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Article

Influence of Location Type on the Regeneration and Growth of Pedunculate Oak (Quercus robur L.) in Central Europe: Implications for Sustainable Forest Land Use

by
Katarzyna Masternak
1,
Michał Łukasik
2,
Piotr Czyżowski
3,
Joanna Gmitrowicz-Iwan
4,* and
Krzysztof Kowalczyk
1
1
Institute of Genetics, Plant Breeding and Biotechnology, Faculty of Agrobioengineering, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, 20-950 Lublin, Poland
2
Świdnik Forest District, Lotnicza 4 St., 21-040 Świdnik, Poland
3
Department of Animal Ethology and Wildlife Management, Faculty of Animal Sciences and Bioeconomy, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, 20-950 Lublin, Poland
4
Institute of Soil Science, Environmental Engineering and Management, Faculty of Agrobioengineering, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, 20-950 Lublin, Poland
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2025, 17(17), 8011; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17178011
Submission received: 1 August 2025 / Revised: 1 September 2025 / Accepted: 3 September 2025 / Published: 5 September 2025
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Abstract

In the context of climate change and the increasing ecological importance of pedunculate oak (Quercus robur L.) in European forests, sustainable regeneration strategies are essential for ensuring long-term forest resilience. This study investigates how different conditions of regeneration sites, namely areas under pine canopies, gaps (openings within the pine stand), inter-gap area (open zone surrounding the pine gaps), and clear-cut area (zone where trees were completely removed), affect the early growth performance of artificially regenerated oak stands in Central Europe. Seedling height, root collar diameter, sturdiness quotient (SQ), and light availability (via hemispherical photography) were assessed. The most favorable growth occurred in gaps and under-canopy sites, where light intensity ranged from 44% to 57%, and seedlings reached mean heights of 148.7 cm and 143.4 cm, respectively. In contrast, seedlings in clear-cut and inter-gap areas exhibited lower growth and higher SQ values, suggesting lower seedling stability. In these areas, the average seedling height was 127.2 cm in clear-cut opening and 137.9 cm in inter-gap area. These sites also had the highest light intensity, amounting to 100% and 89.85% of total incident radiation, respectively. Growth performance was also affected by cardinal direction, except within gaps. This study highlights the importance of microsite selection in oak regeneration and demonstrates how optimizing light conditions can enhance reforestation success and climate resilience. These findings contribute to sustainable forest management practices aimed at supporting adaptive strategies in temperate ecosystems facing climate change.

1. Introduction

Since the mid-1980s, an increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations and nitrogen deposition has been observed across Europe [1,2,3]. As a result, the average global temperature rose by 0.8–1.3 °C at the beginning of the 21st century, and the last two decades have seen a rapid acceleration of climate change [4]. Forecasts suggest that continued increases in CO2 emissions throughout this century will further raise air temperatures, change precipitation patterns, and cause summer droughts [5]. Large-scale heatwaves and droughts weaken forest stands and make them more vulnerable to biotic and abiotic factors, mainly wind, fires, and pests [6,7,8,9]. Climate change is leading to a shift in the ranges of tree species, a decline in conifer-dominated zones, and an expansion of broadleaf species into these areas. It is believed that the role and ecological importance of oaks will increase, as they are a tree species that is well-adapted to the changing climatic conditions [10,11,12], particularly due to their high adaptive capacity to warmer and drier conditions [13,14,15]. Recent studies indicate that local adaptations and intraspecific variability of oaks in response to drought and biotic stresses. Populations from the southern part of the species’ range exhibit extreme resistance in this regard. These populations, exposed to intense pressure from increasing climate stress, soil drought, and declining groundwater levels, have likely developed mechanisms that enhance their resilience to these factors. For this reason, they may be useful in Assisted Population Migration (APM) strategies, supporting the adaptation of forest management to climate change [16].
Pedunculate oak (Quercus robur Liebl.) is a tree species of high ecological and economic importance. It occurs throughout most of Europe, except in the northern parts of the Iberian Peninsula, the Scottish Highlands, the Scandinavian Peninsula, and northern Russia. In Poland, it is found across the entire country except in mountainous regions, where it grows up to elevations of 600 m above sea level [17,18,19]. Its share in Polish forests is currently 8% and steadily increasing [20].
Both in Poland and across Europe, there is a growing trend toward converting conifer monocultures, especially pine, into mixed stands with a significant share of oak [21,22,23]. Mixed stands established in this way are, compared to monocultures, significantly more resistant to threats [24]. Current local populations of pedunculate oak in Central Europe show stable growth in lowland and mid-elevation sites [13]. Natural regeneration of these populations is considered the most effective method of their regeneration, as it ensures the continuity of forest production, maintains ecotypes adapted to local environmental conditions, preserves the full genetic pool of the parent generation, and supports landscape values and biodiversity conservation [25,26]. However, the transformation from monocultures to mixed stands is largely based on artificial regeneration methods, which still require improvement and adaptation to changing climate conditions [17,27,28,29,30,31,32]. These methods vary in terms of light conditions, frost protection, solar exposure, and precipitation access.
During the regeneration of pedunculate oak, special attention must be paid to its ecological requirements as well as potential biotic and abiotic threats. A major factor limiting regeneration success is browsing pressure, particularly from cervids, which can cause serious damage to young stands, leading to seedling deformation, stunted growth, or mortality [33,34,35,36,37]. Dey et al. [28] identified several key factors determining the success of artificial oak regeneration. These include seedling size, site quality, competition, and stand density, which determines the amount of light reaching the forest interior. Among these, light radiation is one of the most important ecological factors influencing the growth and development of oak. Light affects both air and soil temperature [38,39], as well as soil moisture [40,41]. In managed forests, where oak regeneration often takes place through artificial methods, decisions regarding the type of regeneration cutting directly influence the amount of light reaching the forest floor. Excessive sunlight can lead to excessive soil drying [42] and increased pressure from weeds and shrubs [43], while insufficient sunlight inhibits oak growth [44,45] and favors competition from shade-tolerant species such as beech and hornbeam [46]. Therefore, identifying optimal light conditions for the growth of young oaks is crucial for the success of regeneration efforts. Moreover, in the face of climate change and increasing environmental stressors (drought, species composition shifts, herbivore pressure), effective oak regeneration is becoming more challenging. However, there is a lack of sufficient studies comparing oak growth under different regeneration conditions resulting directly from applied cutting techniques and the resulting types of regeneration condition sites. Our study aims to fill this gap by providing practical insights for foresters and forest management planners.
This study aimed to investigate how different light conditions, resulting from the use of various regeneration surface types, affect the growth performance of artificially regenerated pedunculate oak. Specifically, we sought to answer the following research questions: (1) How do different regeneration environments, gaps, inter-gap area, clear-cut opening, and under-canopy crops affect the growth traits (e.g., height, diameter, slenderness) of pedunculate oak seedlings? (2) Which of these regeneration types provides the most favorable conditions for stable and vigorous oak development? To address these questions, we evaluated oak regeneration in four regeneration site conditions, all established within pine stands under identical soil and habitat conditions. The oak seedlings were 7 years old at the time of measurement. This uniformity in site characteristics allowed for a reliable comparison of how specific light environments influence oak growth and stability, and helped identify the most suitable regeneration conditions among those tested.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area

The study was conducted in four artificially regenerated pedunculate oak plantations located in the Świdnik Forest District (Świdnik FD), Regional Directorate of State Forests in Lublin (RDSF Lublin), Eastern Poland (Figure 1). The study area was situated within a temperate continental climate zone with a warm summer subtype (Dfb), according to the Köppen climate classification [47]. The average annual air temperature for the period 1991–2020 was 8.7 °C. Notably, air temperatures have exhibited a consistent upward trend since the 1960s, increasing from 7.43 °C to 9.33 °C between 2011 and 2020. The warmest month in Poland is July, while January is the coldest. The average temperatures for these months in the period 1961–1990 were 17.6 °C and –2.8 °C, respectively. Between 1990 and 2020, the average temperatures were 18.4 °C in July and −1.2 °C in January. The average temperatures in the years 2010–2020 were 18.5 °C and 0.2 °C, respectively [48]. In contrast, the annual total precipitation has remained relatively stable over time, averaging approximately 600 mm per year [49]. The plantations were established on fresh broadleaved forest sites (according to Polish classification, it is a broadleaved forest of moderately humid habitat) [50] with the same soil, Cambisol [51]. Soil preparation was carried out using plowing. Planting holes were then dug, seedlings were planted, and the soil was compacted around them to ensure good root contact. No additional irrigation or fertilization was applied. Weeds were mowed twice a year. In 2015, two-year-old seedlings were planted, and measurements were taken in the spring of 2020, after five years of growth. All plantations were fenced. The assessment of plantation success was carried out in the fifth year of growth, in accordance with standard practice applied in Poland (Table 1).
The first site (compartment 141a) consisted of oak regeneration covering 0.72 ha, located on a clear-cut area resulting from total tree removal (Figure 2A). Seedlings were planted at a spacing of 1.2 × 1.4 m and were completely exposed, with no shelter. The second study site (compartment 196a) featured under-canopy regeneration, established in the form of grouped planting seedlings (referred to as “large spots”). These large spots were spaced 5 × 5 m apart, with each consisting of 11 seedlings planted at 0.25 × 0.25 m spacing (Figure 2B). The large spots at this site were characterized by low canopy closure (Table 1). In the third plantation (compartment 199a), seedlings were assessed within four gaps within the pine stand, each covering 0.18 ha (Figure 2C). Oak was planted at a spacing of 1.2 × 1.4 m under lateral shelter from a mature stand. In the final plantation (compartment 138d), measurements were taken in the zone surrounding pine gaps established ten years earlier (inter-gap area) (Figure 2D). The total regeneration area was 2.50 ha, with planting spacing also at 1.2 × 1.4 m. The regeneration was only under lateral cover from the gaps, which were currently home to oak saplings.

2.2. Measurement of Growth Characteristics and Light Conditions

In compartment 199a, measurements were taken in each of the four gaps, with two plots located along the north–south axis and two along the east–west axis, positioned at ¼ and ¾ of the length of each axis, as well as one plot in the central part. In clear-cut, inter-gap, and under-canopy cover areas, sample plots were established at the four corners of the stand, at a distance corresponding to the height of the stand from its edge, as well as in the central part of the stand. In the gaps, inter-gap area, and clear-cut sites, fixed sample plots measuring 10 × 10 m (1 a) were established at designated locations. In the under-canopy area, measurements included all seedlings located within five large spots, arranged at the four designated corners and in the central part of the stand.
Biometric measurements were taken individually for each seedling. Diameter (D) was measured using calipers with an accuracy of 0.1 cm, while height (H) was measured with a measuring tape accurate to 1 cm. Additionally, for each studied plot, the sturdiness quotient (SQ) was calculated as the ratio of height (in meters) to root collar diameter (in centimeters). An SQ value above 0.65 indicates slender individuals with reduced resistance to abiotic stresses that may occur during stand development. Lower SQ values correspond to thicker, more resilient seedlings better adapted to adverse factors such as snow and wind, especially during the first years after planting in the forest stand [52,53,54].
To assess the light conditions at each plantation site, standard hemispherical photographs were taken following the methodology described by Frazer et al. [55] and Bolibok [56]. The images were captured using a digital camera equipped with a fisheye lens (Canon EOS 6D, Sigma 8 mm f/3.5 EX DG, Japan) under overcast sky conditions in the early morning hours to avoid direct sunlight, which could distort image interpretation. Measurements were conducted at five sampling points evenly distributed across each study plot: one in each cardinal direction (north, south, east, and west) and one in the center. At each point, the camera was mounted on a tripod at a height of 1.3 m and positioned vertically upward. This arrangement was designed to capture variation in canopy structure and light conditions across the entire regeneration area. Light availability is expressed using the parameter MJ/m2/d, which represents the daily sum of radiation energy per unit of horizontal surface area, expressed in megajoules per square meter per day.

2.3. Data Analysis

To assess the influence of regeneration site conditions (gap, inter-gap area, clear-cut area, under-canopy) and the orientation of sampling plots with respect to cardinal directions (north, east, south, west, center) on oak growth characteristics, a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed. Tukey’s post hoc test was used at a significance level of 0.05. Data were analyzed using the Statistica 13.1 software package [57]. Hemispherical photographs were analyzed using the Gap Light Analyzer 2.0 software [55]. Light conditions were expressed as a percentage relative to an open area (clear-cut area), where light intensity was assumed to be 100%. Differences in light conditions among regeneration types were evaluated using the non-parametric Kruskal–Wallis ANOVA test. Relationships between oak biometric traits and light conditions across regeneration sites were explored using Principal Component Analysis (PCA). PCA is considered an effective method in ecological data analysis, allowing for dimensionality reduction and identification of the main sources of variability in datasets composed of multiple variables [58]. All statistical analyses were conducted using Statistica 13.1 [57].

3. Results

A significant variation in the mean height of pedunculate oak seedlings was observed depending on the regeneration method, with the differences being statistically significant. The tallest seedlings were recorded in the gap regeneration variant, while the shortest were found in the clear-cut area. The mean height of pedunculate oak in these two treatments was 148.7 cm and 127.2 cm, respectively. Seedlings from the two remaining treatments (inter-gap and under-canopy) formed a separate homogeneous group, with a mean height of 140.65 cm (Table 2).
A similar trend was observed for the mean root collar diameter, with seedlings from each regeneration type forming distinct homogeneous groups. The highest mean root collar diameter, 1.8 cm, was recorded for oaks growing in the gap areas. In contrast, the lowest value of this trait, 1.1 cm, was found in seedlings from the clear-cut area (Table 2).
The type of regeneration site also had a significant effect on the distribution of mean sturdiness quotient (SQ) values. The lowest SQ values, indicating the thickest seedlings with the greatest adaptive potential, were recorded in oaks growing in the gap areas. In contrast, the highest SQ values, characteristic of the most slender seedlings, were observed in the clear-cut area (Table 2).
Light conditions in the gap, inter-gap, and under-canopy sites were assessed relative to the open area clear-cut, where light intensity was set as 100%. In the inter-gap area, nearly 90% of this radiation level was recorded. The lowest light intensity was observed under the canopy, reaching only 44.56% of the level measured in the open area. In contrast, the gap sites received 57.51% of the light intensity (Table 2).
The evaluation of the impact of location on the growth traits of the analyzed oak plantations revealed that the direction of the cardinal points had no significant effect, only in the gap areas. In these plots, both height and root collar diameter of seedlings were consistent across the site. In the remaining regeneration areas, the greatest variation was observed in height. In the under-canopy plots, oaks growing in the central part of the stand were significantly taller than those in other parts, forming a distinct homogeneous group with a mean height of 154.3 cm. An opposite trend was observed in the clear-cut area, where the shortest seedlings, with a mean height of just 120.9 cm, were located in the center. A significant influence of seedling position within the site (cardinal direction) on root collar diameter was found only in the under-canopy and inter-gap area. In the under-canopy sites, the thickest oaks were found in the central, northern, and eastern parts. In contrast, in the inter-gap area, the highest root collar diameter was recorded in the central and southern parts, while the lowest values occurred in the eastern compartment. No significant effect of cardinal direction on oak sturdiness quotient (SQ) was observed in any of the regeneration types, except for the clear-cut and inter-gap sites (Table 3).
A negative correlation was found between light intensity in the regeneration area and the growth traits of the oak seedlings growing there. In the gaps and under-canopy areas, where radiation amounted to 44.56% and 57.51% of the total light intensity, respectively, both height and root collar diameter were noticeably higher. Seedlings in these plantations also exhibited lower SQ ratio values. This indicates that young oaks growing in the gaps and under-canopy showed better stability compared to those growing in the other analyzed sites. Higher light radiation levels, observed in clear-cut and inter-gap areas, were associated with increased slenderness of the seedlings. These seedlings also had lower height and root collar diameter compared to those growing in gaps and under the canopy (Figure 3).

4. Discussion

The aim of our study was to assess the potential of artificial regeneration methods for pedunculate oak in eastern Poland, Central Europe. The research was conducted in plantations established on the same forest site type and soil type. Among the four factors determining the success of artificial regeneration, as identified by Dey et al. [28] (seedling size, site quality, competition, and stand density), the studied plantations differed in one aspect—light conditions. The plantations were 7 years old, which made it possible to observe spatial variation in growth characteristics [30,59].
Our analysis indicates that the most favorable growth characteristics were observed in oak regenerations established in gaps with lateral shelter provided by the surrounding mature stand. Under such conditions, compared to other regeneration types (inter-gap area, clear-cut, or under-canopy areas), oaks exhibited superior height and root collar diameter. The seedlings were also thicker, more resilient, and better adapted to cultivation, which contributed to greater stability of the developing stand. These findings support previous observations that oaks grow best under conditions without overhead shading but with lateral protection. The absence of overhead canopy improves light conditions relative to areas beneath tree crowns [60]. Moreover, the 0.18-hectare gaps were ecologically small openings, with microclimatic conditions resembling those of the surrounding forest stand. Based on the results of our study, gap areas, particularly those of the sizes examined, are most suitable for the artificial regeneration of pedunculate oak. Comparable optimal gap sizes have been reported by various authors: 0.07 hectares by Szymkiewicz [61], 0.15 hectares by Zabielski et al. [62,63], and 0.20 hectares by Bernadzki [64]. Ceitel and Perz [65] recommend using gaps no smaller than 0.20 hectares, while Masternak and Głębocka [66] suggest optimal gap sizes for oak growth to be between 0.25 and 0.5 hectares. However, these specific gap size recommendations for optimal oak growth should be interpreted with caution. The results are influenced by numerous factors, including site conditions, seedling age, and even cloud cover [30,59,66,67,68,69].
We have shown that under the canopy of the stand (large spots), oaks exhibited lower growth parameters than those in gaps but higher than those observed in our study in the inter-gap area and on clear-cut site. Aleksandrowicz-Trzcińska et al. [37] also assessed the growth and vitality of oak under pine stands as moderate. According to Schlesinger et al. [70], on low-quality sites, oak grows best with a canopy closure of 0.4, while on more productive sites, optimal growth is observed at a closure of 0.6. Gniot [71] demonstrated that reducing overhead shading is a critical factor influencing oak vitality. Increased canopy closure slows down oak growth, but this growth can be reactivated following a light felling. A study by Magnuski et al. [72] showed that five years after canopy removal, there was a significant improvement in oak growth. Similarly, Paluch [73] observed that following canopy removal, oak can attain growth parameters comparable to those of seedlings growing in full light. Therefore, we hypothesize that for the oak growing in the under-canopy plantation in site 196a, the removal of the shading canopy will likely result in accelerated growth in the future. Consequently, we also consider planting large spots under partial canopy cover as an optimal technique for the artificial regeneration of pedunculate oak.
The lowest growth parameters for oak in our study were recorded on the clear-cut site. Seedlings in these areas were also the most slender and the least adapted to cultivation conditions. However, the sturdiness quotient ratio never exceeded the value of 150. Lüpke [74], in a study of the slenderness coefficient (H/D) ratio, an equivalent of the slenderness quotient (SQ) used in older stands, identified this threshold as critical for the stability of plantations. The highest slenderness observed in the clear-cut area likely resulted from the fact that seedlings faced more challenging growing conditions in open spaces, where they were exposed to excessive sunlight. Additionally, in open areas, young oaks are more vulnerable to late frosts and heavy, wet snow [72,75,76]. Reduced growth rates may also be attributed to soil drought and elevated soil temperatures caused by intense solar radiation. In full sunlight, typical of an open site, oak exhibits increased sensitivity to declining moisture conditions, which may limit stomatal conductivity and photosynthetic efficiency [75,76,77]. Ziegenhagen and Kausch [78] found that full sunlight inhibits the growth of the above-ground parts of the plant. Similarly, van Hees [79] demonstrated a negative correlation between oak height and light availability. Under high light intensity, young oaks tend to reduce height growth [80] while investing more in root system development [79]. In contrast, Gross et al. [34] and Wagner & Dreyer [35] reported faster oak growth in open spaces compared to shaded conditions with 50% light availability. The same authors also found that in shaded seedlings, both photosynthesis and stomatal conductivity were reduced.
We believe that the differences found in oak growth across the various plantations were primarily determined by light conditions. Pedunculate oak is a light-demanding species, as evidenced by its broad, sparsely leafed crown arrangement. Although oak can survive for several years at 15% radiance, sustainable growth and development require at least 20% light availability. According to Ziegenhagen and Kausch [78], the optimal light range for pedunculate oak lies between 20% and 40%. Maximum growth is achieved at 30–50%, or even 30–60% light availability [27,36,81]. Similar results were obtained in our study, where the best oak growth was observed at light intensities of 57.51% and 44.56%. In contrast, growth was lowest under full sunlight. Ziegenhagen and Kausch [78] also found that full sunlight inhibits seedling growth. As light intensity increases, so does ground cover by herbaceous vegetation; however, unlike its negative effects on other tree species, herbaceous competition does not adversely affect oak regeneration [81,82]. A greater threat to natural oak regeneration comes from competition with other shade-tolerant and moderately shade-tolerant tree species, such as beech, hornbeam, and linden, as well as from late frosts, browsing by ungulates, and damage from rodents [81].
In the literature, the effect of cardinal directions on oak growth has been analyzed only within gaps. In our study, we found that the differences in growth characteristics of seedlings growing on different sides of the gaps were minimal. This slight variation in growth traits and morphology is undoubtedly due to the relatively small size of the gaps, which allows for a fairly even distribution of light across their entire area, thus creating relatively uniform development conditions for pedunculate oak [40]. Numerous studies have indicated that significant differences in oak growth are primarily observed in large gaps [30,69,83,84]. Although our results did not show statistically significant differences, the tallest seedlings were found in the eastern and central parts of the gaps. This partially aligns with the findings of Drozdowski et al. [83], who demonstrated that under fertile site conditions (fresh mixed broadleaved forest), oak grows best in the central part of the gap. In the study by Bolibok and Auchimik [59], five-year-old oak seedlings growing in the center were 20% taller than those at the edges; in the case of 11-year-old seedlings, the difference increased to 40%. These findings are consistent with those reported by Gray et al. [40], York et al. [85], Drozdowski et al. [83], and McNab [84], all of whom concluded that oak achieves the best growth in central positions within gaps. Additionally, consistent with Drozdowski et al. [83], oak height was lower in the western than in the eastern parts of the gaps. Similarly, Valkonen et al. [86] reported, under the same site conditions, that oaks growing in the northern parts of gaps were shorter than those in the southern parts. This supports findings from many other authors indicating that the northern parts of gaps, being the most exposed to sunlight, often create unfavorable conditions for regeneration of many forest tree species [87,88], including pedunculate oak [30].
The results of this study offer important insights into sustainable forest management in temperate European ecosystems. Effective regeneration of pedunculate oak, a key native broadleaved species, requires careful selection of a regeneration area that ensures favorable light conditions, particularly through the use of gaps and under-canopy regeneration. Clear-cutting increases the amount of radiation reflected from the soil, which can lead to higher air temperatures. Planting an oak under the canopy avoids this effect. These approaches align with sustainable forest management principles by promoting natural regeneration methods, maintaining structural diversity, and minimizing ecological disturbances associated with clear-cutting [89,90]. Moreover, enhancing the presence of light-demanding, climate-resilient species such as pedunculate oak supports the adaptive capacity of forest stands in response to environmental stressors, including drought and temperature variability [91]. By avoiding less effective regeneration methods, such as inter-gap and clear-cut areas, forest managers can reduce seedling mortality, improve long-term stand stability, and contribute to multifunctional forest landscapes that provide ecological, economic, and social benefits [92]. Thus, integrating microsite-specific regeneration strategies into forest planning is essential not only for successful oak establishment but also for achieving broader sustainability goals within adaptive forest management frameworks. Our results may also be applicable in the planned Assisted Population Migration (APM) strategy, which involves introducing genetic material from more resilient populations into the current species range. The goal of this approach is to support gene flow between populations, potentially facilitating faster adaptation to climate change and enhancing forest sustainability [16]. By identifying areas most suitable for oak regeneration, our findings can support the implementation of the APM strategy by enabling the optimal selection of sites designated for regeneration. By identifying optimal cutting regimes and light exposure, our findings contribute to the development of forestry practices that balance productivity, the preservation of stand structure, and the ecosystem’s capacity for adaptation and regeneration, in line with the principles of sustainable forestry and adaptive ecosystem management.

5. Conclusions

This study on the artificial regeneration of pedunculate oak in Central Europe underscores the critical influence of light conditions on the species’ early growth performance, supporting sustainable forest management. The key findings are as follows:
  • Light conditions are crucial for the early growth of pedunculate oak in artificial regeneration.
  • Optimal growth occurred in gaps with lateral shelter and under-canopy area.
  • Seedlings in gaps showed the greatest height and root collar diameter, supporting the improvement of plantation success.
  • Clear-cut and inter-gap areas lead to poor seedling growth and low adaptability to cultivation.
  • Regeneration conditions optimizing light align with sustainable and climate-adaptive forest management.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, K.M., J.G.-I., and M.Ł.; methodology, K.M. and M.Ł.; validation, K.M., P.C., and K.K.; investigation, K.M. and M. Ł.; resources, K.M. and M.Ł.; data curation, K.M.; writing—original draft preparation, K.M., M.Ł., and P.C.; writing—review and editing, K.M., J.G.-I., and K.K.; visualization, K.M., J.G.-I., and M.Ł.; supervision, K.M. and K.K.; project administration, K.M. and K.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Data are contained within the article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. Location of the analyzed crops. Dark green color represents forest compartments.
Figure 1. Location of the analyzed crops. Dark green color represents forest compartments.
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Figure 2. The scheme of the experiment.
Figure 2. The scheme of the experiment.
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Figure 3. Biplot showing the distribution of analyzed oaks depending on biometric features and light intensity. GN—gap area, MG—inter-gap area, ZZ—clear-cut area, PL—under-canopy, IS—light intensity, h—height, d—diameter, SQ—sturdiness quotient.
Figure 3. Biplot showing the distribution of analyzed oaks depending on biometric features and light intensity. GN—gap area, MG—inter-gap area, ZZ—clear-cut area, PL—under-canopy, IS—light intensity, h—height, d—diameter, SQ—sturdiness quotient.
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Table 1. Characteristics of stands in which crops were planted.
Table 1. Characteristics of stands in which crops were planted.
CompartmentType of Regeneration SiteArea [ha]Species Composition of the Parent Stand [%]Age of the Parent Stand [Years]Plantation Area (% of Compartment)
141aClear-cut area1.4480 P *6650
20 H, O66
196aUnder-canopy area5.2780 P10460
20 O, B67
199aGap2.3590 P8930
10 C69
138dInter-gap area8.3290 P10930
10 O70
* P: scots pine (Pinus sylvestris), O: pedunculate oak (Quercus robur), B: silver birch (Betula pendula), H: common hornbeam (Carpinus betulus), C: wild cherry (Prunus avium).
Table 2. Growth characteristics of pedunculated oak and light conditions on the examined crops.
Table 2. Growth characteristics of pedunculated oak and light conditions on the examined crops.
ParameterClear-CutUnder-CanopyGapInter-Gapp Value
Growth
characteristics		H [cm]127.2 c ± 26.29 143.4 b ± 28.19148.7 a ± 25.42137.9 b ± 14.56<0.000
D [cm]1.1 d ± 0.331.6 b ± 0.631.8 a ± 0.711.4 c ± 0.21
SQ128.3 a ± 44.36 97.8 b ± 28.78 92.6 c ± 33.83 100.2 b ± 12.81
Total light
intensity		[MJ/m2/d]38.62 ± 1.4517.21 ± 3.4322.11 ± 2.2534.70 ± 3.110.010
%10044.5657.5189.85
± means standard deviation values, small letters a, b, c, d indicate the significant differences among means.
Table 3. Distribution of the mean values of the analyzed parameters according to their location in relation to the cardinal directions on analyzed forest crops (average ± SD).
Table 3. Distribution of the mean values of the analyzed parameters according to their location in relation to the cardinal directions on analyzed forest crops (average ± SD).
FeatureAreaCardinal Directionp Value
NorthEastCentralSouthWest
H [cm]Clear-cut130.1 ab ± 25.59136.0 a ± 24.77120.9 c ± 28.38122.4 bc ± 24.46125.1 bc ± 25.88<0.000
Under-canopy140.3 b ± 26.31141.1 b ± 25.53154.3 a ± 32.86142.5 b ± 26.82139.9 b ± 27.34<0.000
Gap147.2 ± 28.0150.4 ± 28.18150.4 ± 22.08148.7 ± 24.14146.7 ± 24.700.400
Inter-gap140.6 ab ± 14.40129.0 c ± 11.82141.7 ab ± 14.82143.3 a ± 11.52135.2 bc ± 15.29<0.000
D [cm]Clear-cut1.1 ± 0.301.1 ± 0.291.0 ± 0.331.1 ± 0.301.1 ± 0.420.271
Under-canopy1.7 a ± 0.641.6 ab ± 0.781.7 a ± 0.631.5 b ± 0.521.5 b ± 0.530.022
Gap1.8 ± 0.701.8 ± 0.861.8 ± 0.621.8 ± 0.691.8 ± 0.660.812
Inter-gap1.4 b ± 0.181.3 c ± 0.191.5 a ± 0.191.5 ab ± 0.211.4 b ± 0.21<0.000
SQClear-cut125.8 ab ± 44.70137.3 a ± 43.75125.8 ab ± 41.31124.4 b ± 43.52127.3 ab ± 46.900.042
Under-canopy92.2 ± 31.08100.1 ± 30.9798.3 ± 26.4798.5 ± 25.66100.4 ± 28.980.051
Gap91.9 ± 32.3696.1 ± 37.9593.9 ± 31.8490.7 ± 32.7790.3 ± 34.230.371
Inter-gap103.2 a ± 12.44103.3 a ± 12.5394.1 b ± 11.28100.2 ab ± 13.0899.7 ab ± 12.890.001
± means standard deviation values, small letters a, b, c indicate the significant differences among means.
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Masternak, K.; Łukasik, M.; Czyżowski, P.; Gmitrowicz-Iwan, J.; Kowalczyk, K. Influence of Location Type on the Regeneration and Growth of Pedunculate Oak (Quercus robur L.) in Central Europe: Implications for Sustainable Forest Land Use. Sustainability 2025, 17, 8011. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17178011

AMA Style

Masternak K, Łukasik M, Czyżowski P, Gmitrowicz-Iwan J, Kowalczyk K. Influence of Location Type on the Regeneration and Growth of Pedunculate Oak (Quercus robur L.) in Central Europe: Implications for Sustainable Forest Land Use. Sustainability. 2025; 17(17):8011. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17178011

Chicago/Turabian Style

Masternak, Katarzyna, Michał Łukasik, Piotr Czyżowski, Joanna Gmitrowicz-Iwan, and Krzysztof Kowalczyk. 2025. "Influence of Location Type on the Regeneration and Growth of Pedunculate Oak (Quercus robur L.) in Central Europe: Implications for Sustainable Forest Land Use" Sustainability 17, no. 17: 8011. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17178011

APA Style

Masternak, K., Łukasik, M., Czyżowski, P., Gmitrowicz-Iwan, J., & Kowalczyk, K. (2025). Influence of Location Type on the Regeneration and Growth of Pedunculate Oak (Quercus robur L.) in Central Europe: Implications for Sustainable Forest Land Use. Sustainability, 17(17), 8011. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17178011

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