Intergenerational Differences in the Perception of the Assumptions of Individual Organizational Management Models in the Context of Sustainable Development

Abstract

The concept of sustainable development requires a more human-centered approach to management. Frederic Laloux’s organizational management models—green and teal organizations—offer a response to this challenge. Generational cohorts currently active in the labor market (Baby Boomers, Generation X, Generation Y, and Generation Z) differ in values, beliefs, and preferences, which may influence their acceptance of various organizational management models. This study aimed to examine how representatives of these generations perceive organizational management styles in the context of sustainable development. A qualitative study was conducted using a questionnaire completed by 263 respondents. The survey focused on teal, green, orange, amber, and red organizational models, and the results were analyzed statistically. The analysis showed that respondents’ work experiences with specific organizational management models are not dependent on generational affiliation. The highest levels of acceptance were observed for models aligned with sustainable development—green and teal organizations. Acceptance of these models is higher among younger generations, with the teal organizational model showing a statistically significant generational dependency. As Generation Z enters the labor market, some traditional management practices are becoming obsolete. The green organizational model demonstrates strong potential for current labor market conditions, while the teal organizational model shows high future implementation potential. The forecast suggests that acceptance of the teal organizational model among Generation Alpha may exceed 90%.

1. Introduction

Sustainable development is a necessary response to rapidly changing economic conditions in the era of the fourth industrial revolution [1] and is not possible without sustainable management of organizations, and especially of the people within those organizations [2]. Therefore, management models implemented in companies significantly influence the ability of organizations to function sustainably, especially in areas that affect people [3].

The study, based on Frederic Laloux’s organizational management models, aims to examine the perception of organizational management styles by representatives of generations present on the labor market in the context of sustainable development.

The following theories were used to achieve the research objective:

• Organizational management models according to Frederic Laloux [4],
• Generational Cohort Theory (GCT) [5],
• The concept of sustainable development [6].

The concept of sustainable development is strongly shaped by Agenda 2030, which identifies People as one of the five major transformational changes alongside Planet, Prosperity, Peace, and Partnership [7]. One of the overarching goals in this context is the development of human capital, as indicated by the following actions requiring implementation [7]:

• Promoting mental health and well-being (goal 3.4),
• Promoting sustainable development, a culture of peace, and non-violence (goal 4.7),
• Ensuring decent work, especially for young people and people with disabilities (goal 8.5),
• Ensuring equal pay for work of equal value (goal 8.5),
• Protecting labor rights (goal 8.8),
• Promoting safe working environments, especially for migrants and people in precarious employment (goal 8.8),
• Promoting and strengthening the inclusion of all people, regardless of age, gender, disability, race, ethnic origin, nationality, religion, economic status, or other factors (goal 10.2),
• Reducing violence in all its forms (goal 16.1),
• Ensuring flexible, inclusive, participatory, and representative decision-making processes at all levels (goal 16.7).

Achieving these goals requires adapting organizational management models [8,9] to meet the challenges of the Fourth Industrial Revolution [10] while enabling sustainable management in relation to the organization’s employees [2]. An attempt to respond to these challenges is provided by the organizational management models proposed by Frederic Laloux, who calls for a change in the current models in his book Reinventing organizations [4]. These models are ranked according to the assumption of evolution towards the most optimal model and are named after colors. Laloux distinguishes between red, amber, orange, green, and, in his opinion, the new and desirable model: teal organizations [11].

The models presented by Laloux and discussed below evolve towards emphasizing the importance of the human factor, which raises questions about the place of people in organizations in the era of the fourth industrial revolution [1], particularly with regard to human costs [12]. In 2015, Michael Rada proposed the concept of the fifth industrial revolution [13], where people and machines should work together harmoniously, with an emphasis on the well-being of all stakeholders in the organization [14] and sustainable development [12], which is in line with the assumptions of green and teal organizational models. In 2021, the European Commission popularized this concept through its report Industry 5.0, which highlights the potential of artificial intelligence and robotics and encourages more sustainable and human-centered management in industry, that will be resilient to crises (such as the COVID-19 pandemic) [15], which also points to the need for changes in existing management models.

Preferences regarding management models may also be shaped by membership of particular generational cohorts, as their members share different intergenerational ideas, values, beliefs, and preferences [16]. Currently, the labor market includes Baby Boomers, Generation X, Generation Y, and Generation Z [5]. Each generation has a different approach to work and the workplace, although global research by McKinsey has revealed many intergenerational similarities [17].

The specific characteristics of individual generational cohorts and their work experience, as well as their lifestyle and diverse approaches to life, may influence their preferences regarding organizational management models, which has not yet been sufficiently researched.

2. Theoretical Background

2.1. Organizational Management Models

Laloux distinguished five models of organizational management. The first of these, red organizations, are shaped by an impulsive paradigm [11], which enables survival in hostile environments such as war zones, prisons, or violent inner-city neighborhoods [18]. Today, such organizations are represented by street gangs and the mafia [19], which are based on absolute obedience to a single decision-maker [20] who must constantly demonstrate their power, as this is the tool they use to influence the members of the organization [21]. Laloux proposes a metaphor of a pack of wolves, with the alpha male as the leader [19]. He surrounds himself with his closest associates (usually through nepotism), whose loyalty he gains through a share in the profits [18]. Each of these associates manages subordinates, and the main tool for this is fear. There is no formal hierarchy, formal position names, or strategic planning [21]. Red organizations function well in dynamic environments, but fail to achieve satisfactory results in stable settings [18].

Amber organizations are based on a paradigm of conformity [11], which is associated with the internalization of group norms and ethnocentrism [22]. These norms are immutable and rigorously enforced [23]. There is a strong hierarchy [21], and promotion is based on meeting formal criteria rather than competence [4]. As a result, amber organizations create stable and scalable organizational structures and have the ability to plan for the long term [18]. Positions in the hierarchy have formal names and external symbols of status and belonging (titles, uniforms, etc.) [24]. Stability results from the renunciation of individuality in favor of a socially acceptable personality. A sense of belonging leads to the development of interpersonal relationships and organizational autonomy, but also to suspicion towards other organizations and groups. This belonging is, by definition, lifelong, and leaving the organization is associated with ostracism and the need to seek a new social environment [18].

Amber organizations are characterized by opportunism—they tend to be guided in their decisions by short-term benefits resulting from the implementation of a set plan [4]. They are an example of process management, in which key organizational knowledge is codified, and thus individuals can be easily replaced and the organization can function for a very long time [25]. However, these processes are almost unchanged [21], as changes in this type of organization meet with considerable resistance, and competition is viewed with suspicion [18]. They are represented by government agencies, public schools, religious institutions, and the military [19]. Amber organizations perform very well in stable environments, as planning is based on proven solutions from the past [21]. Planning processes are carried out at higher levels of management, cascaded downwards, and implemented at the lowest layers [23]. Employees are perceived as lazy and dishonest people who need guidance, which leads to the implementation of control mechanisms that allow for punishment for non-compliance with rules. Line employees are therefore not expected to be creative or think critically—their work is routine, individual talents are irrelevant, and information is shared only when necessary [18]. This can be liberating for employees, as there is no constant sense of threat as in red organizations—following the rules guarantees security and even lifetime employment [4]. Laloux therefore proposes the metaphor of the military as an image for this type of organization [26]. The leader practices paternalistic authoritarianism through management based on hierarchical authority, issuing orders, and control [27].

Orange organizations are guided by the achievement paradigm [11], and effectiveness and economic profitability are the basis for decision-making [21]. They are represented by global corporations [19], where change and innovation are seen as opportunities [25]. Orange organizations are process- and project-oriented [18]. The organizational structure is complex, similar to amber organizations [21], but project groups and advisory positions appear [18]. Long-term and medium-term planning is crucial for the functioning of orange organizations [24], which strive to anticipate future situations [27]. Management processes are based on management by objectives, which are cascaded downwards, and the degree of their achievement is verified [21]. In orange organizations, incentive programs are introduced, based mainly on material incentives linked to performance [18]. This sometimes leads to pathologies associated with lower-level employees underestimating their goals [28] and senior management overestimating them [18]. Efforts are made to minimize the discrepancy between personal and organizational goals by setting mutually beneficial objectives [28]. Members of orange organizations are encouraged to be creative and have freedom in choosing how to achieve their goals. Research and Development or Product Development departments are created, but they must be subordinate to the achievement of the organization’s goals [21]. Orange organizations are meritocratic—talent should be developed, and every employee can be promoted and find a place in the organizational structure where they will work best [18]. Members of orange organizations take responsibility for their career development [27], which is why they expect to change positions every few years within the organization and, if necessary, beyond it. In orange organizations, external expressions of status are not as important as in amber organizations [4], but professionalism in appearance, behavior, and work is essential. Employees want to be perceived as rational, competent, and successful, so dreams, emotions, and doubts are hidden and treated as a sign of vulnerability [18]. Privileges are a sign of status: spacious offices, reserved parking spaces, first-class business travel, and other factors that differ from the standard working conditions in the organization [4]. This is accompanied by the assumption that they are achievable for anyone who is smart and works hard enough [18]. Laloux assigned the metaphor of a machine to orange organizations [19], which is supposed to function efficiently [18] under the supervision of experts, so managers appear as engineers who prioritize tasks over relationships [4].

Green organizations are guided by a pluralistic paradigm [11] of sensitivity to human feelings [21]. They strive for general equality, justice, respect, harmony, and cooperation [29], and therefore interpersonal relationships are very important [27]—more important than results [18]. It is emphasized that there are more important things in life than success and career [27]. These are represented by non-profit organizations, social activists, and social workers [19]. In line with these ideas, there are calls for the gradual abolition of rules, which often leads to abuse and difficulties in formulating practical alternatives to existing systems [4]. The organizational structure in green organizations remains unchanged, but the center of decision-making is shifting [18]—most decisions are made by front-line employees [27]. Decentralization is based on employee empowerment [21] and the assumption that people who are directly involved with a problem will make better decisions than distant experts [4]. Leadership in green organizations is servant leadership—the leader is to serve those he or she leads, to display a noble attitude of attentiveness to others, generosity, and empathy [30]. The leader’s task is to share power, listen to subordinates, provide support, motivate and develop them [27], hence their abilities in this regard are tested, developed and also assessed by their subordinates as part of a 360-degree evaluation, and some green organizations appoint managers from the bottom up—employees select their direct supervisors [4].

Green organizations place organizational culture as the most important element of their management model—it is the element that binds the organization together [30]. It enables line employees to make decisions [24], as they are guided by values shared by the entire organization [20]. This allows employees to feel empowered to contribute and appreciated [21]. The central point of organizational culture is an inspiring goal that translates into the functioning of the entire organization [31]. Green organizations abandon hierarchy among their stakeholders—they are equally responsible for the interests of shareholders, management, customers, suppliers, the environment, local communities, and society as a whole [29]. CSR is an integral part of the management system [32], accompanied by the assumption that higher costs incurred in the short term will result in greater profits for all stakeholders in the long term [18]. The HR function plays a key role in green organizations—the HR department has a significant impact on operations and makes large investments in human capital [4]. Laloux assigned the metaphor of a family to these organizations [21], which is often referred to by leaders of green organizations [4].

Teal organizations base their operations on the paradigm of human consciousness evolution [31], which is able to look at the ego from a distance and observe how its fears and desires influence decisions [23]. This paradigm relates to the needs for self-actualization in Maslow’s pyramid [31], thus presenting a complex image of a human being who draws their sources from various wisdom traditions: a human being consists of mind, body, and soul and is one with nature [18]. Fear is replaced by trust in the abundance of life [4], thus reducing the need to control the environment—people and events [29]. There is a belief that despite unexpected obstacles and mistakes, good results will be achieved. The lack of results is an opportunity for learning and development [30]. When making decisions, they use internal measures—rightness, being true to oneself, positively influencing the world, which, combined with an analytical approach and constructively understood intuition (and, according to some, even deeper experiences), enables a holistic view of the situation [31]. It therefore becomes possible to make decisions without access to sufficient data on potential outcomes [4], guided by a sense of honesty and authenticity. The purpose of human beings becomes the pursuit of a well-lived life, which may (but does not necessarily) result in success, recognition, love, and wealth. Life is seen as a journey of discovery towards the authentic nature of human beings, so people give up setting life goals and strive to live life, learn to let go, and listen to themselves [29]—which is in opposition to the paradigms accompanying the other models. People are not seen as problems to be solved, but as potential to be developed [4]. Judging others and promoting tolerance are abandoned—other people are listened to carefully and simply not judged, every person has the same value, even if their beliefs are different or wrong [18]. This way of life is associated with the concept of vocation, true nature, or a deeper purpose, as well as practices of self-awareness and emotional balance (meditation, yoga, prayer, mindfulness, walks in nature, and others). For people who live by this paradigm, strengths, beauty, and potential are important, and instead of judgment, compassion and recognition emerge. They therefore appear as “people who have ambitions but are not ambitious,” which, from the perspective of the other paradigms discussed, seems like a simple contradiction. The development paradigm combines the paradoxes of individuality and community, concern for oneself and concern for others, and freedom and responsibility [4].

Teal organizations are self-managing units [33], so they abandon hierarchical organizational structures and decision-making processes are fully decentralized [26]. Subordination is replaced by horizontal commitments, and the organizational structure takes one of four models: self-managing teams (in small organizations), parallel teams (in large organizations with a short value chain), networks of individual contractors, or nested teams (in large organizations with a long value chain) [32]. In teal organizations, there are no assigned job titles, roles within teams are fluid and specialized (changes are made with the general consent of the team), and there is rotation within the structure [19]. There are no managerial positions [34] (and therefore no promotions) or responsibility for financial results within teams—when necessary, coaches are brought in to support several teams at the same time [4]. Coordination of activities and organization of team meetings takes place as needed, which radically simplifies project management, planning, and budgeting [26]. The functions of central staff (HR, IT, controlling, finance, etc.) are mostly performed by the teams themselves or by task forces made up of volunteers [4], with a small group of central staff performing advisory functions [35].

Teal organizations are seen as living organisms whose purpose [36] is evolutionary and depends on their members [37]. All employees are responsible for the entire organization [26], so they should pay attention to matters beyond their area of authority [4]. Their strategy is the result of the collective intelligence of its members, and their market offering is defined by their purpose. Marketing is conducted as a simple offer, without sales targets, and suppliers are selected based on their fit with the organization’s purpose [37].

In teal organizations, recruitment interviews are conducted by future colleagues [34], focusing on the fit with the organization and its purpose [38]. Recruitment, together with training and assessment, is intended to lead the employee to discover a common ground between their personal vocation and the organization’s goal [18]. New members of the organization are trained in organizational culture, relationship building, and conflict resolution [24], while responsibility for personal development rests with each individual, who has freedom in this regard [18]. In teal organizations, there is a high degree of flexibility in working hours, allowing employees to balance their work with other commitments [27]. Performance is primarily assessed in relation to teams, individual assessments are based on mutual evaluations of employees, and appraisal interviews provide an opportunity to analyze one’s own vocation and progress in development [4]. The basic salary is determined by colleagues, while employees themselves determine the amount of their salary in relation to this [34]. There are no bonuses—profits are distributed equally [4].

In teal organizations, there are no external status symbols, and the workspace is arranged by the employees themselves [19], who can bring their children or pets with them [4]. Teal organizations are characterized by complete transparency [30]—employees have full access to all information in real time (including the organization’s financial situation and the salaries of all its members) [29]. During meetings [36], care is taken to ensure that statements are constructive and that all participants have a chance to speak [29], and decisions are made through a consultative process or holacratic mechanisms [26]. Clear values [20] and acceptable behavior [4] are formulated to create a safe working environment [21]. Quiet rooms [4], group supervision, peer coaching [32,39], as well as group reflection, silence, or meditation practices [4] are introduced. Teal organizations devote time to revealing and resolving conflicts without the involvement of outsiders [40]. Conflicts are resolved in multiple stages through mediation, and leaving the job is treated as a last resort and an opportunity to learn (very rare and accompanied by supportive care) [34].

2.2. Gerational Cohorts in the Labor Market

The method of dividing generations into cohorts is inconsistent, and the exact birth years vary depending on the researcher [41]. For the purposes of this study, the division used by Da Silva et al. [42] was adopted, with an adjustment for the Generation Alpha, which, according to McCrindle (who introduced the term), began in 2010 (the year the iPad and Instagram entered the market) [43,44]. The adopted division into generational cohorts and their defining characteristics are presented in

Table 1. Generational cohorts and their defining factors.

Generation Name	Birth Years 1	Social Events 2	Typical Technology 3
Baby Boomers	1946–1964	Moon landing (1969)	Transistor radio, TV, cassette tapes
Generation X	1965–1980	Stock market crash (1987)	VCR tapes, personal computers (PC), Walkman
Generation Y	1981–1996	Onset of terrorism (11 September 2001)	Internet, e-mail, SMS, DVD, PlayStation, Xbox, iPod
Generation Z	1997–2009	Global financial crisis (2008)	Google, Wikipedia, YouTube, Facebook, Twitter, iPhone, Spotify
Generation Alpha	2010–2025	COVID-19 pandemic (2020)	iPad, Instagram, FaceTime, Siri, Apple Watch, TikTok, smart speakers

¹ [42,44], ² [45], ³ [46,47].

.

Salary is an important reason to stay with one’s current employer, which is even more important for older generations [17]. The oldest generation on the labor market, the Baby Boomers, experienced a population boom, which taught them to be more competitive [48]. The Baby Boomers experienced economic growth after World War II and prosperity throughout their lives [49]. They were the first to experience major technological changes as well as conflicts such as the Cold War and the Vietnam War. However, depending on where they lived in the world, different factors shaped their values and psychological characteristics [45]. According to McCrindle, the Baby Boomer generation is susceptible to the influence and advice of experts, is characterized by a guiding leadership style, and the ideal leader is a thinker [50]. Contrary to the belief that transactional motivational factors play the most important role, young representatives of the Baby Boomer generation still present on the labor market indicate caring leadership and meaningful work as the two most important factors for staying in a job, and their absence as a reason for leaving—just like representatives of Generation Z, as proven by McKinsey research [17].

During their childhood, members of Generation X often experienced long periods of neglect during the day because both parents were at work for long hours, which taught them independence [48]. In their youth, they experienced many violent political events. They are more open to diversity than Baby Boomers [49]. According to McCrindle, Generation X is usually characterized by a coordinating leadership style, and the ideal leader is one of the performers who works together with others, which is why practitioners have the greatest influence as authority figures for this generation [50]. Contrary to prevailing stereotypes about traditional motivational factors for representatives of this generation, according to a McKinsey study, the most common factor for staying in a job is its meaningfulness, and the most common reason for leaving is uninspiring leadership [17].

Members of Generation Y have been shaped by the technological revolution they experienced in their youth—the widespread use of cell phones, laptops, and the Internet [47]. This is the first generation to be available online almost 24 h a day, 365 days a year [49]. According to McCrindle, Generation Y (the so-called Millennials) expects the ideal leader to be supportive—to lead others by performing tasks together with them. Members of Generation Y seek advice and authority from their peers and colleagues [50]. They often observed their hard-working parents, which led to a need for work–life balance [49], but contrary to the stereotype, this is not a priority for them—a McKinsey study showed that young millennials do not value flexibility more than other generations, and salary and professional development are more important to them. Their need for flexibility at work is primarily to fulfill family caregiving obligations [17].

According to a McCrindle report representative for Australia, most Baby Boomers, Generation X and Generation Y value clear communication, accessibility and integrity in a leader, while Generation Z values empathy in addition to accessibility and clear communication [51], which brings a significant change in management style requirements. Generation Z is the first generation immersed in the virtual world from a young age and widely uses social media [52]. Its representatives tend to be more entrepreneurial, trustworthy, and tolerant, and less motivated by money than Generation Y [49]. A study conducted in Portugal indicates that creativity and a tendency to see opportunities rather than threats are important factors shaping their sustainable entrepreneurial mindset [52]. According to McCrindle, Generation Z tends to rely on opinions and advice via online forums and social media. The ideal leader for Generation Z is a colleague who empowers their subordinates to work together so that they can become leaders in the future [50]. In a McKinsey study, Generation Z, compared to older generations, were the only ones to show that salary was less important when deciding to take a job, while the following factors were more important than salary for staying with their current employer: a safe and supportive work environment, flexibility, career development, and meaningful work. However, when it comes to leaving a job, their priorities are identical to those of the Baby Boomers, with inadequate pay coming in third place. The need for flexibility among Generation Z stems from different reasons than those of Millennials—they are driven by a desire to have an active social life and to travel [17].

3. Materials and Methods

The research model of this study is aimed at examining the perception of organizational management styles, as distinguished in Frederic Laloux’s concept, by representatives of generational cohorts currently active in the labor market, in the context of sustainable development.

The study adopted the following main hypothesis (MH): The perception of organizational management styles is dependent on generational cohort affiliation.

To verify or reject MH, three research questions were formulated. The questions and the stages of the inquiry process are presented below:

Q1: What experiences do representatives of different generations of employees have in the context of organizational management models?

• Identification of the level of work experience in organizations representing the management models distinguished by Laloux among generational cohorts currently active in the labor market.
• Verifying the dependency between work experience in organizations representing the distinguished management models and generational cohort affiliation.
• Identifying factors that define the human-centered direction of change in organizational management, based on the personal experiences of generational cohorts currently active in the labor market.

Q2: Which organizational management models are accepted by representatives of different generations of employees?

• Evaluation of specific characteristics of the distinguished organizational management models by generational cohorts currently active in the labor market, and projection for Generation Alpha to forecast trends.
• Conducting a test of dependency between the rating of the distinguished organizational management models and generational cohort affiliation.
• Conducting a test of dependency between the rating of specific characteristics of the distinguished organizational management models and generational cohort affiliation.
• Preparing a summary of generationally dependent characteristics based on test results, presented by generational cohort.

Q3: Are organizational management models that support the concept of sustainable development accepted by the majority of employees?

• Determining the level of acceptance of organizational management models that support the concept of sustainable development among employees currently active in the labor market.
• Identifying trends in the acceptance of organizational management models that support the concept of sustainable development among employees currently active in the labor market.

In order to answer the research questions, a qualitative study using a questionnaire survey was designed. The study was conducted using the CAWI method with Google Forms between 29 March and 28 April 2025, on a sample of 263 respondents from generations X, Y, Z, and Baby Boomers—Polish residents aged 18–78. The structure of the research sample is presented in

Table 2. Structure of the research sample.

Characteristic	Share in the Research Sample [%]
Generational cohort
Generation X	34.60
Generation Y	30.80
Generation Z	30.04
Baby Boomers (BB)	4.56
Gender (p 1 = 0.11262)
Female	69.20
Male	30.80
Education (p 1 = 0.36954 2)
Higher education	62.74
Secondary education	26.62
Doctorate	5.32
Vocational education	4.18
Primary education	0.76
No formal education	0.38
Employment status (p 1 < 0.00001 3)
Employed	75.67
Unemployed	10.27
Employer	7.22
Occasional work	6.84

¹ Chi-square test (α = 0.05) assessing the association between characteristics and generational affiliation; p-value reported. ² The statistical test was performed by aggregating the following response categories into a single group to meet the minimum expected frequency requirement: Generation X with Baby Boomers (BB); Higher education with Doctorate; and Vocational education with Primary education and No formal education. ³ To meet the test assumptions, Employed and Occasional work were combined. The chi-square test showed a strong association between employment status and generational affiliation (p < 0.00001).

. Representatives of generations X, Y, and Z constituted a comparable percentage of the respondents, while the smaller share of respondents from the Baby Boomers generation results from their departure from the labor market. The questionnaire consisted of four demographic questions (concerning generation cohort, gender, level of education, and current employment status), five sections devoted to specific organizational management models, and two open-ended questions: a mandatory question about proposed changes in management styles to meet the respondent’s requirements and an optional question about the respondent’s professional experience with management styles. Each section contained five questions about acceptance of the organizational management model and two questions about work experience in an organization operating according to a given organizational management model—about the occurrence of the phenomenon and about the assessment of experiences from that period using a 5-point Likert scale based on a positive-negative semantic differential.

Based on a literature review, five specific characteristics of each organizational management model described by Laloux were identified, as shown in

Table 3. Distinctive characteristics of the analyzed organizational management models.

Red Organizations	Amber Organizations	Orange Organizations	Green Organizations	Teal Organizations
Authoritarian management	Stability of operating principles	Management by objectives	Participation	Self-management
Punishment for mistakes	Promotion based on seniority	Meritocracy	Feedback	Collaboration and servant leadership
Organizational effectiveness based on the manager	Lack of creativity	Individual competition	Interpersonal relationships	Open access to information and flexibility
Lack of coherence in operations	Resistance to change	Creativity aimed at performance improvement	Flat organizational structure	Mistakes as opportunities for learning and growth
Lack of long-term planning	Extensive organizational structure	Prioritizing goals over personal needs	Sustainable development	Trust and mutual respect

. For each specific characteristic of the model, a statement was proposed to illustrate the management style in a given type of organization (e.g., mistakes as an opportunity for learning and development—“Don’t worry if you make a mistake! No one will punish you, it’s a great opportunity to learn”). The statements were prepared as remarks from members of the organization to help respondents understand the phenomenon, as they were informed in the instructions. The study used a set of “illustrative statement—characteristic” pairs, for which the level of acceptance was examined using a 5-point Likert scale: 1—I accept, 2—I rather accept, 3—no opinion (indifferent), 4—I rather do not accept, 5—I do not accept.

4. Results

4.1. Work Experience

Between 47.15% and 68.82% respondents experienced or partially experienced work in an organization that represented the organizational management models under study (

Table 4. Proportion of respondents with work experience in organizations representing the analyzed organizational management models and the mean rating of those experiences.

Parameter	Red Organizations	Amber Organizations	Orange Organizations	Green Organizations	Teal Organizations
Work experience [share of respondents]	19.77%	19.39%	28.52%	25.10%	24.71%
Partial work experience [share of respondents]	27.38%	30.80%	40.30%	34.60%	30.42%
Mean experience rating 1	3.30	3.24	2.69	1.88	2.01
p-value: chi-square test (α = 0.05) for the assessment of experiences by generational affiliation	0.47543	0.24878	0.97781	0.07725 2	0.26095 2

¹ Rating scale: 1—Positive, 2—Rather positive, 3—Neutral (neither positive nor negative), 4—Rather negative, 5—Negative. ² The statistical test was performed by aggregating the following response categories into a single group to meet the minimum expected frequency requirement: 3—Neutral (neither positive nor negative), 4—Rather negative, 5—Negative.

). Most respondents experienced work in orange organizations, while the fewest experienced it in red organizations. Respondents rated their experiences in green organizations the highest and slightly lower in teal organizations—the average score indicates that the experiences were rated as rather positive. The other models received average scores indicating a neutral rating, with amber and red organizations receiving an average rating about 20% lower than orange organizations.

The assessment of work experience in organizations representing the organizational management models studied does not depend on the generational affiliation of the respondents. The chi-square independence test showed that the p-value is greater than the accepted level of significance (α = 0.05).

4.2. Proposed Changes in Management Styles

Respondents commented on the changes they would propose to organizational management styles to better meet their requirements. In total, 11.79% of respondents did not answer, 10.27% had no opinion on the matter, 1.90% gave ambiguous answers, which were excluded from the analysis, and 2.28% did not declare a need for change. In total, 194 responses indicating areas for change were analyzed, grouped according to the areas indicated, ranked according to frequency of occurrence, and expressed as a percentage, as shown in Figure 1. The chart does not include individual responses from respondents indicating a sense of influence and meaning in their work, the involvement of advisors, and regular changes in management.

Respondents primarily declared the need for human-centered changes: care for employees, respect, communication and relationships, participation, an individual approach and flexibility, the creation of an organizational culture conducive to cooperation, and balancing the development of the organization with caring for the needs of employees. This group also includes concern for employee development, utilizing their creative potential, respecting employee autonomy, and work–life balance. Issues related to substance were also frequently mentioned: optimization and adaptation to changes in the environment, competent superiors, fair and equal treatment, transparency of actions and efficient flow of information, as well as consistent implementation of goals and setting requirements. The respondents also pointed to the need to flatten organizational structures and change the incentive and remuneration system so that salaries are adequate and fair, and motivating factors are linked to performance, talent, commitment, and improving qualifications. There were also calls for the introduction of a culture of feedback and the perception of mistakes as learning opportunities, which was most often mentioned by Generation Z respondents. For this generation, transparency, information flow, and care for employees are the most important factors. Respondents from Generation Y showed less need for change in terms of employee autonomy and cooperation culture, than respondents from Generations X and Z, while they value flexibility and an individual approach the most. Respondents from Generation X most often pointed to the need for change in terms of participation and care for employees. For Baby Boomer respondents, the most important factors were, in order: participation, optimization and adaptation, transparency and information flow, and equality and fairness. The need for change in terms of optimization and adaptation, consistency and setting requirements, and diversity and fairness were less frequently reported by younger generations.

31 respondents answered the question about their work experience in the context of organizational management models. The answers were similar to the proposed changes in the second open question, but interestingly, as many as nine answers pointed directly to the management staff, namely managers and owners, emphasizing that they should be competent, have an appropriate level of self-awareness (no “hidden narcissism”) and enjoy authority, have charisma, the ability to judge fairly, treat employees as people, be available to subordinates, and not allow harassment of subordinates. This indicates how important a relational management style is to the respondents, which translates into the level of acceptance of the organizational management models surveyed.

4.3. Acceptance of Organizational Management Models

Most respondents accept organizational management models that support the concept of sustainable development (Figure 2). The overall acceptance of these models is several times higher than that of other models. These models are most accepted among Generation Z respondents. Green organizations are characterized by a higher level of acceptance among respondents than teal organizations, but it should be noted that the assumptions of the green organizational model are more developed in teal organizations, which was not taken into account in the research tool focusing on the specific characteristics of each model. More than 9 out of 10 respondents from Generation Z accept the green organizational model, and more than 5/6 accept the teal organizational model. In addition, green organizations are accepted by more than 5/6 of representatives of generations X and Y and 2/3 of Baby Boomers. In turn, teal organizations are accepted by almost every sixth respondent from the Baby Boomer and X generations, and ¾ of the Y generation.

The fewest respondents accepting the red organizational model are among Generation Z, while most its supporters are among Generation Y (similar to amber organizations). Interestingly, the fewest respondents accepting the amber organizational model are representatives of the Baby Boomers generation. Respondents from this generation show the highest level of acceptance of the orange organizational model (50%), which is about 30% lower in other generational cohorts. Despite these differences, the level of acceptance of these organizational management models does not depend on generational affiliation (

Table 5. Chi-square test of independence results for model acceptance by generational affiliation.

Model Acceptance	Chi-Square Test (α = 0.05)
	p-Value	Is the Acceptance Dependent on Generation (p < α)?
Red organizations	0.06647	-
Amber organizations	0.79409	-
Orange organizations	0.90387	-
Green organizations	0.08427 *	-
Teal organizations	0.00962	Yes

* The statistical test was performed by aggregating the categories “no acceptance” and “no opinion” into a single group to meet the minimum expected frequency requirement for the test.

). The chi-square independence test showed that the p-value is greater than the accepted significance level (α = 0.05) for all models, except for teal organizations. The level of acceptance of the teal organizational model depends on the generational affiliation of the respondents. Younger generations are characterized by a higher level of acceptance of this model.

The amber organizational model (Figure 3) also shows a weak upward trend. The greatest downward trend is seen in the acceptance of the orange organizational model (Figure 4), while the trend line for the red organizational model (Figure 5) shows a weaker decline. The acceptance of green (Figure 6) and teal (Figure 7) organizational models shows an upward trend.

Red and orange organizational models are characterized by a low level of acceptance, which makes their implementation seem unjustified. Orange organizations are characterized by an average level of acceptance of the model (45.4%). The majority acceptance of the green organizational model, with an upward trend among younger generations, which, however, does not show a statistical correlation with generational affiliation, indicates the high potential of this model in the current labor market situation. The dependence of the teal organizational model on generational affiliation indicates the high potential of this model in the context of Generation Z, which is already entering the labor market, and the next Alpha generation, whose oldest representatives are already 15 years old. The trend line forecast for the level of acceptance among representatives of the Alpha generation exceeds 90% (Figure 6), so this model seems to have the greatest potential in the future.

4.4. Acceptance of Specific Features of the Tested Models

The specific features of the organizational management models examined were also classified into categories indicating acceptance, rejection or indifference on the part of the study participants based on their average rating (

Table 6. Mean ratings of characteristics of the analyzed organizational management models and their dependence on generational affiliation.

Characteristic	Mean Rating	Chi-Square Test (α = 0.05)
		p-Value	Is the Acceptance Dependent on Generation (p < α)?
Red organizations
Authoritarian management	3.46	0.37520	-
Punishment for mistakes	3.61	0.00007	Yes
Lack of coherence in operations	4.09	0.40851 1	-
Organizational effectiveness based on the manager	2.89	0.11063	-
Lack of long-term planning	3.83	0.66554	-
Amber organizations
Stability of operating principles	2.99	0.03786	Yes
Promotion based on seniority	3.71	0.32935	-
Lack of creativity	3.63	0.38380	-
Resistance to change	3.67	0.44251	-
Extensive organizational structure	3.41	0.00204	Yes
Orange organizations
Management by objectives	2.85	0.03017	Yes
Meritocracy	1.76	003168 2	Yes
Individual competition	3.42	0.08648	-
Creativity aimed at performance improvement	2.84	0.01059	Yes
Prioritizing goals over personal needs	2.98	0.21204	-
Green organizations
Participation	1.63	0.60162 2	-
Feedback	1.61	0.00459 2	Yes
Interpersonal relationships	1.56	0.10471 2	-
Flat organizational structure	1.65	0.76811 2	-
Sustainable development	2.02	0.16831	-
Teal organizations
Self-management	2.89	0.00001	Yes
Collaboration and servant leadership	2.11	0.04681	Yes
Open access to information and flexibility	1.95	0.29890 2	-
Mistakes as opportunities for learning and growth	1.91	0.00008	Yes
Trust and mutual respect	1.57	0.03926 2	Yes

Rating scale: 1—Accept, 2—Rather accept, 3—No opinion (neutral), 4—Rather do not accept, 5—Do not accept. ¹ The statistical test was performed by aggregating values 1 and 2 into a single group. ² The statistical test was performed by aggregating values 4 and 5 into a single group to meet the minimum expected frequency requirement for the test.

). Respondents do not accept penalties for making mistakes, inconsistency in actions, a lack of organizational planning, promotion based on seniority, a lack of creativity, and resistance to change, with only the first of these showing a correlation with generational affiliation. Punishment for mistakes is indifferent to representatives of the Baby Boomer, X and Y generations, but is not accepted by respondents from Generation Z (

Table 7. Mean ratings * of generation-dependent characteristics ** of organizational management models by generational cohort.

Characteristic	Baby Boomers	Generation X	Generation Y	Generation Z
Punishment for mistakes	3.42	3.31	3.40	4.20
Stability of operating principles	2.92	3.35	2.91	2.66
Extensive organizational structure	3.50	3.30	3.30	3.66
Management by objectives	2.58	2.93	2.91	2.73
Meritocracy	1.75	1.95	1.89	1.43
Creativity aimed at performance improvement	2.33	2.80	2.86	2.92
Feedback	2.00	1.81	1.60	1.32
Self-management	3.50	3.35	2.78	2.37
Collaboration and servant leadership	2.58	2.33	2.10	1.80
Mistakes as opportunities for learning and growth	2.42	2.22	1.91	1.47
Trust and mutual respect	1.75	1.70	1.63	1.34

* Rating scale: 1—Accept, 2—Rather accept, 3—No opinion (neutral), 4—Rather do not accept, 5—Do not accept. ** Only characteristics identified as generation-dependent in Table 6 (chi-square test, α = 0.05) are included.

). The other characteristics of red and amber organizations highlighted in Table 6 are indifferent to the respondents, with a complex organizational structure and authoritarian management being rated as less acceptable than organizational efficiency based on the manager and consistency of operating principles.

Of the characteristics of orange organizations, only meritocracy is accepted, while the other characteristics are neutral for respondents. All characteristics of green organizations are accepted by respondents. In teal organizations, all characteristics except for self-organization of work are accepted by respondents. However, self-organization of work is one of the characteristics that depends on generational affiliation, which is unacceptable to Baby Boomers, indifferent to Generations X and Y, and accepted by Generation Z (Table 7).

The stability of operating principles is indifferent to all generational cohorts, but Generation Z rated it most positively and Generation X most negatively. An extensive organizational structure is a neutral feature for representatives of Generations X and Y, which is not accepted by representatives of the Baby Boomers and Generation Z. Management by objectives is a neutral feature in all generational cohorts, which is rated best by representatives of the Baby Boomers and worst by representatives of Generations X and Y. Meritocracy, feedback, mistakes as an opportunity for learning and development, and trust and mutual respect are characteristics accepted in all generational cohorts, with higher acceptance among younger generations. Cooperation and servant leadership were rated similarly, but for Baby Boomers, these are now neutral characteristics. The opposite trend can be seen in creativity for improving results, which is a positive characteristic for Baby Boomers, but neutral for representatives of other generations.

5. Discussion

Generational differences affect how organizations function, but McKinsey’s stereotype-challenging research shows that employee needs and expectations are often the same regardless of generational affiliation. It is therefore suggested to focus on factors common to all generations and treat employees as unique individuals—adapting them to their stage of life, preferences, and circumstances through open and honest dialog between the employee and the organization. These factors include salary, career development, flexibility, but also caring leadership and meaningful work [17]. Similar conclusions were drawn from a study conducted in Poland in 2014 on intergenerational differences in the context of Generation Y [53]. Research on the expectations of employees from different generations regarding the CSR activities of their future employer, conducted in Poland in 2018, also showed that employees from all generations expect activities in this area and that there are no statistically significant intergenerational differences [53]. Previous research has therefore indicated that there is great potential for implementing the green and teal organizational model regardless of the generational and age structure of an organization’s members.

The research conducted allowed us to determine that experiences in the context of organizational management models are independent of generational affiliation (Q1). Respondents are indifferent about their work experiences in red, orange, and amber organizations, while they are rather positive about their work experiences in green and teal organizations. The most frequently proposed changes in management styles are human-centered changes, and when describing their work experience, respondents most often pointed to the management staff, proposing a relational management style.

The acceptance of organizational management models: red, amber, orange, and green among respondents is independent of generational affiliation (Q2). The red, amber, and orange organizational models show little potential for implementation—they are accepted by 10.3%, 15.6%, and 35.4% of respondents, respectively, with a downward trend (red and orange) or slight increase (amber) among younger generations, and the work experience associated with them is rated indifferently. The green organizational model has the highest level of acceptance with an upward trend among younger generations and a rather positive assessment of experience, hence it has high potential to function in the current labor market situation. Only the acceptance of the teal organizational model depends on the generational affiliation of the respondents (Q2) and shows an upward trend among younger generation cohorts (X—58.2%, Y—74.1%, Z—83.5%), and the experiences associated with it are assessed rather positively. The projected level of acceptance of this management model among representatives of the Alpha generation exceeds 90%.

With the entry of Generation Z into the labor market, the concept of punishing employees for mistakes is becoming obsolete—respondents from this generation do not accept such behavior. They most often call for and accept a change in attitude towards mistakes as opportunities for learning and development. Representatives of Generation Z also accept the self-organization of work and (together with representatives of the Baby Boomer generation) do not accept complex organizational structures. Respondents from younger generations also show growing acceptance of meritocracy, feedback, trust and mutual respect, as well as cooperation and servant leadership.

The research confirmed that organizational management models supporting the concept of sustainable development are accepted by the majority of respondents (Q3). The green organizational model is accepted by 86.7%, while the teal organizational model is accepted by 70.7%. These models are accepted by the majority of respondents from all generational cohorts, with the highest level of acceptance among Generation Z respondents. A trend of increasing acceptance of these models among younger generations was observed.

The study confirmed the findings of McKinsey’s research, which indicated smaller intergenerational differences than those stereotypically described. The potential for implementing green and teal organizational models demonstrated in this analysis continues McKinsey’s research and confirms its validity, which requires further research among representatives of the Alpha generation.