A Study on the Effectiveness of a Hybrid Digital-Physical Board Game Incorporating the Sustainable Development Goals in Elementary School Sustainability Education

Abstract

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), launched by the United Nations in 2015, outline 17 interconnected objectives designed to promote human well-being and sustainable development worldwide. Education is recognized by the United Nations as a key factor in promoting sustainable development. To cultivate students with both global perspectives and local engagement, it is essential to integrate sustainability education into elementary curricula. Accordingly, this study aimed to enhance elementary school students’ understanding of the SDGs by designing a structured instructional activity and developing a hybrid digital-physical board game. The game was implemented as a supplementary review tool to traditional classroom teaching, leveraging the motivational and knowledge-retention benefits of physical board games while incorporating digital features to support learning process monitoring. To address the limitations of conventional review approaches—such as reduced student engagement and increased cognitive load—the instructional model incorporated the board game during review sessions following formal instruction. This was intended to maintain student attention and reduce unnecessary cognitive effort, thereby supporting learning in sustainability-related content. A quasi-experimental design was employed to evaluate the effectiveness of the instructional intervention and the board game system, focusing on three outcome variables: learning motivation, cognitive load, and learning achievement. The results indicated that students in the game-based Sustainable Development Goals group achieved significantly higher delayed posttest scores (M = 72.91, SD = 15.17) than the traditional review group (M = 61.30, SD = 22.82; p < 0.05). In addition, they reported significantly higher learning motivation (M = 4.40, SD = 0.64) compared to the traditional group (M = 3.99, SD = 0.69; p < 0.05) and lower cognitive load (M = 1.84, SD = 1.39) compared to the traditional group (M = 2.66, SD = 1.30; p < 0.05), suggesting that the proposed approach effectively supported student learning in sustainability education at the elementary level.

1. Introduction

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) launched by the United Nations in 2015 outline 17 interconnected objectives that promote global sustainability, social well-being, and environmental responsibility [1]. As education is recognized as a key driver for achieving the SDGs, there is increasing emphasis on fostering sustainability awareness from an early age, particularly in elementary education [2]. Despite this, many current approaches remain limited to traditional lecture-based instruction, which may not effectively engage young learners or support long-term retention [3]. Innovative strategies, such as game-based learning (GBL), have been increasingly explored as a means to bridge this gap and make sustainability concepts more accessible and engaging for young students [4].

Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) emphasizes equipping learners with the competencies needed to make informed decisions and take responsible actions locally and globally, with a strong focus on critical thinking, collaboration, and systems thinking [5]. While the SDGs have expanded the scope of sustainability education to include all levels of learning, elementary school remains a crucial stage for developing students’ foundational understanding and long-term attitudes toward sustainable practices [6]. Globally, early introduction to sustainability themes is increasingly recognized as vital for nurturing future citizens capable of addressing complex environmental and social challenges.

In Taiwan, sustainability themes are often embedded in subject-based curricula, such as environmental or energy education within social studies or science classes [7]. However, classroom instruction is still predominantly teacher-centered and knowledge-based, offering limited opportunities for interactive or student-centered learning [8]. Although the 12-Year Basic Education policy encourages schools to design school-based curricula that align with broader societal goals, there is still a lack of innovative, empirically supported methods to actively engage elementary students in ESD [9].

Prior studies have highlighted the potential of game-based learning to enhance motivation, promote deeper understanding, and reduce unnecessary cognitive load [10]. Nonetheless, few empirical investigations have specifically examined how a hybrid digital-physical board game can be integrated into SDGs instruction for elementary students to strengthen learning outcomes and retention. This gap indicates a need for instructional approaches that combine the hands-on, collaborative benefits of traditional board games with the tracking and feedback capabilities of digital tools.

To address this need, this study designed and implemented a structured instructional activity incorporating a hybrid digital-physical board game centered on the SDGs. The game was used as an interactive review tool designed both to reinforce students’ understanding of sustainability concepts and to sustain their learning motivation through engaging, game-based elements. Unlike an optional add-on, the hybrid board game was systematically integrated into the instructional design as an essential review component to strengthen retention, motivation, and metacognitive awareness. Specifically, this study addressed the following research questions: (1) does the hybrid board game significantly improve students’ learning achievement compared to traditional review? (2) does it enhance learning motivation? (3) does it reduce perceived cognitive load? By investigating its effects on these outcomes, this study contributes new empirical evidence to the fields of sustainability education and educational technology. The findings provide practical insights for educators and curriculum designers seeking effective strategies to integrate the SDGs into elementary school classrooms in an engaging and impactful way.

2. Literature Review

2.1. Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in Elementary Education

Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) plays a critical role in transforming educational systems and equipping learners with the competencies necessary to co-create a sustainable future [11]. ESD offers essential knowledge, skills, and values for fostering responsible citizenship in a sustainable society. Its distinctiveness lies in its interdisciplinary nature, learner-centered pedagogies, and context-dependent learning approaches, all of which empower learners to drive societal transformation [12]. ESD-oriented pedagogies encourage students to ask questions, engage in analysis and critical thinking, and make informed decisions. Accordingly, instructional approaches have shifted from teacher-centered to learner-centered models, moving away from rote memorization toward participatory and experiential learning. Given that educational approaches must align with local contexts and cultural relevance, ESD is implemented in diverse forms across the globe. Consequently, SDG 4 (Quality Education) remains an evolving and context-specific concept, shaped by each country’s social, economic, and environmental realities [13]. For instance, in Sweden, ESD is embedded as a guiding educational principle, while in Japan, it is integrated into subject-based curricula [12].

According to a review by Berglund et al. [14], Taiwan’s National Council for Sustainable Development adopted its national policy framework in 2009 and implemented the Environmental Education Act in 2011, which mandates annual participation in environmental education programs for all elementary and secondary school students and teachers. However, many educators did not initially incorporate environmental learning into their curricula due to instructional constraints and time pressures. As a result, environmental and sustainability education was often marginalized. It was not until scholars such as Laurie et al. [13] advocated for the ESD approach—emphasizing content relevance, value-based learning, and innovative pedagogical strategies—that positive outcomes began to emerge.

In Europe, countries such as Italy, Croatia, and Greece have embedded SDG 14 (Life Below Water) into elementary education by incorporating ocean science and literacy into cross-cultural studies [15]. Given young children’s natural curiosity about the world, incorporating marine themes into formal education can effectively capture their interest. Cultivating ocean literacy is essential for enabling future citizens to understand marine-related issues, make responsible decisions, and recognize their interdependence with the ocean. In South America, Chilean and German scholars such as Bascopé et al. [16] conceptualize ESD as a component of civic education. They propose various pedagogical models, such as arts-based inquiry learning, which fosters emotional engagement with the natural environment and enhances students’ local identity and sense of belonging. The integration of artistic expressions—including painting, performance, music, and writing—provides students with experiential connections to local flora, fauna, and weather patterns. Moreover, outdoor education is employed as a core ESD strategy, shifting the learning dynamic from teacher-led instruction to student-directed exploration, thereby enhancing environmental awareness through intentional engagement with nature. Green [17] further proposed the “sensory journey” as a method to stimulate children’s sensory interactions with the environment, promoting place-based learning through unstructured exploration. Project-based and problem-based learning are two complementary approaches that promote action-oriented, interdisciplinary learning while fostering student agency and collaboration.

In Portugal, a model of environmental citizenship education has been developed [18], aiming to engage elementary school students in responsible environmental behaviors and cultivate positive attitudes toward environmental protection in daily life. This model promotes scientific and environmental literacy, encouraging students to actively participate in environmental issues. Monte and Reis [18] emphasize that emotional, sensory, and cognitive dimensions are interrelated. By fostering environmental awareness through sensory engagement and local case studies, students develop empathy and respect for all living beings and perceive the Earth as a shared community. This holistic model promotes moral values and environmental responsibility, encouraging students to internalize pro-environmental attitudes and behaviors that persist into adulthood and manifest in active civic participation [19]. In Spain, ESD initiatives have also addressed SDG 5 (Gender Equality). One notable example is the Girls4STEM project launched in 2019 [20]. This initiative seeks to dismantle gender stereotypes in STEM fields by targeting girls and boys aged 6–18, along with their families and teachers. By facilitating interactions with female STEM professionals, the program inspires girls to develop interest and confidence in STEM subjects—especially engineering—and empowers them to pursue careers in traditionally male-dominated domains.

In summary, ESD is a critical educational priority worldwide. Recent cross-national studies have also emphasized the value of adapting ESD content and game-based approaches to different cultural and policy contexts, highlighting that best practices in one region may inform scalable models elsewhere [21,22]. This study positions itself within this global movement by exploring how ESD can contribute to the advancement of sustainability education in Taiwan’s elementary education context.

2.2. The Development of Board Game Applications in Elementary Education

Play is a natural and essential part of children’s development. Game-based learning enables students to acquire knowledge through play, thus achieving educational objectives. Compared to traditional lecture-based instruction, game-based learning enhances learning efficiency by engaging students in hands-on experiences, improving hand-eye coordination, and increasing overall learning engagement and motivation [23]. In recent years, board games have attracted growing interest and have been widely applied across various educational domains. Board games, typically consisting of components, mechanics, and narrative elements, offer unique features such as role-play simulations, goal orientation, procedural rules, feedback mechanisms, player interactions, and repeated process rounds [24]. These characteristics create diverse gameplay experiences, and when instructional objectives are embedded within game rules and structures, board games can serve as effective educational tools across subjects [25]. Integrating board games into teaching has shown similar positive effects as other forms of game-based learning [26]. For elementary students, who are naturally drawn to games, learning through board games not only enhances conceptual understanding but also fosters learning interest, motivation, and active participation [27]. Such engagement further promotes higher-order thinking [28], peer collaboration, social interaction, and even improves teacher–student communication [29].

Elementary school is a foundational stage for developing key knowledge and skills. When teachers incorporate educational board games, they create alternative learning opportunities for students. Hsueh [30] implemented a board game-based speaking activity in a sixth-grade English class, and the results demonstrated high student participation, improved pronunciation, and increased language proficiency. Similarly, Chao and Fan [31] integrated board games into a fifth-grade English class to alleviate students’ learning anxiety. Over a ten-week experiment involving experimental and control groups, results revealed that board games effectively reduced communication-related anxiety. Tsai and Chin [32] addressed low interest and negative attitudes toward mathematics by designing a board game focused on fractions. Their findings, based on data analysis and interviews, showed that students using the board game could accurately identify and interpret fractions, leading to improved attitudes and learning outcomes. Tsai et al. [33] developed a board game to raise awareness of biodiversity and promote reflection on the relationships between native and invasive species. Using worksheets, classroom video recordings, teacher observations, and post-class interviews, the study confirmed that students understood the ecological impact of invasive species and actively engaged with the topic. The integration of board games encouraged students to go beyond passive textbook learning and explore knowledge through teamwork and interactive construction of cognitive models.

Many countries have also explored the educational potential of board games. In South Korea, Park [34] developed a board game to teach computational thinking skills to elementary students. A two-week study involving 152 students revealed that the game improved understanding of computational concepts and basic programming logic. In India, Amelia et al. [35] designed a quiz-based card game to raise awareness about dengue fever. Conducted in a 40-min group activity format, the quasi-experimental study showed that the board game significantly improved fifth and sixth graders’ knowledge and attitudes about dengue prevention. Wulanyani et al. [36] created a board game on pest transmission and control. Involving 78 third- to sixth-grade students, the study found that participants’ knowledge of pest-related content significantly increased after gameplay. Sangwanna et al. [37] developed a nutrition-themed board game targeting students in grades four to six. Based on satisfaction questionnaires and expert evaluations, the study concluded that the game effectively enhanced students’ understanding of fruit and vegetable nutrition.

Although board games have strong appeal, successful implementation in educational settings requires teacher guidance and classroom management. Cheng et al. [24] noted that without proper facilitation, conflicts among group members or lack of direction could discourage participation. Traditional board games may also suffer from damaged components or missing pieces, affecting gameplay fairness and continuity. Fortunately, technological advancements have expanded the possibilities of educational board games. Mobile-based board games offer portability and usability, while integrated real-time databases can track gameplay history. Moreover, digital board games enhance the user experience through multimedia animations, audiovisual effects, and interactive features, providing multisensory engagement and instant feedback—factors that significantly enhance learning outcomes [38,39,40].

Chan et al. [41] further highlighted limitations of traditional board games, such as their inability to be played independently outside of class or lack of gameplay traceability. To address this, they developed a digital board game for legal education, which supported knowledge retention and increased student interaction by allowing visibility of other groups’ progress. This fostered a sense of competition and enabled deeper insight into students’ thinking during gameplay. Knowledge retention, defined as the ability to recall learned information after a period of time [42], is a key outcome supported by game-based learning [43]. Cutumisu et al. [44] designed a digital role-playing board game for neonatal resuscitation training. The study revealed that gameplay enhanced both knowledge retention and decision-making, leading to improved clinical performance. Similarly, Karbownik et al. [45] used a board game to teach microbiological pharmacology. While short-term knowledge gains were similar across teaching methods, the board game group exhibited significantly higher long-term knowledge retention, particularly within 14 days post-intervention.

In summary, this study employs a hybrid digital-physical board game that retains the motivational and cognitive benefits of traditional games while addressing the limitations in tracking gameplay processes. This integrated approach seeks to enhance students’ learning motivation and knowledge retention, providing a more effective and engaging educational experience. Recent comparative studies on game-based learning have also highlighted the value of adapting hybrid game-based review activities to fit local classroom practices and cultural expectations, ensuring that such tools remain relevant and impactful across diverse educational contexts [46,47]. Furthermore, despite the benefits of physical board games, recent studies suggest that combining digital tools with traditional game mechanics can improve learning process tracking, feedback, and scalability [48]. This hybrid format leverages the engagement of physical play while addressing limitations in monitoring and adaptivity [49].

In this study, a board game is defined as a structured tabletop game that includes clear rules, physical components, and social interaction. The term hybrid digital-physical denotes the integration of physical game elements with digital features, such as real-time tracking or adaptive feedback, to optimize the learning experience.

2.3. Strategies for Integrating Board Games into Instruction

The integration of board games into educational settings has become an increasingly common pedagogical strategy, given their ability to incorporate interdisciplinary knowledge and train students’ skills through gameplay [25]. Board games offer a variety of educational benefits, such as enhancing communication skills, strategic thinking, problem-solving, and collaboration. However, from the perspective of teachers, several implementation challenges remain, including limited class time, curriculum pacing constraints, the lack of ready-made games for certain subjects, and classroom management issues [50]. To address these constraints, Ref. [51] argued that the convenience and ease of use of board games make them particularly suitable for informal learning contexts. Rather than replacing formal instruction, board games can serve as supplementary learning tools—either as in-class practice activities or as review mechanisms during after-school sessions. This strategic integration leverages the engaging nature of games to stimulate learners’ intrinsic motivation and encourage active participation, thereby improving learning outcomes [52].

Chen et al. [52] integrated board games into mathematics instruction to explore their effect on students’ motivation and interest. In a two-week, eight-session study, sixth-grade students were divided into an experimental group and a control group. The instructional model for the experimental group involved explaining textbook concepts, followed by board game-based extension activities, and concluding with review exercises from the textbook. The results indicated that incorporating board games helped capture students’ attention, increased their confidence, alleviated math anxiety, and promoted a sense of achievement—ultimately enhancing both motivation and interest in learning mathematics. Beyond classroom extension activities, Triboni and Weber [53] proposed two instructional approaches for integrating board games into learning. The first involves embedding academic content within the game to introduce subject-specific concepts prior to formal instruction. The second applies board games as a post-instruction review tool. Their findings suggest that using board games for review yields better learning outcomes, emphasizing the need to tailor the integration strategy based on the game’s content and its alignment with the subject matter.

Wen et al. [54] compared the effectiveness of traditional flashcard drills with board game-based activities for reviewing Chinese language content. The results showed that students who engaged with board games demonstrated significantly better learning performance than those in the traditional review group. Kuo and Hsu [55] employed a board game to reinforce computational thinking concepts—such as sequence, conditionals, and loops—commonly found in programming instruction. The study revealed that the board game enhanced learning effectiveness, with behavioral analyses indicating frequent peer discussions and deeper engagement [56]. Furthermore, the cooperative gameplay format significantly improved student outcomes when the tasks had clearly defined goals, compared to open-ended competitive settings. Wong and Yunus [57] reviewed the use of board games in English-speaking courses and found that game-based environments encouraged students to speak more freely and confidently in English without fear of making mistakes. This increased oral fluency, pronunciation accuracy, and grammatical correctness while alleviating common challenges such as limited vocabulary and pronunciation difficulties.

In summary, incorporating board games into instructional practice has emerged as a well-recognized teaching strategy. In particular, using board games as review tools following traditional instruction has shown positive effects on student learning outcomes. Additionally, the ability to analyze gameplay processes offers educators a more transparent view of student learning, allowing for targeted guidance and intervention to further enhance instructional effectiveness.

2.4. Cognitive Load

Cognitive load is a psychological construct referring to the mental burden experienced by learners when the amount of incoming information exceeds the limited capacity of working or short-term memory [58]. As human cognitive processing is constrained by working memory—which can handle only a limited number of information units at any given time [59]—the introduction of unnecessary or excessive information can overwhelm the cognitive system, increase cognitive load, and hinder learning outcomes [60]. Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) provides a framework for understanding how task-induced mental effort influences the learning process, particularly how new information is processed and transformed into long-term knowledge structures. The theory also explores how instructional methods and material design impact cognitive load, aiming to help learners optimize their limited cognitive resources through effective instructional design [58,61]. CLT categorizes cognitive load into three types: intrinsic cognitive load, extraneous cognitive load, and germane cognitive load [58,62,63]. Intrinsic cognitive load is influenced by the complexity of the learning material, the degree of element interactivity, and learners’ prior knowledge or domain-specific expertise [64]. Elements refer to discrete units of knowledge that learners must process during instruction. When the learning material contains elements that are not interrelated, working memory only needs to process them in isolation, resulting in a lower intrinsic load. However, the same content may produce varying levels of intrinsic load depending on learners’ backgrounds and prior knowledge [65]. Extraneous cognitive load is affected by how instructional content is presented, including materials, teaching methods, and visual design. Poorly designed instruction can cause learners to expend cognitive resources on irrelevant elements, thereby increasing extraneous load and impeding knowledge construction [62]. Germane cognitive load, on the other hand, refers to the mental effort devoted to schema construction and long-term memory encoding. It results from additional instructional elements that support deeper understanding. Effective instructional design should therefore aim to reduce extraneous load while promoting germane load to enhance learning performance [66].

In elementary Mandarin instruction, character recognition is a key learning objective. Chinese characters are composed of one or more components, and more complex configurations lead to higher intrinsic cognitive load. Traditionally, character learning has relied on repetitive writing drills. Hsu and Chen [67], however, developed an educational board game for children aged 6 to 9 that utilizes component-based character construction, integrating pictorial vocabulary cards to reinforce memory. Familiarity with radicals and stroke structures further supports recognition. Their study found that the board game method reduced cognitive load, increased student engagement, and provided a more enjoyable learning experience compared to traditional drills. Similarly, English vocabulary learning often relies on rote memorization, which may result in boredom, distraction, or anxiety. Wei et al. [68] developed a competitive board game that integrates English vocabulary learning with adaptive support mechanisms. Compared to traditional methods, the board game not only improved vocabulary acquisition but also reduced anxiety and increased immersion. Chang et al. [69] found that in game-based learning contexts, flow experience is negatively associated with extraneous cognitive load and positively related to germane cognitive load. Thus, educational games—particularly board games—can help lower students’ extraneous cognitive load.

Hong et al. [70] designed a geography-themed card game for world geography instruction and investigated how gameplay confidence, game self-efficacy, interest, and cognitive load interact. The game incorporated competitive elements to enhance extrinsic motivation. Cards were categorized as “natural environment” and “national features,” with activities such as matching geographical names with map locations or identifying common features across nations. Results showed that gameplay enhanced learners’ confidence, and that game self-efficacy and interest were positively related to confidence and negatively correlated with cognitive load. Overall, the study confirmed that well-designed educational board games can reduce cognitive load and promote learner motivation. Lo and Lin [71] developed a digital board game modeled after Monopoly to support English vocabulary learning. The game featured competitive multiplayer gameplay, with the winner determined by total points. Results revealed that competition helped sustain student motivation through the sense of achievement [72], while collaborative formats yielded lower cognitive load [71].

In light of these findings, to avoid reduced learning motivation and increased cognitive burden associated with traditional review methods, this study proposes a post-instructional review activity using a hybrid digital-physical board game. This approach aims to sustain student engagement while minimizing cognitive load, thereby supporting more effective and enjoyable learning experiences.

Based on cognitive load theory [73], game-based learning can help optimize learners’ cognitive processing by balancing intrinsic, extraneous, and germane cognitive load. Prior studies have demonstrated that educational games can enhance learning motivation [74], engagement [75], and knowledge retention [76]. This study draws on game-based learning principles to inform the design of the hybrid board game, ensuring that key elements—such as clear goals, immediate feedback, and collaborative gameplay—actively engage students in the learning process. By providing repeated opportunities for practice and review, the game aims to promote deeper understanding and long-term knowledge retention. This practical design addresses the gap in how GBL can be implemented to support sustainability education in elementary settings.

However, despite these promising directions, few empirical studies have systematically compared traditional and hybrid game-based approaches in elementary-level SDGs education, nor have they examined how specific design features—such as the balance of physical and digital components—impact knowledge retention, motivation, and cognitive load in authentic classroom contexts. Furthermore, there remains limited cross-cultural evidence on how such hybrid approaches can be adapted and scaled to diverse educational settings and cultural contexts. Addressing these gaps, this study aims to provide new empirical insights into the potential of a hybrid digital-physical board game to enhance sustainability education for young learners.

Drawing on this theoretical foundation, the present study posits that integrating a hybrid digital-physical board game into SDGs instruction will significantly (1) improve students’ learning achievement, (2) increase their learning motivation, and (3) reduce perceived cognitive load compared to conventional review methods. Therefore, the following hypotheses were formulated:

H1: 

Students who engage in review activities using the hybrid digital-physical board game will demonstrate significantly higher learning achievement than students who engage in traditional review activities.

H2: 

Students who engage in review activities using the hybrid digital-physical board game will report significantly higher learning motivation than students who engage in traditional review activities.

H3: 

Students who engage in review activities using the hybrid digital-physical board game will report significantly lower perceived cognitive load than students who engage in traditional review activities.

3. Research Methodology

3.1. Design and Implementation of the SDGs Hybrid Digital-Physical Board Game

This study developed a hybrid digital-physical board game themed on the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), designed to engage elementary school students in an interactive learning experience. The game allows players to take turns rolling a die to move their game pieces across a physical board. This roll-and-move mechanism, similar to classic board games such as Monopoly or Snakes and Ladders, was selected because its familiar structure facilitates ease of participation and maintains student interest. Its simplicity also enables flexible adaptation for varying class sizes and time constraints, making it well-suited for elementary students’ cognitive development levels [77]. The system comprises a physical game map, player tokens, an app-based quiz system, and a teacher-facing web portal for monitoring gameplay data. During gameplay, students use a Radio-Frequency Identification (RFID) reader connected to a mobile device (ASUS ZenPad 8.0 (Z380M), manufactured by ASUSTeK Computer Inc., Taipei, Taiwan) to scan RFID cards, which triggers a randomly selected quiz question from the relevant SDG category to appear on the device screen. The app records student responses and gameplay data in a cloud-based database. Teachers can access these records via a dedicated web portal developed in this project to analyze learning progress. The system architecture is illustrated in Figure 1.

The SDGs game content is based on the 17 official goals established by the United Nations. Each goal is represented by a distinct color and includes five associated quiz questions. The 17 SDGs incorporated into the game are (1) No Poverty, (2) Zero Hunger, (3) Good Health and Well-being, (4) Quality Education, (5) Gender Equality, (6) Clean Water and Sanitation, (7) Affordable and Clean Energy, (8) Decent Work and Economic Growth, (9) Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure, (10) Reduced Inequalities, (11) Sustainable Cities and Communities, (12) Responsible Consumption and Production, (13) Climate Action, (14) Life Below Water, (15) Life on Land, (16) Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions, and (17) Partnerships for the Goals. Each SDG includes five unique quiz items, resulting in a total of 85 questions in the cloud database. When a player lands on a quiz space, one of the five questions associated with that SDG is randomly displayed on the mobile device. The quiz items consist exclusively of multiple-choice questions carefully designed to align with elementary students’ reading abilities. Each question bank was reviewed by three education experts to ensure age-appropriate difficulty and content validity. The game adopts a primarily competitive format where players aim to reach the final goal first but also encourages peer discussion during question answering to promote collaborative thinking.

The full set of game components includes a physical game board (Figure 2), one die, player tokens (depending on the number of players), 18 RFID quiz cards (Figure 3), an RFID reader, and a mobile device equipped with the SDGs quiz app. Of the 18 RFID cards, 17 correspond to the SDGs and are color-coded according to their thematic focus. The 18th card represents the game’s final destination: “Sustainable Development.” The quiz triggered by this final card is randomly selected from the entire database.

The mobile application developed for this project supports the gameplay process. When players land on a quiz space or the final goal, they scan the corresponding RFID card and answer the presented question. Upon submitting an answer, the app provides immediate feedback—indicating whether the response is correct or incorrect—along with the correct answer, an explanation, and a prompt for the next action. If the answer is correct, the student is prompted to roll the die again; if incorrect, the turn passes to the next player. The game continues until a player reaches the final goal and correctly answers the associated question, at which point the app displays a game completion screen. During gameplay, the teacher primarily acted as a facilitator, providing clarifications and managing group dynamics when necessary. The teacher did not intervene in answering questions, ensuring that students engaged with the content independently and through peer interaction. Sample interface views are shown in Figure 4a–d, including the home screen, game instructions, question-response interaction, and game completion notice.

In addition to the game system, a backend teacher web portal was developed to allow educators to review students’ gameplay data. By selecting a game session, the system retrieves student data from the cloud and displays a bar chart summarizing performance by SDG category (Figure 5a). The X-axis represents each SDG topic; the Y-axis shows the number of students. Blue bars indicate the total number of students who answered a given category, green bars represent correct responses, and red bars indicate incorrect ones. Teachers can then select any SDG category to view the distribution of responses to its associated sub-questions (Figure 5b) and to examine individual student answer histories (Figure 5c). The system presents this information in a simplified format, displaying the specific sub-question attempted, the student’s selected answer, and the correct answer. Additionally, clickable elements below the chart allow teachers to retrieve and view detailed information for each quiz item and compare student responses directly (Figure 5d).

3.2. Instructional Experiment Design

The primary objective of this study was to develop a hybrid digital-physical board game system themed on the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to support instructional activities for sustainable development education in elementary schools. Through a structured teaching model involving thematic guidance, knowledge instruction, development activities, and peer sharing, the project aimed to cultivate students’ understanding of the SDGs. Additionally, the board game was integrated into instructional review sessions to enhance teacher-student interactions and reinforce learning, thereby improving overall educational effectiveness in the context of sustainability education at the elementary level. To evaluate the effectiveness of the developed instructional activities and learning system in enhancing student cognition related to the SDGs, this study adopted a quasi-experimental design with pretest, posttest, and delayed posttest assessments across both experimental and control groups. The instructional experiment was conducted over a total duration of 220 min, during which the designed teaching activities were implemented, and the resulting data were collected and analyzed to assess learning outcomes.

The participants in this study were two fifth-grade classes from two public elementary schools in Pingtung County, Taiwan. One class was assigned as the experimental group (n = 24) and the other as the control group (n = 23), reflecting typical class sizes in the region. The participants were assigned to the experimental and control groups at the class level rather than through individual random assignment due to practical constraints related to school scheduling and classroom management. Although the sample size was relatively small and drawn from two classes in Pingtung County, this reflects typical elementary class sizes and school contexts in Taiwan. The selection ensured consistency in instructional conditions and minimized confounding variables. This study was approved by the National Cheng Kung University Human Research Ethics Committee. Written consent was obtained from all students’ parents or legal guardians, and all procedures adhered to national ethical standards for research involving minors.

The experimental procedure is illustrated in Figure 6 and detailed as follows:

• Pre-Instruction Phase

Prior to the instructional activities, all participating students in both the experimental and control groups completed a prior knowledge test to assess their baseline understanding of the SDG-related content. Students were then introduced to the instructional objectives and content, ensuring clarity regarding the learning goals and activity procedures.

2.

Instructional Phase

During the instructional phase, teaching activities were carried out in accordance with lesson plans collaboratively developed by the research team and participating teachers. Both the experimental and control groups followed the same three-stage instructional model. The first stage involved foundational knowledge instruction, in which teachers employed conventional teaching methods to introduce the core concepts and importance of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). This was followed by a developmental activity stage, where students completed structured worksheets to reinforce and deepen their conceptual understanding of sustainable development. In the final stage, students engaged in peer learning and sharing by working collaboratively in groups to explore a selected SDG in greater depth and subsequently presenting their findings to their classmates for discussion and feedback. This phased approach was designed to scaffold students’ learning experiences while encouraging both individual comprehension and collaborative inquiry.

3.

Review Phase

One week after the instructional phase, a review activity was conducted to reinforce learning. The review methods differed between the control and experimental groups:

(1)

Control Group: the teacher conducted a traditional review session using printed instructional materials to reinforce students’ understanding of the SDG concepts.

(2)

Experimental Group: students first engaged in a review session using the hybrid digital-physical SDGs board game developed in this project. After the game-based activity, the teacher conducted a follow-up review using traditional materials, informed by gameplay data, to reinforce and clarify SDG concepts.

4.

Post-Instruction Assessment

Following the completion of instructional activities, all students in both the experimental and control groups were invited to complete a post-instruction survey, which included a Learning Motivation Scale and a Cognitive Load Scale. These instruments were used to evaluate students’ motivational responses and cognitive load levels immediately after engaging with the instructional content on the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Additionally, a delayed post-test was administered one month later to both groups to assess knowledge retention over time.

To evaluate the outcomes across different dimensions, this study adopted a paper-based testing approach to assess students’ prior knowledge and learning achievement. All test items were closed-ended and developed through expert consensus to ensure content validity. The internal consistency reliability (KR-20) of the prior knowledge test was 0.79, the post-test was 0.76, and the delayed post-test was 0.71. The prior knowledge test and learning achievement test items were drafted based on the SDGs curriculum and reviewed by a panel of three sustainability and educational psychology experts. In this study, learning achievement is defined as students’ ability to recall and apply SDG-related concepts, consistent with definitions used in recent educational game-based learning research [78]. To assess learning motivation, the study adopted a questionnaire based on Keller’s [79] ARCS motivation model, which evaluates whether the instructional activity attracted students’ attention, was perceived as relevant, built learners’ confidence, and provided a sense of satisfaction. The ARCS-based instrument consisted of 36 items across four subscales: attention (12 items), relevance (9 items), confidence (9 items), and satisfaction (6 items). Responses were measured using a 5-point Likert scale [79,80], and the overall reliability of the questionnaire was 0.96. Regarding cognitive load, the study employed a questionnaire developed by Paas [81] and Sweller et al. [58] to assess students’ perceived cognitive load while learning SDG-related content. The instrument contained 8 items divided into two subscales: mental load (5 items) and mental effort (3 items). Responses were measured using a 6-point Likert scale [82], with a reliability coefficient of 0.96. The cognitive load scale adopted a 6-point Likert scale to increase response differentiation, as recommended by Debue and van de Leemput [66]. Although the mental effort subscale included three items, this is consistent with prior studies that use concise items to reduce respondent fatigue while maintaining reliability [83].

4. Results and Discussion

This section presents an analysis of the collected data based on the experimental design, focusing on three key dimensions: students’ learning achievement, learning motivation, and learning attitudes. These results are used to evaluate the effectiveness of the proposed instructional strategies and the hybrid game-based learning system.

4.1. Analysis of Learning Achievement

To evaluate whether the two groups had comparable baseline knowledge of the SDGs prior to participating in the instructional intervention, descriptive statistics were first conducted on the pretest scores. The experimental group had a mean score of 47.08 with a standard deviation of 18.52, while the control group had a mean score of 49.13 with a standard deviation of 16.21. An independent samples t-test was conducted to examine whether there was a significant difference in prior knowledge between the two groups. Levene’s test for equality of variances indicated no significant difference (F = 0.455, p = 0.503 > 0.05), allowing for the assumption of homogeneity of variances. The t-test results showed no statistically significant difference between the experimental and control groups in terms of prior knowledge (t(45) = 0.402, p = 0.689 > 0.05), indicating that the two groups were equivalent in their understanding of SDGs before the instructional intervention (see

Table 1. Independent samples t-Test results for prior knowledge test scores between experimental and control groups.

Group	N	Mean	SD	t(1,45)	p-Value
Experimental	24	47.08	18.52	0.402	0.689
Control	23	49.13	16.21

).

To further investigate the effect of the instructional approach on students’ learning outcomes, a one-way analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was conducted on the posttest scores, using the pretest scores as a covariate to control for baseline differences. The assumption of homogeneity of regression slopes was met (F = 0.086, p = 0.770 > 0.05). As shown in

Table 2. One-way ANCOVA results for learning achievement test scores between experimental and control groups.

Group	N	Mean	SD	Adjusted Mean	SE	F	p-Value
Experimental	24	69.16	16.65	68.67	3.85	0.009	0.926
Control	23	68.95	19.84	69.18	3.77

, the adjusted mean posttest score for the experimental group was 69.18 (SE = 3.77), while that of the control group was 68.67 (SE = 3.85). The ANCOVA results revealed no significant difference between the two groups in terms of adjusted posttest scores (F(1,44) = 0.009, p = 0.926 > 0.05). This finding suggests that the game-based SDG review activity did not lead to significantly different immediate learning achievement compared to the traditional review method.

To examine the longer-term effects of the game-based instructional intervention, a delayed posttest was administered one month after the initial instruction. A separate ANCOVA was conducted using the immediate posttest scores as a covariate to account for prior performance. The assumption of homogeneity of regression slopes was again satisfied (F = 0.776, p = 0.383 > 0.05).

Table 3. One-way ANCOVA results for delayed posttest scores between experimental and control groups.

Group	N	Mean	SD	Adjusted Mean	SE	F	p-Value
Experimental	24	72.91	15.17	72.87	3.92	4.227 *	0.046
Control	23	61.30	22.82	61.35	4.01

* p < 0.05.

presents the results of the ANCOVA, showing that the adjusted mean score for the experimental group was 72.87 (SE = 3.92), compared to 61.35 (SE = 4.01) for the control group. The analysis indicated a statistically significant difference between the two groups in the delayed posttest scores (F(1,44) = 4.227, p = 0.046 < 0.05). This result suggests that the hybrid digital-physical board game developed in this study had a positive effect on students’ long-term learning retention compared to traditional review methods.

4.2. Analysis of Learning Motivation

This analysis aimed to evaluate the impact of the proposed hybrid learning system on students’ learning motivation in the context of SDG-related instructional activities. Descriptive statistics were calculated based on data collected from the learning motivation questionnaire. The experimental group had a mean score of 4.40 with a standard deviation of 0.64, while the control group had a mean score of 3.99 with a standard deviation of 0.69. To determine whether the difference in learning motivation between the two groups was statistically significant, an independent samples t-test was conducted. Levene’s test for equality of variances indicated no significant difference (F = 0.127, p = 0.724 > 0.05), supporting the assumption of equal variances. The t-test results revealed a statistically significant difference in learning motivation scores between the experimental and control groups (t(45) = 2.090, p = 0.042 < 0.05), as shown in

Table 4. Independent samples t-Test results for learning motivation scores between experimental and control groups.

Group	N	Mean	SD	t(45)	p-Value
Experimental	24	4.40	0.64	2.090 *	0.042
Control	23	3.99	0.69

* p < 0.05.

. This finding suggests that the integration of the digital-physical board game into the SDGs instructional activities significantly enhanced students’ learning motivation compared to the traditional review approach.

4.3. Analysis of Cognitive Load

This analysis aimed to evaluate the impact of the proposed learning system on students’ cognitive load during participation in the SDG instructional activities. Descriptive statistics were calculated based on data collected from the cognitive load questionnaire. The experimental group reported a mean score of 1.84 (SD = 1.39), while the control group reported a higher mean score of 2.66 (SD = 1.30). To examine whether the difference in cognitive load between the two groups was statistically significant, an independent samples t-test was conducted. Levene’s test for equality of variances was not significant (F = 0.270, p = 0.606 > 0.05), confirming the assumption of equal variances. The t-test results indicated a significant difference in cognitive load scores between the experimental and control groups (t(45) = 2.094, p = 0.042 < 0.05), as shown in

Table 5. Independent samples t-Test results for cognitive load scores between experimental and control groups.

Group	N	Mean	SD	t(45)	p-Value
Experimental	24	1.84	1.39	2.094 *	0.042
Control	23	2.66	1.30

* p < 0.05.

. These results suggest that the integration of the SDGs board game into instructional review activities significantly reduced students’ perceived cognitive load compared to traditional review methods. This effect could be explained by the game’s design features, such as immediate feedback and peer discussion, which align with game-based learning principles known to help minimize unnecessary cognitive burden and support students’ knowledge integration [84].

5. Discussion

This study proposed a hybrid digital-physical board game integrating the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to enhance elementary school students’ conceptual understanding and learning performance in sustainability education. The findings revealed that students who engaged in the SDG-integrated board game achieved significantly higher scores in the delayed posttest compared to those who participated in traditional review activities. Additionally, the experimental group demonstrated higher learning motivation and lower cognitive load. The following section discusses these results in further detail.

First, the board game developed in this study provided a highly interactive learning environment that helped foster student motivation. Compared to conventional lecture-based or repetitive review methods, the board game incorporated elements such as role-playing, task-based challenges, and peer competition, allowing students to review various aspects of the SDGs in an engaging and meaningful way. This design aligns with the findings of Altmeyer et al. [85], who emphasized that appropriate learning interactions can create effective learning environments that enhance memory retention and comprehension. Second, the results indicated that the board game-based instructional approach effectively reduced students’ cognitive load when learning SDG concepts. According to Sweller et al. [86], incorporating well-designed learning anchors allows learners to more easily connect new knowledge with existing concepts, thereby reducing cognitive load and improving learning outcomes. The hybrid design of the board game—combining physical components with digital scaffolding—provided structured and contextualized learning experiences that supported students in building coherent knowledge frameworks related to the SDGs. This approach helped facilitate knowledge retention and cognitive integration, ultimately minimizing extraneous cognitive processing [87,88]. Although the immediate posttest did not yield a significant difference, this may be attributed to the limited duration of the intervention and the fact that the game-based review is intended to reinforce rather than immediately replace traditional instruction. Prior studies suggest that the benefits of game-based learning often manifest in delayed retention rather than short-term tests [89]. This finding is consistent with the significant differences observed in the delayed posttest results, indicating that the hybrid game-based approach may require time for students to consolidate and transfer newly reviewed knowledge into long-term memory. Additionally, it is possible that the teacher’s facilitation style and classroom management during the game-based review sessions may have influenced the learning outcomes, suggesting the need for future research to explore this variable in more depth [90].

6. Conclusions

In summary, the primary contribution of this study lies in its potential to enhance elementary students’ understanding of the SDGs through game-based learning strategies that support both motivation and knowledge retention. However, several limitations should be acknowledged. First, the relatively small sample size and the cluster-based grouping limit the generalizability of the findings; future research could employ larger multi-site studies with individual-level randomization to verify the robustness of the results and reduce potential group-level bias. In addition, some statistically significant findings, such as the delayed posttest score difference, were relatively marginal and may be sensitive to small variations in sample size. Therefore, the finding that the hybrid game may benefit long-term retention should be interpreted with caution, given that the intervention involved a single short session of about 30 min and the immediate posttest showed no significant effect. Other factors, such as classroom instruction or individual differences, may also have influenced knowledge retention [91]. Future studies are encouraged to replicate this experiment with larger and more diverse samples, to extend or repeat gameplay sessions, and to conduct sensitivity analyses to check the stability of the effects.

Second, the current version of the SDGs board game could be further enhanced by incorporating features such as personalized achievement badges or collaborative team challenges, which may offer more explicit feedback and strengthen student motivation. Additional design improvements, such as adaptive question difficulty based on students’ responses and progress dashboards for students and teachers, could help tailor learning support to individual needs. Although the results showed significantly higher learning motivation for the experimental group, this motivational effect should be interpreted with caution, as the review activity was limited in duration and conducted only once [92]. Future research should include multiple or longer gameplay sessions and longer-term follow-up to examine whether the motivational impact persists over time. These new features should also be pilot tested iteratively with input from teachers and students to ensure they are practical and effective.

Furthermore, this study primarily relied on quantitative data and self-reported questionnaires for measuring learning motivation and cognitive load, which may have introduced response bias. Nevertheless, as cognitive load was measured only through self-reported data after a single session, future studies should employ more robust, multi-method measures to clarify how different aspects of the learning process—such as mental effort and schema construction—are influenced by the hybrid game format. Although teacher observations were used informally to monitor classroom dynamics, they were not systematically analyzed. Future research should adopt mixed-method approaches and triangulate multiple data sources—such as classroom observations, student focus group interviews, behavioral interaction logs, and teacher assessments—to better capture students’ learning processes and minimize potential self-report bias [93]. The single gameplay session was intentionally kept brief to accommodate class time constraints and sustain student engagement in this study; however, future studies could extend this duration to examine potential cumulative effects [94]. In addition, this study did not analyze the teacher’s role and classroom management practices during gameplay, although these factors can have an important impact on student engagement and learning effectiveness. Future work should investigate how different facilitation styles and classroom management strategies influence the effectiveness of game-based learning. Finally, this study did not assess whether the observed improvements in learning motivation and achievement would persist beyond the one-month follow-up. Future research should include multiple long-term follow-up assessments—such as at three-month and six-month intervals—to evaluate how well students retain SDG concepts over time and whether the motivational benefits of the game-based review approach are sustained.