between −0.48 and 0.93, and Kurtosis scores were between −1.07 and 1.26. Because these values fall within the recommended range of −1.5 to +1.5, the data distribution is adequate [94].

Furthermore, the corrected item–total correlations (I-tcd) between each item and its assumed dimension were also examined. The I-tcd values for all items were found to be above 0.45, with values ranging from 0.48 to 0.70. These results indicate that each item has a satisfactory correlation with the overall construction it is intended to measure [94]. A detailed breakdown of these descriptive statistics is presented in

Table 1. Item descriptive statistics.

Item No.	Description of the Item	M	SD	Skew.	Kurt.	I-tcd
LPK01	Knowledge of the physical characteristics of the local plant	3.33	1.05	−0.47	−0.27	0.72
LPK02	Knowledge of the life cycle and reproduction of the local plant	3.18	1.15	−0.15	−0.65	0.62
LPK03	Knowledge of the local plant species based on the local name	3.03	1.11	−0.28	−0.63	0.61
LPK04	Knowledge of the utility of the local plant	3.30	1.24	−0.20	−1.07	0.49
LPK05	Knowledge of the local plant-related soil resources	4.08	0.50	−0.48	1.26	0.51
LPK06	Knowledge of the local plant-related water resources	2.98	0.88	−0.42	0.26	0.62
LPK07	Knowledge of the local plant-related ecosystem and biodiversity	2.97	1.16	−0.27	−1.03	0.59
LPK08	Knowledge of the natural products of the local plant	2.96	0.96	−0.23	−0.12	0.70
LPK09	Knowledge of the local plant transformation processes to create useful products	3.43	1.09	−0.33	−0.53	0.62
LPK10	Knowledge of the local plant-related traditional wisdom and culture for the community heritage and development	1.97	1.05	0.93	0.17	0.51
LPK11	Knowledge of the local plant product processing for the community’s economic value addition	2.61	1.04	0.03	−0.76	0.67
LPK12	Knowledge of the local plant food and beverage processing for community food security	2.94	1.09	−0.41	−0.86	0.48
LPK13	Knowledge of the community’s way of life in relation to the local plant	3.17	0.76	−0.11	0.32	0.50

M = Mean; SD = Standard Deviation; Skew. = Skewness; Kurt. = Kurtosis; I–tcd = Item–Total Correlations Dimension.

.

4.2. Exploratory Factor Analysis

The identified items of the local plant knowledge scale were evaluated using exploratory factor analysis (EFA) to assess their factorability and suitability for further analysis. The EFA was performed on a randomly selected subsample of 173 participants, where the factor analysis procedure revealed a three-factor structure with 13 items. The results are presented in

Table 2. KMO and Barlett’s test.

Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy		0.874
Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity	Approx. Chi-Square	1593.464
	df	78
	Sig.	0.000

. A Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) value of 0.874 was obtained, which was above the study’s criterion of 0.6, indicating that the data were suitable for EFA [95]. Furthermore, a significant result of 1589.464 with a p-value of 0.000 was obtained via Bartlett’s test of sphericity. These findings support the data’s factorability and suitability for EFA [96]. In addition, the analysis of the correlation matrix also confirmed the suitability of the dataset, as most items had a value of 0.3 or higher, indicating that the data were appropriate for conducting an EFA to explore the underlying factor structure of the scale [97].

The commonalities of the items were analyzed to determine the proportion of each item’s variance that can be explained by the retained factors. An extraction value above 0.50 indicates a good fit, demonstrating that the retained factors can adequately explain the variance of an indicator [98].

Table 3. Communalities for the local plant knowledge scale items.

Label	Local Plant Knowledge	Initial	Extraction
LPK01	Knowledge of the physical characteristics of the local plant	1.000	0.622
LPK02	Knowledge of the life cycle and reproduction of the local plant	1.000	0.654
LPK03	Knowledge of the local plant species based on the local name	1.000	0.582
LPK04	Knowledge of the utility of the local plant	1.000	0.549
LPK05	Knowledge of the local plant-related soil resources	1.000	0.679
LPK06	Knowledge of the local plant-related water resources	1.000	0.651
LPK07	Knowledge of the local plant-related ecosystem and biodiversity	1.000	0.680
LPK08	Knowledge of the natural products of the local plant	1.000	0.744
LPK09	Knowledge of the local plant transformation processes to create useful products	1.000	0.567
LPK10	Knowledge of the local plant-related traditional wisdom and culture for the community heritage and development	1.000	0.575
LPK11	Knowledge of the local plant product processing for the community’s economic value addition	1.000	0.790
LPK12	Knowledge of the local plant food and beverage processing for community food security	1.000	0.728
LPK13	Knowledge of the community’s way of life in relation to the local plant	1.000	0.564

shows the commonalities of each item.

Three components with an eigenvalue greater than 1 were extracted from the local plant knowledge scale items. Figure 2 and

Table 4. Total variance explained for the local plant knowledge scale items.

Comp.	Initial Eigenvalue			Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings			Rotation Sums of Squared Loadings
	Total	% of Variance	Cumulative %	Total	% of Variance	Cumulative %	Total	% of Variance	Cumulative %
1	5.230	40.232	40.232	5.230	40.232	40.232	4.506	34.658	34.658
2	1.512	11.628	51.860	1.512	11.628	51.860	1.860	14.304	48.962
3	1.240	9.540	61.400	1.240	9.540	61.400	1.617	12.437	61.400
4	0.990	7.612	69.011
5	0.726	5.582	74.593
6	0.623	4.796	79.389
7	0.512	3.935	83.324
8	0.485	3.729	87.054
9	0.397	3.054	90.107
10	0.379	2.913	93.021
11	0.355	2.733	95.753
12	0.293	2.254	98.007
13	0.259	1.993	100.000

show the results of the Principal Component Analysis (PCA) with varimax rotation. The cumulative variance explained by these three factors was calculated as 61.40%, which exceeds the study’s 50% cutoff point. These results indicate that the three-factor model adequately accounts for the variance in the scale and is suitable for representing the underlying constructs [98].

The exploratory factor analysis revealed a three-factor structure for the local plant knowledge scale, comprising 13 items. The dimensions and the number of items retained in each are detailed in

Table 5. Dimensions of local plant knowledge.

Dimensions	Number of Items
Dimension 1: Nature of Life (NOL)	6 items
Dimension 2: Interconnectedness of All Things (IOAT)	4 items
Dimension 3: Greatest Public Benefit (GPB)	3 items
Total: 3 dimensions	13 items

.

The results of the factor analysis, including the factor loadings, are shown in

Table 6. Rotated dimension matrix.

Description of the Item	Dimension
	1	2	3
LPK08 → Knowledge of the natural products of the local plant	0.820
LPK02 → Knowledge of the life cycle and reproduction of the local plant	0.797
LPK04 → Knowledge of the utility of the local plant	0.736
LPK01 → Knowledge of the physical characteristics of the local plant	0.723
LPK03 → Knowledge of the local plant species based on the local name	0.712
LPK09 → Knowledge of the local plant transformation processes to create useful products	0.711
LPK07 → Knowledge of the local plant-related ecosystem and biodiversity		0.615
LPK05 → Knowledge of the local plant-related soil resources		0.602
LPK06 → Knowledge of the local plant-related water resources		0.471
LPK13 → Knowledge of the community’s way of life in relation to the local plant		0.457
LPK 11 → Knowledge of local plant product processing for the community’s economic value addition			0.888
LPK 12 → Knowledge of local plant food and beverage processing for community food security			0.810
LPK 10 → Knowledge of local plant-related traditional wisdom and culture for community heritage and development			0.752

. The results show that the indicator’s loading factor is higher than the study’s threshold of 0.40. These results demonstrate that all indicators within a specific component have a good relationship [99]. Three components were extracted based on the results of the rotated component matrix.

The first component, named Nature of Life (NOL), comprises six items relating to the natural products of the local plant (LPK08), its life cycle and reproduction of the local plant (LPK02), the utility of the local plant (LPK04), the physical characteristics of the local plant (LPK01), the local name of the plant species (LPK03), and the local plant transformation processes to create useful products (LPK09). The factor loadings for this component ranged from 0.711 to 0.820.

The second component, named Interconnectedness of All Things (IOAT), comprised four items concerning the relationship between the plant and its environment, such as soil resources (LPK05), water resources (LPK06), and the broader ecosystem and biodiversity (LPK07), as well as the community’s way of life in relation to the plant (LPK13). The factor loadings for this component ranged from 0.457 to 0.615.

The third component, named Greatest Public Benefit (GPB), is related to three items concerning the community’s economic and cultural benefits from the plant, including product processing for value addition (LPK11), food security (LPK12), and the preservation of traditional wisdom and culture (LPK10). The factor loadings for this component ranged from 0.752 to 0.888.

4.3. Confirmatory Factor Analysis

To verify the validity of the three-factor structure identified from the EFA, a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted in the second half of the sample (N2 = 174 participants) using structural equation modeling (SEM). The CFA was applied to test the proposed three-factor correlated model, confirming the structure of the three dimensions—Nature of Life, Interconnectedness of All Things, and Greatest Public Benefit—and how they collectively configure the local plant knowledge scale. The results of the CFA are presented in Figure 3, and the fit indices are detailed in

Table 7. Summary of model fit indices for confirmatory factor analysis.

Fit Index	Cut-off Value	Estimate	Indication
Chi-Square Test		56.174 (p-value = 0.071)
df	X > 0.00	2	Good fit
Comparative Fit Index (CFI)	X ≥ 0.90 (acceptable)	0.991	Good fit
	X ≥ 0.95 (good fit)
Goodness-of-Fit Index (GFI)	X ≥ 0.90 (acceptable)	0.972	Good fit
	X ≥ 0.95 (good fit)
Adjust Goodness-of-Fit Index (AGFI)	X ≥ 0.90 (acceptable)	0.940	Acceptable
	X ≥ 0.95 (good fit)
Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA)	X ≤ 0.08 (acceptable)	0.034	Good fit
	X ≤ 0.05 (good fit)
Root Mean Square Residual (RMR)	X ≤ 0.08 (acceptable)	0.049	Good fit
	X ≤ 0.05 (good fit)
Normed Fit Index (NFI)	X ≥ 0.90 (acceptable)	0.965	Good fit
	X ≥ 0.95 (good fit)
Parsimonious Normed Fit index (PNFI)	Higher values of the PNFI are better	0.520	Good fit
Incremental Fit Index (IFI)	X ≥ 0.90 (acceptable)	0.991	Good fit
	X ≥ 0.95 (good fit)
Parsimonious Goodness-of-Fit Index (PGFI)	X ≥ 0.50 (good fit)	0.562	Good fit

. The model demonstrated a strong fit with the collected data. The chi-square test was not statistically significant, with a p-value of 0.071, indicating a good fit. The CFI and GFI values were 0.991 and 0.972, respectively. According to Iacobucci [100], the CFI and GFI must have a value greater than or equal to 0.90 to achieve an acceptable fit and meet the criteria. The value derived from the analysis satisfies this requirement. The model also met the criteria for acceptable fit in the parsimonious indices (AGFI = 0.940, PNFI = 0.520).

Furthermore, the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) and Root Mean Square Residual (RMR) had values of 0.034 and 0.049, respectively. According to Bentler [101], a good fit can be defined by RMR and RMSEA values less than or equal to 0.05. The RMR and RMSEA values from the analysis met this good fit requirement. The structural model, as illustrated in Figure 3, shows that the three latent variables constitute the basic knowledge scale for local plant study. The model’s dimensions are defined as follows: The first dimension, Nature of Life (NOL), is composed of six indicators (LPK08, LPK02, LPK04, LPK01, LPK03, and LPK09). The second dimension, Interconnectedness of All Things (IOAT), consists of four indicators (LPK07, LPK05, LPK06, and LPK13). The third dimension, Greatest Public Benefit (GPB), includes three indicators (LPK11, LPK12, and LPK10). All factor loadings for the indicators on their respective latent variables were statistically significant (p < 0.001), confirming the model’s validity, and the three dimensions effectively constituted the scale [102].

4.4. Reliability

The reliability and validity of the local plant knowledge scale were assessed, with the results for each dimension presented in

Table 8. Reliability and validity of the local plant knowledge scale dimension.

Dimension	Items	CR	AVE	Cronbach’s	ICC
Nature of Life (NOL)	8, 2, 4, 1, 3, 9	0.87	0.59	0.866	0.862
Interconnectedness of All Things (IOAT)	7, 5, 6, 13	0.76	0.56	0.818	0.810
Greatest Public Benefit (GPB)	11, 12, 10	0.75	0.52	0.786	0.886
Local plant knowledge scale	13	-	-	0.856	0.928

CR = Construct Reliability; AVE = Average Variance Extracted; Cronbach’s = Cronbach’s alpha; ICC = Intraclass Correlation Coefficient.

. The analysis of internal consistency using Cronbach’s alpha showed that the scale has satisfactory reliability, with values ranging from 0.786 to 0.866. Cronbach’s alpha for all three dimensions and the overall scale (0.856) were above the commonly accepted threshold of 0.70. The Composite Reliability (CR) values also showed strong internal consistency, with all three dimensions—Nature of Life (0.87), Interconnectedness of All Things (0.76), and Greatest Public Benefit (0.75)—meeting or exceeding the recommended criterion of 0.70. Furthermore, the Average Variance Extracted (AVE) values for all dimensions met the recommended criterion of 0.50 or greater, with values ranging from 0.52 to 0.59, indicating good convergent validity. The temporal stability of the scale, as measured by the Intraclass Correlation Coefficient (ICC), was also found to be excellent, with values ranging from 0.810 to 0.886 for the individual dimensions. The overall scale demonstrated an exceptionally high ICC of 0.928, confirming its stability over time [103].

5. Discussion

This study presents a foundational approach to developing a psychometrically validated scale for assessing elementary students’ knowledge of local plants, with the Nipa palm serving as a case study. The methodological process involved two phases: Phase 1 focused on building a conceptual base and identifying knowledge dimensions through a systematic literature review and qualitative methods, while Phase 2 concentrated on developing and validating the scale using robust psychometric analyses. The successful development and validation of this scale have significant implications for educational practice and research. The instrument provides educators in the Pak Phanang Basin, Nakhon Si Thammarat Province, Thailand, with a practical tool to measure the effectiveness of curriculum interventions designed to foster local plant knowledge.

The increasing body of research in academia and practice indicates a growing interest in using Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) to address global challenges, including Plant Awareness Disparity (PAD) regarding sustainability issues [2,23]. However, a significant gap remains regarding the lack of comprehensive and validated tools to measure knowledge and awareness of local plant species [28]. This research addresses that gap by successfully developing and validating a basic knowledge scale for local plant study in the context of the Nipa palm (Nipa fruticans Wurmb), a valuable local plant species that thrives in mangrove forests in the Pak Phanang Basin, Nakhon Si Thammarat Province, Thailand [18,19]. This contribution aligns with the broader academic necessity for creating precise instruments to diagnose and evaluate essential knowledge in specific educational stages [64]. In future research, our research questions will be stated more explicitly to examine how the results can directly inform curriculum design, moving beyond the psychometric properties of EFA/CFA reliability to explore the scale’s practical application in educational contexts.

The conceptual model of this study, rooted in the three core dimensions of the Plants, People, and Planet (PPP) framework [36,37], provides a robust theoretical foundation that connects the scale’s structure directly to the principles of ESD and community sustainability. The results of this study confirmed a three-factor structure for the local plant knowledge scale, comprising 13 items, which was confirmed by confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) with strong model fit indices and high reliability. This dimensional structure, namely, Nature of Life, Interconnectedness of All Things, and Greatest Public Benefit, reflects a holistic approach to plant knowledge, moving beyond the traditional knowledge deficit model by integrating the biological, economic, social, and cultural dimensions of sustainability. The analysis of the CFA showed acceptable values for the Goodness-of-Fit Indices (GFI, TLI, RMSEA, and SRMSR) [89], confirming that the three dimensions effectively configured the scale. The reliability of the three factors and the whole scale was above 0.75, which is considered pertinent for its use in research [90]. The indicators of Composite Reliability (CR) for each factor also revealed very appropriate values, while the Average Variance Extracted (AVE) was over 0.55, which is higher than the 0.50 mentioned by Har [90]. Hence, the results confirm a robust model with a structure made up of three distinct and significantly correlated factors, which together represent the basic knowledge of local plant study.

The three empirically derived factors also align with and provide deeper insight into the theoretical “Plants, People, Planet” (PPP) framework. The “Natural of Life” (NOL) dimension corresponds directly to the “Plants” aspect of the framework, as it focuses on the biological and physical knowledge of the species itself [37]. The “Greatest Public Benefit” (GPB) dimension strongly reflects the “People” aspect, encapsulating the economic, cultural, and food security benefits that the community derives from the plant. Interestingly, the “Interconnectedness of All Things” (IOAT) dimension serves as a crucial bridge, integrating both the “Planet” aspect (the plant’s role in the ecosystem, soil, and water resources) and the “People” aspect (the community’s way of life that is intertwined with these ecological realities) [55]. This finding suggests that for elementary students, the understanding of ecological connections is inseparable from their lived community experience, providing a more holistic view of sustainability than the three pillars viewed in isolation. This insight is a significant contribution, suggesting that effective sustainability education at this level should not treat the pillars of economy, society, and environment as separate subjects; rather, it should weave them into integrated, place-based narratives that reflect the holistic worldview of the learners themselves.

A noteworthy finding from the analysis of the Greatest Public Benefit dimension is the lower mean score for the LPK10 item, which relates to traditional wisdom and culture. This suggests that while students may recognize the economic and social benefits of the Nipa palm, their awareness of its cultural and traditional significance may be underrepresented. This finding reinforces the need for place-based education that integrates local heritage into the curriculum to foster more holistic plant awareness. The scale’s three-dimensional structure can thus serve as a diagnostic tool, providing clear sub-constructions that can be targeted through specific, hands-on activities.

The Nature of Life (NOL) dimension can guide curriculum development on the fundamental biological aspects of the Nipa palm. Pedagogical interventions could involve hands-on activities where students examine the physical characteristics of the plant’s various parts (e.g., leaves, fruits, and roots), document its life cycle, or identify different species by their local names. This directly contributes to SDG Target 4.7 by integrating ecological knowledge into education and to SDG 15 by fostering knowledge about life on land.

The Interconnectedness of All Things (IOAT) dimension suggests that place-based learning is a powerful tool for enhancing understanding [104]. Educators can design lessons around the plant’s relationships with its ecosystem, such as by conducting field trips to a local mangrove forest to observe how the Nipa palm influences soil, water, and local biodiversity. This approach supports SDG 15 by enhancing awareness of ecosystem functions and SDG 11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities) by connecting students to their local environment.

The Greatest Public Benefit (GPB) dimension highlights the social and economic relevance of the plant. Teaching could involve having students interview community members to learn about the traditional uses of the Nipa palm, its role in local businesses, or its significance in cultural heritage and food security. This directly relates to SDG 1 (No Poverty), SDG 2 (Zero Hunger), and SDG 8 (Decent Work and Economic Growth) by linking knowledge to sustainable livelihoods and community well-being.

This systematic process allows for the creation of validated educational tools that are not only statistically robust but also deeply rooted in the local context, thereby empowering community-based sustainability education efforts globally. The successful development and validation of this scale have significant implications for educational practice and research. The instrument provides educators in the Pak Phanang Basin, Nakhon Si Thammarat Province, Thailand, with a practical tool with which to measure the effectiveness of curriculum interventions designed to foster local plant knowledge. Furthermore, the scale’s underlying framework and validation process are designed to be adaptable, offering a robust model for assessing the knowledge of other culturally and ecologically significant local plants in diverse regions [105,106]. The instrument can also be used as a starting place by practitioners looking to implement a model for sustainability education. By embedding culturally relevant plant education into the formal curriculum and using this scale, schools can nurture a sense of place and cultural connectedness among students, empowering them to see themselves as stewards of their local ecosystems [104,107].

6. Conclusions

This study successfully developed and validated a basic knowledge scale for local plant study in elementary schools, providing a comprehensive tool to address the challenge of Plant Awareness Disparity in the context of community sustainability. The results confirmed a three-dimensional structure for the scale, which aligns with the conceptual frameworks of the Plants, People, and Planet (PPP) model. The scale demonstrated strong evidence of validity and reliability, with satisfactory internal consistency, convergent validity, and temporal stability across all three dimensions, making it an appropriate tool for diagnostic and evaluative purposes. These findings have significant implications for educational practice, as the instrument provides practical and adaptable models for educators to design and assess curriculum interventions aimed at fostering local plant knowledge and a sense of place among elementary students. Further research could explore the long-term impact of using this scale educational program and validate its structure in different geographical and cultural contexts to reinforce its value as a scalable model for sustainability education.

7. Limitation and Implications for Future Research

This study presents certain limitations that need to be considered. The scale’s validation was centered on a specific age range (10–12 years old) and a particular geographical context (the Pak Phanang Basin, Nakhon Si Thammarat Province, Thailand). This methodology choice was intentional, as this age group is a critical development stage for fostering foundational knowledge about local plants, and the Pak Phanang Basin provided a unique case study where the Nipa palm holds significant ecological and cultural importance. However, this demographic focus limits the external validity of the scale, meaning that the direct application of its findings to other populations with different cultural, social, and demographic backgrounds may be constrained. Furthermore, while the scale’s underlying framework is designed to be adaptable, its application to other local plant species may require additional validation efforts due to the unique characteristics of the Nipa palm, which was the focus of this study. Furthermore, while the methodological process is designed to be scalable, future applications of this model must consider that specific knowledge domains will likely vary by context. For instance, a study on staple crops in an arid region might yield different factors related to water conservation or soil management, even when following the same rigorous validation process. This study also did not consider other variables that might influence knowledge formation, such as social and demographic factors.

Based on these findings and limitations, several recommendations are proposed for future research. It would be advisable to validate the scale with students of different age groups and in other schools and social contexts to enhance the generalizability of the findings. Future research could also expand upon the scale by including elements of the economic logic of human action to provide a more holistic understanding of plant awareness. Furthermore, future research should develop a concrete model for adapting this scale to other contexts, thereby promoting community sustainability. This process should follow the steps outlined below: (1) Conceptual Grounding, by starting with a theoretical framework (e.g., Plants, People, and Planet (PPP)) as a fundamental structure for exploring the relationships between plants, humans, and the environment; (2) Contextualization, by conducting a systematic literature review and qualitative interviews with local experts, teachers, and community members to identify relevant knowledge domains related to local plants and the community; (3) Item Development, by generating an initial set of items based on the identified local knowledge domains, ensuring that the language is appropriate for the students’ age group; and (4) Rigorous Validation, by subjecting the items to a multi-step validation process including content validity (from a panel of experts), face validity (from student cognitive interviews), and construct validity (from both exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis) to ensure that the resulting scale is both psychometrically sound and culturally relevant.

Finally, the scale can be used to measure the effectiveness of curriculum interventions in a pre- and post-test design, thereby demonstrating the impact of ESD-integrated botanical lessons on students’ plant awareness and understanding of sustainability.