Small-Scale Farming in the United States: Challenges and Pathways to Enhanced Productivity and Profitability

Abstract

Small-scale farms deserve attention and support because they play crucial and important roles. Apart from ensuring provision of food security, they also provide other economic, environmental, and social–cultural benefits. In the United States of America, these farms are agriculturally, culturally, and geographically different. They have varied needs that trigger an array of distinct biophysical, socioeconomic, and institutional challenges. The effects of these challenges are exacerbated by economic uncertainty, technological advancements, climate change, and other environmental concerns. To provide ideal services to the small-scale farm audience, it is necessary to understand these challenges and opportunities that can be leveraged to enhance their productivity and profitability. This article reviews the challenges faced by small-scale farming in the United States of America. It then reviews possible pathways to enhance their productivity and profitability. The review revealed that U.S. small-scale farms face several challenges. They include accessing farmland, credit and capital, lack of knowledge and skills, and technology adoption. Others are difficulties to insure, competition from corporations, and environmental uncertainties associated with climate change. The paper then reviews key pathways to enhance small-scale farmers’ capacities and resilience with a positive impact on their productivity and profitability. They are enhanced cooperative extension services, incentivization, strategic marketing, annexing technology, and government support, among others. Based on the diversity of farms and their needs, responses should be targeted towards individual needs. Since small-scale farm products have an effect on human health and dietary patterns, strategies to increase productivity should be linked to nutrition and health.

1. Introduction

Feeding the projected global population of 9.7 billion people by 2050 [1] with limited land resources and the changing climate will place a myriad of obstacles on the agrifood industry [2]. Small farms that comprise 84% of world farms [3] and provide between 50% and 75% of food consumed globally [4] have the potential to confront global food insecurity and household income needs [5]. Depending on the local production conditions, small farms can be described based on their physical size, labor force, livestock units, market integration, or economic size [6]. For example, in sub-Saharan Africa, a small farm is below 2 ha [7]; it is 50 ha in Switzerland [8]; for Hungary, it is 200 ha [9]; and it is up to 250 ha in Germany [10]. In the United States of America (U.S.), small farms are those that make less than USD350,000 in annual Gross Cash Farm Income (GCFI) without considering the actual area farmed [11]. It includes both crop and livestock sales, government payments, and other generated farm incomes.

Agriculture-related industries contributed USD1.055 trillion of U.S. gross domestic product and created 19.7 million full- and part-time jobs in 2020 [12]. Small farms participate in the local food chains, contribute to local economies, get involved with the conservation of agricultural biodiversity, and maintain culturally important crops and landscapes [13,14]. They act as a link between the rural and urban centers through the movement of people and exchanges of food and money [15]. Thus, they create employment, reduce poverty, and improve food security [16], as shown in Figure 1. The negative environmental impacts, including animal welfare and food quality issues, associated with industrial agriculture are drawing consumers and retailers to small-scale producers either voluntarily or through legislation [17].

The U.S. Department of Agriculture [18] defines a “farm” as “any place from which USD1000 or more of agricultural products were produced and sold, or normally would have been sold, during a given year.” This definition includes entities that did not have at least USD1000 but would normally have. A farm-based point system developed by the USDA’s National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS) determines when the USD1000 sales requirement is normally met. This system assigns dollar values for crops and livestock to estimate the level of sale. It also accounts for diminished sales due to harsh weather, disease, market strategy changes, and other factors. According to the 2022 Census of Agriculture, which is the most recent, more than 25% of farms have no sales in a typical year. They all belong to the small farms category. The USDA statistics show that the number of farms and the value of production are highly concentrated at opposite ends of the size scale (Figure 2). Smaller farms account for most farms, whereas larger operations account for most sales (Figure 2).

Small farms in the U.S. are characterized by considerable diversity, as shown in Figure 1. These include farmer demographics, farm enterprise, management style, crops grown and livestock reared, production methods, scale, and incomes [19,20]. They are found both in the traditional rural farming lands and in urban and peri-urban areas [21]. Further, they tend to be more diverse with respect to age, gender, and livelihood strategies of principal operators [22]. These farms are consumer-oriented and specialize in non-commodity crops such as fruits, vegetables, and floriculture [23]. Unlike large farm owners who rely on their farming for income and devote themselves to farm work and management, small-scale farms are resource-constrained. They rely on their own labor, skills, knowledge, and support from family and social networks. In terms of farm management, they are diversified and devoted to food production with limited representation in export and agrofuel production [24,25]. These characteristics increase their heterogeneity (Figure 1) and make them difficult to classify.

The criteria for identifying farms using farm product sales provide little information on the farm’s total income distribution. Low-income households normally combine both farm and non-farm incomes to meet their daily needs. Shifting inflation can also distort classification from year to year. For example, when production costs rise faster than sale prices, when crops fail or when livestock losses are not accounted for. To obscure this heterogeneity, USDA’s Economic Research Service (ERS) [26], classify small farms into three major homogeneous categories for reporting and evaluation purposes.

i.

Retirement farms—those whose principal operators report that they are retired but farm on a small scale.

ii.

Off-farm occupation—here, farming is not the primary occupation of the principal operators. They include those whose operators do not consider themselves to be in the labor force.

iii.

Farming-occupation farms—here, the primary occupation of principal operators is farming. This one is further divided into two.

❖

Low sales—farms generating GCFI of less than USD150,000.

❖

Moderate sales—farms generating GCFI of between USD150,000 and USD349,999.

The U.S. policy, research, and development have encouraged the flourishing of larger farms. For example, former U.S. Secretary of Agriculture Earl Butz declared that farmers ‘get big or get out’ [27]. This encouraged a shift to large-scale farming, which rewards economies of scale and commodity crops [28]. It resulted in a majority of cropland being managed on large farms. In spite of these farm consolidations, the number of small farms is increasing [29]. However, they are exposed to farm-scale and out-of-farm environmental, economic, social, and institutional shocks and challenges [30,31], the effects of which are high turnover rates [32]. Addressing these challenges will increase their potential and profitability [33]. Understanding these challenges will enable development of sustainable capacities, adaptability, and transformability to enhance their productivity and profitability. The aim of this study, therefore, is to identify the challenges faced by small farms in the U.S. and propose possible pathways to enhanced productivity and profitability of these farms.

2. Challenges Facing Small-Scale Farms in the U.S.

Prospective farmers are drawn to agriculture by a desire to cultivate their own food, connect with the land, and create a fulfilling lifestyle. Unfortunately, they face many challenges that hinder the actualization of their goals [32,34]. Most of these challenges emanate from a lack of ability to use improved technology, managerial skills, experience, and use of cost-effective practices [35]. Unlike larger specialized farms, they are often excluded from the liberalized markets and private agents. Furthermore, increased globalization of food production, distribution, and consumption, along with high input costs, low product prices, and limited access to markets, squeezes them out of business. These challenges are highlighted below.

2.1. Social Challenges

2.1.1. Off-Farm Work as a Challenge

Small-scale farms do not earn sufficient cash, making off-farm work critical in providing alternative income sources [36,37,38]. Holding a second job is a common livelihood strategy for small-scale U.S farmers [39], where 58% of farmers hold a primary occupation other than farming [40]. Moreover, the number of “zero sale farmers”—those not selling their agricultural products is increasing [41]. Although it contributes to the farmers’ financial viability, it can be challenging to balance both on-farm and off-farm work [39,42]. For example, it can limit their availability for extension efforts and technology adoption [43]. Further, finding time for vacationing, planning for expansions, attending educational activities, workshops, and community gatherings can be challenging.

2.1.2. Gender as a Challenge

The Smith–Lever Act of 1914, which established the Agriculture and Home Economics Extension Service, dedicated farm programs for men and home economics programs for women [44]. Although this division has largely dissipated, female farmers continue to be underserved [45]. For example, female farmers earn up to 40% less than male farmers, making farming one of the most unequal professions in the United States [46]. The USDA and other organizations have developed programs in response to specific problems female farmers face [45]. These programs cover concerns and barriers to starting farms, networking constraints, and a lack of government support [45]. An example is “Annie’s Project—Education for Farm Women.” It was developed by USDA’s Risk Management Agency and Cooperative Extension to increase female farmers’ production and fiscal management skills [46]. Furthermore, female farmers and other disadvantaged groups are entitled to loss compensation, loan assistance, and cost share programs under the Socially Disadvantaged Farmer or Rancher designation [47]. Girls’ participation in 4-H has been consistently greater than that of boys across the United States [48]. Correspondingly, female enrollment in agricultural programs at Land Grant Universities has outpaced that of males since 2009. These occurrences are remedying the situation and promoting small-scale farming, a first choice for female farmers.

2.1.3. Personal Challenges

Contemporary agricultural research has been driven by interest in sustainable agriculture [49,50] and the social objectives of the farmer [51]. The disconnect between policy aspirations and their delivery at the ground level is often blamed on farmer ignorance and a lack of sufficient incentives [52,53]. This assumption may be erroneous because farmers face many economic, environmental, social, and institutional challenges individually [54]. One farmer may be frustrated with not being able to afford or qualify for a loan, while the other will be facing challenges with marketing and competition. Another will be faced with the challenge of accessing the right information in a timely manner. Others can have issues with weather, natural resource availability, and pests and diseases that threaten their operations. Thus, policy interventions should be able to consider these local farm conditions [55].

2.2. Economic Challenges

2.2.1. Access to Farmland

Small-scale and new farmers face challenges in accessing farmland [32,53]. Therefore, they either rent, move to marginalized areas, or abandon farming due to bankruptcy [56]. Without land, they have less control over what they can do, and how and when they can do it. Further, absentee landowners may not be willing to take risks with new farming practices or renting to people with difficulties accessing credit [57,58]. This limits their motivation for long-term investment and expansion capacity.

Expansion of cities and corresponding increases in population sizes and density are making it hard to find suitable land for agriculture. Increasing demand for housing, commercial development, and infrastructure projects makes the already scarce and fragmented land more expensive [59]. These, coupled with zoning restrictions [60], pose significant challenges for establishment of urban and peri-urban agriculture (UPA) initiatives [61] in spite of their growing interest. Fortunately, the USDA has recognized urban food production as a priority, and it has developed programs to support UPA research and innovation [60]. Innovative approaches are being introduced to address land limitation challenges for UPA. They include vertical farming, hydroponics, aquaponics, and rooftop, community, and balcony gardens [62]. These techniques enable efficient use of vertical, indoor, and open spaces, thereby maximizing productivity within a smaller footprint. It should, however, be noted that resistance to non-traditional farming systems can impede development of these initiatives [63].

2.2.2. Access to Credit and Capital

Capital is necessary to start and maintain a farm. Small-scale farmers have limited access to credit [64,65]. Therefore, they face challenges meeting the financial requirements necessary to start or maintain a farm [35,61]. Their small size, inadequate assets, and credit history limit their collateralization capability [35]. This either disqualifies them or restricts the amount they can access from lenders [64]. Their focus on non-commodity products may exclude them from existing policies and programs designed for the established, larger-scale farmers [39,66]. Further, payment of materials such as seeds, fertilizer, and operating costs is required during times when no income is earned from farming. This makes access to credit and capital critical [64]. Unless the farmer has extra income to spend, they will have to borrow. When this access is restricted, opportunities for increased profits and farm growth are eliminated. The U.S. Federal Government, through the Farm Service Agency, has a program that offers loan, risk management, marketing, and educational programs to this group [11,58,67]. The success of this program has been hampered by limited budgetary allocation, policies, and staffing challenges [58].

2.2.3. Competition from Corporations

Most food is sold by multinational corporations through supermarkets. They have greater influence on what is grown, how it is grown, and who is involved in its production, distribution, and consumption processes. Their marketing skills, coupled with globalization and industrial agriculture, are challenging small-scale farmers [68]. They have developed centralized marketing systems with highly efficient communication, transportation, storage, marketing, standardization requirements, regulations, and farm specializations. Small-scale farms are negatively impacted because they are often excluded from these integral systems [38]. They cannot access higher price outlets and therefore rely on direct marketing outlets prone to price fluctuations. This scenario can be transformed into an opportunity as will be discussed later in the next section.

2.2.4. Availability of Scale

Most farm inputs are sold in large containers and pack sizes beyond the requirements of small-scale farmers. This can prevent them from implementing some practices. An example is the pheromone dispenser used to manage the Peachtree borer by disrupting their mating cycles. They are only available in large park sizes beyond the needs of small-scale farmers [69]. When combined with limited distribution, it will negatively impact small farmers who will need specialized products. They neither purchase in bulk nor produce in enormous quantities. This diminishes their bargaining power. Furthermore, the excessive rise in farm input costs against output disproportionately reduces their net incomes. They can increase their bargaining power by forming cooperatives to lobby for their needs.

2.2.5. Misconception of Import Substitution

Promotion of small-scale production can be misconceived to mean import substitution, which has been associated with negative consequences. The perception that small-scale operations have limited ability to grow [70] strengthens this misconception. The increasing global economic integration that discourages local consumption strengthens this argument.

2.3. Climate Change and Other Environmental Uncertainties

Climate change is characterized by increasing air temperatures, changing precipitation cycles, extended drought periods, extreme frost and hot dry spells, and elevated fire risks. When climate patterns change, soil properties, surface waters, and stream flows also change [71]. These climate uncertainties and extreme events impact farmers negatively [72], especially at localized scales. Effects of climate change are felt on crop yields, water quality and quantity, soil health, and ecosystem degradation and loss [73]. Crops rely on predictable temperatures, precipitation, and timing. When these conditions change, they directly or indirectly affect crop and animal production through altered seasonal weather patterns, severity, and incidence [74]. The situation is worsened when these climate risks and shocks interact with other stresses like resource degradation, pests, and insecure land tenure [75]. Small-scale farms have been voted to be more resilient to climate variabilities [38]. However, they face substantial risks including natural disasters, extreme weather events, outbreaks of disease and pests, global market forces like trade wars, unpredictable price fluctuations, and uncertainties regarding labor availability [73,76,77]. This is because they utilize marginal lands and lack the technical and financial capacity to invest in resilient practices [56]. When they have access to fertile land, they may have limited access to other essential resources such as water [38].

2.4. Institutional and Technological Challenges

2.4.1. Lack of Knowledge and Skills

Small-scale and urban farmers lack agricultural knowledge and skills because they are more likely to come from non-farming backgrounds [14]. Therefore, they obtain agricultural information from various sources, such as from other farmers [78]. Other sources include the internet, social networking sites, “master garden classes”, inspirational speakers, books, and celebrity farmer podcasts and Youtube channels [79,80]. Some of these sources may promote information not grounded in scientific evidence, or they may lack internet service [14]. Even when the information is correct, compiling, evaluating, and authenticating it to suit their needs can be challenging.

The diverse nature of these farms requires special attention. For example, they grow different crops under variable conditions, each requiring different management and marketing skills. Further, they represent an ever-changing clientele with different abilities, values, and aspirations. To develop programs that overcome these barriers, extension personnel should acquaint themselves with each farmer’s specific needs. Extension services are, however, heavily focused on large-scale agriculture [14]. Small-scale farmers receive general recommendations that do not often consider their needs and priorities. When supported, it skews towards urban farmers whose perceived benefits have gained political support and funding [14,81]. The lack of means for small-scale farmers to communicate their needs to policy makers aggravates this challenge [82]. Finally, increasing commercialization of public research and the oversized role played by independent consultants and input suppliers has reduced feedback for applied research. This hampers the development of relevant solutions to small-scale farmer needs [82]. Extension agents should foster innovation by exploring and adopting methods that go beyond traditional approaches to outreach and engagement. To maximize impact, they should engage farmers directly through meetings, social networking, and field days to identify and deliver programs that effectively address their specific needs [42]. These activities are essential for effectively sharing information with farmers [20]. It will give them an opportunity to share their problems and how they are addressing them [83].

2.4.2. Difficulties to Insure

The characteristics of small farms make it difficult to insure through traditional yield or revenue policies [29]. For example, commodity-specific policies may deny insurance to operations with many different crops. This means a diversified farmer will be required to insure each crop separately without capturing the risk mitigation benefits of mixed cropping. Further, small-scale farms sell into multiple markets at different prices. Insurance may not effectively manage yield and price risks in such scenarios. Finance institutions require proof of insurance before approving loans. Therefore, difficulties in obtaining insurance complicate their loan application. Jablonski et al. [67] confirmed this inaccessibility of credit and federally subsidized crop insurance.

2.4.3. Disadvantages in Technology Adoption

The rapidly unfolding digital revolution (robotics, AI, and ICT), has the potential to alter global agriculture [84]. It will modify food systems’ labor and skill demand, transaction costs, and economies of scale in food production, processing, and marketing [84]. Annexing digital technologies can enhance market access for small-scale farms, lower certification costs and streamline transactions [85]. Unfortunately, these farms are disadvantaged in technology adoption [86,87] and have lagged behind in digitizing their operations [88,89]. This has been attributed to the complexity and investment costs of the technologies, limited resources, risk evasion, and reliance on their own labor [90]. Technology provides data-driven insights that optimize operations and boost output and quality while reducing production costs [91]. Because of this, they are mainly designed to work better in large farming operations. Its evolving nature [92] makes it prohibitive for small-scale farmers. Those that adopt often use previously owned equipment that takes time to appear in the resale market [89]. To make technology cost-effective at small-scale levels, more research is required.

2.4.4. Alienation from Mainstream Agricultural Activities

Small-scale farms are often alienated from mainstream agricultural activities. Agricultural research and extension are tailored to create large economic impacts. This favors large and specialized operations with the assumption that practices can be adapted to suit diversified small-scale operations. Generalizing results does not always work. Where modifications are necessary, more research and extra funding are required. The prerequisite for this funding is a large economic impact beyond small-scale operators. This scenario has created a situation devoid of research-based educational materials for this group. The result is weakened and less competitive small-scale farms.

2.5. Socio-Psychological Challenges for Small-Scale Farming in the US

Farming in the U.S. faces socio-psychological challenges that include occupational stressors. They result from constant exposure to internal factors like family, a lack of control of farming aspects, or external stressors like weather and the public’s insufficient appreciation for farming [93,94]. These can lead to high levels of stress, depression, and suicide [94,95]. Another challenge is the inadequacy of the social infrastructure designed to support farmers [95]. These include difficulties in securing reliable labor, navigating relationships with consumers and peers, and contending with dilemmas of engaging in multiple functions beyond just agricultural production [95]. Other stressors can arise from the following factors.

(i)

Financial stress—small-scale farmers often operate on tight profit margins [14]. The combined pressures of unpredictable market prices and rising operational costs can lead to considerable stress and economic hardship for farmers.

(ii)

Social and emotional isolation—farmers often work for long hours alone. Several studies have found that farmers’ lack of social connection can have severe negative consequences for their mental well-being, leading to a greater risk of developing stress, anxiety, and depression [96].

(iii)

Limited access to healthcare—this mostly affects individuals in geographically isolated rural areas, where access to mental healthcare can be challenging [97]. Due to the stigma surrounding mental health concerns, farmers often hesitate to seek mental health assistance thereby increasing their levels of stress, anxiety, and depression.

(iv)

Identity and purpose—farmers often derive a strong sense of purpose and pride from their work. However, evolving societal perceptions and media misrepresentations pose a threat to this feeling of identity and purpose [98]. The falsified identity information can bring socio-psychological distress among the farming community [93,94].

(v)

Work–life balance and family strain—farm work demands can make it difficult for farmers to maintain a healthy work–life balance [99]. This can put a strain on relationships within farm families, leading to complex stresses that negatively affect their overall well-being.

(vi)

Competition and market access—small-scale farms struggle to compete with large-scale operations because of economies of scale and lack of resources [68]. This adds to their economic stress and uncertainty.

(vii)

Succession planning—small-scale farms are often characterized by multi-generational nature [22]. Thus, they are prone to tensions associated with farm management, decision making, and the farm’s transfer to the next generation.

3. Pathways for Enhancing Productivity and Profitability

Small-scale farming is vital for global food security, rural livelihoods, and ecological sustainability. In the United States, small farms participate in the local food chains, contribute to local economies, conserve agricultural biodiversity, and maintain culturally important crops and landscapes [13,14]. However, they face increasing challenges that limit their production capacity. To achieve their goals, it is crucial to enhance their productivity and profitability. This section examines various pathways and strategies that can bolster the productivity and profitability of small-scale farming operations in the U.S. They range from technological uptake and improved management practices to policy and marketing interventions aimed at helping small-scale farms to thrive.

3.1. Social Leveraging Opportunities

3.1.1. Lifestyle Farming

In recent years, rural areas have seen a transformation from predominantly agriculture and forestry production to a combination of different activities. Land owner motivations have diversified, and new farms such as “lifestyle farms” that farm for lifestyle rather than profit are appearing [100]. They are owned by urban residents pursuing “rural lifestyles,” or those downsizing in preparation for retirement or property sales [21]. Owners receive the many benefits of owning land, such as long-term capital gain benefits, tax credits, and an inheritance. Operators of these farms have an interest in agroecological production and support sustainable food systems [101]. While some generate no income, others raise a significant component of their household income from farming. These scenarios create production and consumption chains and opportunities that benefit small farms. For example, they may do the following:

i.

Contribute significantly to the multifunctional transitions in the areas they invest in.

ii.

Pursue environmentally focused lifestyles and may engage in farm tourism.

iii.

Help maintain agricultural landscapes in the high-quality farmlands that are fragmented as a result of urban sprawls.

iv.

Their presence can create value-based linkages in their communities.

3.1.2. Local Food Movements and Social Capital

An increasing trend of Alternative Food Networks (AFN) that support locally produced food is being witnessed in the U.S. [22,102]. The USDA has no formal agreed-upon definition of local food. However, consumers associate the term with state and regional geographic boundaries and/or a personal connection to the production system [103,104]. AFNs enhance the connection between people, people with communities and people with the environment within their area of operation [102]. They favor small-scale farming [105] and have fueled their increase nationwide [106]. Many of these new farms pursue agriculture with a focus on environmentally sustainable farming. This crop of farmers presents new opportunities that can be leveraged to enhance small-scale farm development through the following:

i.

Organizing information flow and resource utilization within their communities. These can influence farmer actions.

ii.

Promoting alternative models of farming and offering training opportunities to aspiring farmers [32].

iii.

Strengthening communities, enhancing trust, and fostering cooperation between producers and consumers [107].

iv.

Creating a virtuous cycle of social capital encourages communities to address local concerns [108].

3.1.3. Increasing Consumer Demand

Studies on future global food production and consumption project an increase in food demand [17]. In the U.S., demand for locally grown and processed food products is growing [109]. These foods are purchased from local markets that include community gardens, farmers markets, Community Supported Agriculture (CSA), box schemes, pre-ordered and bulk purchases, and food cooperatives [110]. A willingness by consumers to pay premium prices for products sold in these markets has been demonstrated [111,112]. They include animal products [67,104]. These local food networks are not only focused on values and relationships but also food production, distribution, and consumption [22,113]. Thus, they present opportunities to promote small-scale farm development, including the following:

i.

The demonstrated willingness of consumers to pay higher prices for local products [114] offers them an opportunity to expand.

ii.

Developed farmer-consumer linkages often involve guaranteed sales through paying upfront for the produce [115,116]. This consumer input provides a key element for the sustainability of small-scale farming.

iii.

Although it has not been fully established [117], local products are widely associated with quality, health, and sustainability.

Leveraging these attributes can enhance the connection between producers and consumers [85] to increase food demand and farm productivity.

3.1.4. Local Food Security Needs

Some areas, especially low-income neighborhoods, have limited access to nutritious fresh food [118,119]. The presence of these ‘food deserts’ provides an opportunity for developing local food networks as a logical solution to provide healthy food access. A positive impact associated with introducing local foods in food deserts has been demonstrated [120,121]. An example is the reduction in healthy food bundles at an area supermarket following a farmer’s market introduction [122]. However, this is not guaranteed when producers do not match their offerings and prices with local preferences and budgets, or lack of external support [123]. Development of these food systems brings positive effects on local and regional economies. Obtained money is often reinvested in local seeds, equipment, and feed businesses. These multiplier effects create more value in the local economy by positively impacting the farmer and community.

3.2. Growing Consumer Interest in Healthy Foods

Increased health awareness and access to healthy foods positively link local food systems with the health of communities [108,124]. Further, increasing societal concerns and consumer preferences foster positive relationships with food. For example, the presence of community gardens and positive attitudes towards alternative foods promote healthy dietary habits and lifestyles [125,126,127]. Similarly, school programs with farm visits and cooking lessons using local ingredients have positive impacts on student’s nutrition [128]. Small-scale farmers typically consume a substantial share of their produce. Their farms’ production diversity directly translates into consumption diversity. This improves their diet quality and supports their establishment.

3.3. Leveraging Stewardship Ethics

3.3.1. Women in Agriculture

More women are choosing farming in the United States. The 2022 U.S. Department of Agriculture census identified 1.2 million female producers. This accounted for 36% of the country’s 3.4. million producers [129]. The report also indicated that female producers were not only slightly younger but also tended to be a beginning farmer who lived on the farm they operated [129]. In fact, in some areas, women operated farms are growing while those of male-operated ones are reducing [130]. In traditional agriculture, women played supportive and reproductive roles [44,131]. This is shifting, and women are increasingly involved in decision making related to farm production and development, resource allocation and value addition. They tend to operate smaller farms rearing livestock and are unlikely to be primary operators in farms producing major commodities. They are more likely to engage in non-traditional sustainable agriculture practices [130]. The probability for female farmers to use direct marketing channels for their farm outputs and to be principal operators of direct-to-consumer operations is high [132,133]. They are also more likely to scale back operations and less likely to exit farming [134]. Women have been found to be more risk-averse than men [135]. They also engage more socially within their communities compared to men [136]. Thus, they have a strategic advantage in practicing consumer-oriented agriculture that requires people skills and a better work–family balance [137] that favor small-scale farming.

3.3.2. Youth and Beginner Farmers

The USDA [47] defines a beginner farmer as “anyone who has farmed for 10 years or less regardless of age or production type.” Census data indicates a characteristic trend of a more diverse population that more likely includes younger, college-educated women entering agriculture [132]. The number of those over 35 years is also increasing. Some of these new farmers pursue agriculture as a second career without farming experience. Thus, they need new kinds of knowledge, skills, and programs that offer opportunities for expansion of small-scale farming. Programs focused on these farmers are growing both in the nonprofit and education sectors [32]. The USDA [47] has also increased its focus on beginning farmers through the Beginning Farmer and Rancher Development Program (BFRDP).

3.3.3. Scale of Operations

A strong stewardship ethic and willingness to forgo profit in order to implement sustainable farming practices have been demonstrated [14]. They rely on initiative-taking and self-supervising family labor. Unlike hired workers who think of hours worked, family workers think of their work as a livelihood. Utilizing family labor reduces farm expenses, thereby stabilizing the operation and efficiency. These stewardship characteristics can be used to advance the viability of small-scale farms.

3.4. Annexing Technology

Technology adoption can provide solutions to the challenges faced by U.S. small-scale farmers. For example, incorporating the internet, mobile phones and other predictive devices can enhance efficiency through the collection, exchange, combination, and analysis of data for effective decision making. Examples include timing and where to apply fertilizer or pesticides [138]. When used appropriately to manage irrigation, it can prevent overwatering [139]. When farming efficiency increases, it will reduce labor requirements while improving yields, hence enhancing farm sustainability.

3.5. Development of Urban and Peri-Urban Agriculture (UPA)

More than 80% of the U.S. population resides in urban areas [140]. Demand for perceived healthy foods from these residents has seen UPA embracement in many U.S. cities and towns [141]. This adoption is accompanied by an increase in local legislation efforts to increase local food production and consumption [142]. Localization of food supply chains and promotion of local production and consumption is touted to increase farm resilience [143]. It will further enhance local environmental, economic, and social sustainability and food security [62]. Here, urban and peri-urban farmers have an opportunity to add value to their produce [85].

Urban agriculture is defined by the USDA as “the cultivation, processing, and distributing of agricultural products in urban and suburban areas.” Integrating crops and livestock into urban spaces establishes a direct link between producers and consumers. Crops grown include leafy greens, herbs, microgreens, root vegetables, bell peppers, and fast-growing fruits like tomatoes and strawberries [144]. Vertical farming, hydroponics, aquaponics, and rooftop gardening are some of the techniques employed [63]. These farms adapt crops to climate, space, and consumer demand to maximize space and efficiency [63]. They can either be practiced by individual households or communally [60]. In spite of its growing popularity, UPA is faced with unique challenges hindering its development. In response, USDA has recognized urban food production as a priority and has developed programs to support UPA research and innovation [60]. The aim is to advance the needs of this category of small-scale farming.

3.6. Marketing Strategies and Institutional Pathways

3.6.1. Direct Marketing

Small-scale farmers have created local agricultural food systems to sell their products [68]. Buying local stimulates growth and diversifies the local economy. This is attributed to enhanced demand from the outreach associated with these direct marketing outlets [124]. Institutions, corporate cafeterias, hospitals, and government food service sites are also responding to consumer demand. The USDA has a devoted program supporting Farm to Schools nationwide [145]. Despite these positive impacts, direct marketing has its obstacles. Not all farmers are close to markets or public transport routes. Furthermore, operating hours may conflict with other engagements and/or shifts, especially for those in employment.

3.6.2. Value Addition

The value addition strategy has been promoted by the U.S. Federal government agencies, state government legislations, cooperative extension services, non-profit organizations, and academics [146]. Value addition entails transforming raw farm products into more valuable products. Examples include processing fruits to canned preserves, cutting meat into sausages or milling corn to grits. These processes can be carried out on the farm or in a facility outside the farm. Third party certifications can also be involved in value addition [146].

Adding value to products improves the financial viability of small-scale farmers. Sales of value-added products provide capital for resource improvements. Furthermore, it encourages the production of specialty crops and the expansion of non-farm employment opportunities. It opens new career pathways for small-scale farming, making agriculture attractive to the younger generation. It should, however, be noted that processing farm raw products into value-added products requires high skills that can hamper their development. Similarly, corporations can target this market by providing timely low-cost supplies and vertical integration strategies that exclude small-scale farms [85].

3.6.3. Food Safety Requirements

There is an increasing concern about food safety and regulatory requirements regarding food production transparency and traceability. In 1998, the USDA and the U.S. Food and Drug Association developed a principles and practices guide to minimize microbial food safety hazards [147]. Because this was a voluntary measure, it would not be enforced even with the continued occurrence of food safety-associated risks. In 2011, the Food Safety Modernization Act (FSMA) was signed into law [148]. The Act enacted seven food safety regulations, including a mandated federal standard for growing, harvesting, packaging, and holding products meant for human consumption [148].

All farmers had to comply with this regulation. However, small-scale farmers faced challenges in meeting these requirements. Congress included a Qualifying Exemption in the Act. It exempted farmers generating between USD25,000 and USD500,000 annual sales and selling directly to consumers within the same state or 275 miles of their farm. Those selling below USD25,000 are outside the scope of this regulation [147]. Small-scale farmers can take advantage of this to increase local food system’s resilience. This is more so since food safety concerns influence consumer choices, and local foods are often perceived as safer than non-local produce [147].

3.6.4. Product Labeling

Consumers are not only interested in food taste but also the social and ethical issues underlying its production [79]. Major food companies use labels to promote differentiated products. Powers and Roberts (79) define labels as “any words, particulars, trademarks, brand names, pictorial matter or symbols or packaging, document, notice, board or collar accompanying or referring to a product.” It is the message communicated by labels to consumers to enable them to decide whether to buy a product and at what price. They convey a shared meaning of what is acceptable and appropriate [149]. When consumers are sufficiently informed about a product, their willingness to purchase it increases [79]. Thus, food labels provide effective approaches to communicate a product’s production methods, ethics, and sustainability to consumers. As a marketing strategy, small-scale farmers can distinguish their products through labeling. This way, they will build connections with consumers, local markets, and small shops. It should, however, be noted that these local supply chains can be disadvantaged by price and convenience [150].

3.6.5. Agrotourism

Agrotourism is making farm facilities available to the public for recreational use [37]. It links agriculture to tourism and attracts tourists to the farm [12]. Its inclusion in small farms can diversify farm operations and provide additional income [12,151]. In fact, agrotourism has increased in the U.S. [12]. It takes several forms, such as rural and mountain tourism, connections with natural resources and cultural heritage [12,152]. Activities fitting this criterion include picking own fruits and vegetables, festivals, education events, hunting, fishing, farm tours, and hayrides, among others. Farm buildings and excess land can be utilized to provide these activities. When individuals in the community are aware of farm offerings, they become agritourists on the farm [153]. Networking and marketing can be performed through the use of social media [154].

3.6.6. Food Away from Home Opportunities

The growing food away from home (FAFH) niche provides small-scale farms with opportunities to expand their operations through the use of home kitchens and similar ventures. In the U.S., people spend about 10% of their income on food [155]. FAFH expenditures exceeded food at home (FAT) in 2013, and the trend continues to widen (Figure 3). The projected FAFH expansion outlets suggest its growth potential. It provides pathways for alternative FAFH outlets such as home kitchens to thrive in the market conditions.

3.6.7. Product and Farm Diversification

The diverse crops grown in small farms offer opportunities for improved nutrition, diversified products, and resilience against environmental, economic, and social challenges [73,157]. Farm diversity increases as farm sizes decrease [158]. Small farms account for a higher agrobiodiversity than their larger counterparts [4] increasing their ecological resilience [14]. The majority of globally consumed micronutrients and protein are produced in these diverse farms, while the majority of sugar and oil crops come from less diverse ones [4,158]. Small farms can capitalize on these beneficial effects to enhance their operations.

3.7. Regenerative and Organic Farming Opportunities for Small-Scale Farmers

In spite of the challenges associated with high transition costs and limited market infrastructure [159,160], regenerative and organic farming offer U.S. small-scale farmers opportunities to enhance soil health, increase profitability, and improve environmental outcomes [161,162,163]. These systems also enhance the nutritional quality of crops and livestock products [163]. Regenerative agriculture encourages continuous innovation for environmental, social, and economic well-being [164]. For example, in the Northern Plains of the United States, regenerative systems have provided greater ecosystem services and profitability compared to traditional corn production systems [161].

Organic farming emphasizes the use of natural processes that avoid synthetic chemicals and genetically modified organisms to enhance soil health, biodiversity, and ecosystem balance [2]. Farming organically also reduces environmental impacts, increases efficiency, lessens reliance on costly external inputs, and guarantees price premiums for organic products [165]. Thus, differentiating products as local, fresh, and organic provides small farms with opportunities to leverage price negotiation and access to lucrative market niches [166]. Farmers also have a chance to practice agroforestry, an integration of trees with agricultural crops and/or animals. It is a high-yielding system that offers multiple social–ecological benefits through enhanced soil health and water infiltration, reduced production costs, and diversified incomes and food sources [167].

Farmers can take advantage of the U.S. government programs supporting sustainable agricultural practices, including those aligned with regenerative and organic farming. This includes the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service’s “Unlock the Secrets in the Soil” campaigns, USDA Agricultural Research Service’s research and education projects, National Institute of Food and Agriculture, and the Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education programs [168].

3.8. Institutional Opportunities

3.8.1. Forming Cooperatives

Often, small-scale farmers have common goals, activities, and objectives. If they come together to form cooperatives, they can benefit through the following: (i) improving purchasing power; (ii) improving marketing strategies, e.g., sourcing for reliable markets; (iii) exploitation of new niches; (iv) diversifying goods and services; (v) exploring new opportunities; (vi) networking, sharing experiences and information on new practices and innovations; (vii) development and implementation of educational programs. This will lead to enhanced incomes, price stability, and reliable input–output supply chains. Working cooperatively will increase their visibility, political influence, and investment capital to better represent their needs in policy formulation [52].

3.8.2. Political, Economic, and Social Empowerment

Small-scale farmers are challenged by big food retailers and supermarkets in terms of food quality standards, prices, and purchase volumes [85]. Although grassroot organizations are strengthening their bargaining power through networking, mentoring, and internship programs, their success in dismantling these barriers is not clear. Moreover, the distorted image of a small-scale farmer, often depicted as young, urban/suburban, and from non-farming backgrounds, complicates the issue further [32]. Therefore, defending their interests in the political sphere can bear much fruit. It will enhance public support through increased representation and the best option to develop and implement policies designed to fully realize their full potential [169]. The gesture of several organizations partnering with small farms in their communities to enhance their potential [153] works towards this direction.

3.8.3. Government Support Schemes

Incentives and disincentives can be used to promote or discourage adoption practices. Examples are the U.S. government-supported USDA’s programs (Table 1). Some of the programs supported include control of soil erosion, cover cropping, and reduced use of chemicals [170,171]. The U.S. federal and local governments support farmers through acreage allotments, farm commodity programs, and tax policies. These often benefit large, specialized operations with much income, assets, and production efficiency. The U.S. government, through the Farm Bill, has initiated programs tailored for small-scale farmers. They include research, marketing, business, educational, nutritional, and rural and community development [111,172]. To benefit, the target population should be made aware of these opportunities.

3.8.4. Land Grant University Extension and Research Services

Land Grant universities and other educational institutions, NGOs/CBOs, and local governments have produced programs to support small-scale farming [173]. Most of the programs are on production techniques, marketing, business planning, and networking opportunities. These opportunities benefit farmers and create positive economic impacts in local communities [108]. Through key farmers, extension services can influence adoption by demonstrating working technology. It is, therefore, critical to involve farmers in the design and implementation of programs and products [55]. This way, they will better understand the context in which they farm and get to know their needs [60]. Over time, trust will be built, and the cooperative extension will be handy in helping farmers to identify ways to solve their problems [174].

3.9. Pathways to Ameliorate Socio-Psychological Stressors

High demand for educational opportunities among small-scale farmers in the U.S. [175] is crucial for implementing new management strategies. Farmer-to-farmer knowledge exchange and peer support enhance the chances of success in their operations [176]. Further, social groups created by farmers to enhance communication and share stories with each other decrease stress [94]. Programs that encourage small farmers to consider entrepreneurial options, along with government support and farm advisory services, are crucial for implementing new management strategies and evaluating production and marketing alternatives [175]. These resources can enhance small farms’ growth with a more value-added product mix [175]. Thus, alongside government support and farm advisory services these resources can help farmers to deal with socio-psychological issues. They include the following:

(i)

Strong sense of community and belonging—small farms can be integral to strengthening local communities. Through local food systems, they foster a sense of belonging and connectedness among farmers and consumers [107]. Further, farmer networks offer opportunities to exchange information, share experiences, and build supportive relationships [83].

(ii)

Mental health awareness and support programs—many organizations, including federal, state and local government agencies, land grant universities, etc., are working to raise awareness about mental health challenges in farming communities [177]. They intend to achieve these by continuous development of specialized resources and support programs that address their unique needs [177].

(iii)

Connecting with nature—farming offers a direct connection to nature’s therapeutic benefits that have been associated with reduced stress, better mental health, and increased mindfulness and purpose [178].

(iv)

Direct marketing and local food systems—small farms thrive by directly marketing their products to consumers through farmers’ markets, CSA programs, and farm-to-table initiatives. These avenues often foster strong relationships and a sense of togetherness among community members [85].

(v)

Educational and research initiatives—recent years have seen increased efforts to address the lack of awareness and educational resources among small-scale farmers. Growing attention is being paid to farmer mental health research, driven by the need to understand their distinct challenges and design effective support solutions [177].

Table 1. Some of the federal government programs supporting small-scale and beginner farmer operations.

Program	Description	How It Supports Small and Beginning Farms	Reference
Direct farm ownership loans	Provides loans of up to USD600,000 to purchase farmland or build structure	Enables small farmers to purchase land with minimum down payment and lower interest rates	[179]
Direct operating loans	Provides loans of up to USD400,000 to purchase equipment, seed, livestock, etc.	Enables starting and maintaining a farm by providing affordable startup capital and production costs	[179]
Guaranteed loans	Private loans guaranteed by USDA	Improves access to credit by reducing lender risk.	[179]
Down payment loan program	Provides loan to purchase land through FSA and private funding	Excellent tool for land access since it requires only 5% downpayment.	[179]
Federal crop insurance	Covers loss of yield, revenue, or quality for eligible crops	Provides income protection against natural disasters and price drops	[171,179]
EQIP (Environmental Quality Incentives Program)	Cost-share program to implement conservation practices	Covers a % of producer cost for practices like fencing, irrigation, cover crops, high tunnels, etc.	[180]
CSP (Conservation Stewardship Program)	Rewards ongoing stewardship and advanced conservation in lands	Pays annually for the maintenance and improvement of practices that promote continuous improvement	[180]
REAP (Rural Energy for America Program)	Loans and grants guaranteed to help farmers and rural small businesses	Provides farmers with an opportunity to implement energy efficiency projects on their farms.	[181]
VAPG (Value-Added Producer Grant)	Cost-share program that provides capital grants	Provides grants for value-added activities like generating new products, creating and expanding markets.	[181]
SNAP Healthy Incentives	Provides coupons, discounts, gift cards, bonus food items, or extra funds to purchase healthy foods.	Connects small farm producers to SNAP authorized retailers. Incentivizes fruit and vegetable farming	[182]
Senior Farmers’ Market Nutrition Program	Provides low-income seniors with access to locally grown fruits, vegetables, honey, and herbs.	The use of farmers’ markets, roadside stands, and community support agricultural programs provide market for small producers.	[182]
WIC Farmers’ Market Nutrition Program	Provides locally grown fruits, vegetables, and herbs through farmers’ markets and roadside stands for WIC participants.	The use of farmers’ markets, roadside stands, and community support agricultural programs provide market for small producers.	[182]
The Patrick Leahy Farm to School Program	Increases the availability of local foods in schools.	Expands markets for small producers. Trains local producers on how to sell foods to local schools.	[182]

Table 1. Some of the federal government programs supporting small-scale and beginner farmer operations.

Program	Description	How It Supports Small and Beginning Farms	Reference
Direct farm ownership loans	Provides loans of up to USD600,000 to purchase farmland or build structure	Enables small farmers to purchase land with minimum down payment and lower interest rates	[179]
Direct operating loans	Provides loans of up to USD400,000 to purchase equipment, seed, livestock, etc.	Enables starting and maintaining a farm by providing affordable startup capital and production costs	[179]
Guaranteed loans	Private loans guaranteed by USDA	Improves access to credit by reducing lender risk.	[179]
Down payment loan program	Provides loan to purchase land through FSA and private funding	Excellent tool for land access since it requires only 5% downpayment.	[179]
Federal crop insurance	Covers loss of yield, revenue, or quality for eligible crops	Provides income protection against natural disasters and price drops	[171,179]
EQIP (Environmental Quality Incentives Program)	Cost-share program to implement conservation practices	Covers a % of producer cost for practices like fencing, irrigation, cover crops, high tunnels, etc.	[180]
CSP (Conservation Stewardship Program)	Rewards ongoing stewardship and advanced conservation in lands	Pays annually for the maintenance and improvement of practices that promote continuous improvement	[180]
REAP (Rural Energy for America Program)	Loans and grants guaranteed to help farmers and rural small businesses	Provides farmers with an opportunity to implement energy efficiency projects on their farms.	[181]
VAPG (Value-Added Producer Grant)	Cost-share program that provides capital grants	Provides grants for value-added activities like generating new products, creating and expanding markets.	[181]
SNAP Healthy Incentives	Provides coupons, discounts, gift cards, bonus food items, or extra funds to purchase healthy foods.	Connects small farm producers to SNAP authorized retailers. Incentivizes fruit and vegetable farming	[182]
Senior Farmers’ Market Nutrition Program	Provides low-income seniors with access to locally grown fruits, vegetables, honey, and herbs.	The use of farmers’ markets, roadside stands, and community support agricultural programs provide market for small producers.	[182]
WIC Farmers’ Market Nutrition Program	Provides locally grown fruits, vegetables, and herbs through farmers’ markets and roadside stands for WIC participants.	The use of farmers’ markets, roadside stands, and community support agricultural programs provide market for small producers.	[182]
The Patrick Leahy Farm to School Program	Increases the availability of local foods in schools.	Expands markets for small producers. Trains local producers on how to sell foods to local schools.	[182]

3.10. Targeted Solutions for Small-Scale Farm Sustainability and Growth

Small-scale farms in the U.S. confront a variety of challenges that are intertwined, jeopardizing their ability to survive and operate long-term (Figure 4). Due to these challenges, they are unable to invest in enhanced farming practices and infrastructure. Their financial stability is threatened by limited market opportunities, operating costs that are too high to maintain, an unreliable workforce, and the pressure of increasing wages. Finally, unpredictable weather patterns like droughts, floods, and extreme temperatures present significant threats to crop yields and livestock production. Since they lack the necessary resources to adapt, their capacity to effectively compete in the agricultural market is significantly diminished.

Addressing these challenges requires a multifaceted approach involving both small-scale farms and supporting entities. Diversification strategies offer a key solution, allowing small-scale farms to explore new revenue streams through activities like agritourism and value-added products (Figure 4). Through cooperatives and producer groups, farmers can achieve greater collective bargaining power, share resources more effectively, and improve their market access. Leveraging technology and embracing digital tools can streamline operations, enhance marketing efforts, and connect farms directly with consumers. This will shorten value chains and foster stronger relationships. Extension services and collaboration are vital for fostering robust community networks by promoting knowledge sharing. Strong government policies are essential for the long-term viability of small farms. These policies should focus on three crucial areas: financial assistance, practical guidance, and fair access to markets.

4. Implications for Application, Policy Formulation, Research, and Extension

Caution should be taken while interpreting the results of this review. This is because they are based on past studies without statistical analysis to check whether they can affect productivity. Therefore, proposed ideas should be developed further through research and outreach. The focus should be on initiatives that empower small-scale farmers accompanied by capacity building and access to resources. On this basis, this study recommends the following ideas.

4.1. Enhanced Clarity on Definition of a Small Farm

USDA defines a small farm as that which makes less than USD350,000 in annual gross farm sales [8]. This definition is broad, as U.S. small-scale farms are not homogeneous. It includes farms whose principal operators earn just USD1000 to those generating USD350,000 in annual gross cash farm income. The needs of these farmers can have dramatic differences. This definition should be revised to account for the differences and to ensure the development of relevant resources tailored to their specific needs.

4.2. Enhanced Product Marketability

It is challenging for small-scale farms to establish and maintain markets based on the quantity of their produce. This can be attributed to both marketing and the production process. Grants and resources should be provided to enhance the production and marketing of products that the market demands and to procure critical infrastructure to ensure success [183]. For example, the availability of processing facilities can ensure successful value addition, while a lack of funds for advertising can hamper marketing [42]. Since locally marketed products may not meet the expanding demand, a transitional food system infrastructure should be developed to supplement direct marketing [184]. Market access should include both output and input. Supply of agricultural inputs in small packages is necessary to ensure access by small-scale farmers.

4.3. Increased Awareness of Available Policies and Programs

The U.S. farming profession has a lot of rules and regulations ranging from the federal and state governments to county and city authorities. These laws touch on food safety, land zoning, tax laws, pesticide use, etc. It is important to make farmers aware of these regulations. An example is where farmers lack food safety awareness [185]. Farmers need to be made aware of what is available and how to use since they often face challenges in accessing information [42]. Their access to agricultural extension services should be revitalized to cater for the rapidly changing technologies.

4.4. Mechanisms to Provide Dependable Labor

Small-scale farmers often depend on their own labor. This can limit their ability to diversify or expand, especially during critical stages of farm work. There is a need to explore solutions that ensure a continued stable, trained, and dependable workforce for this group of farmers.

4.5. Enhanced Risk Management and Business Planning Tools

Small-scale farmers need better access to risk management tools and resilience-enhancing strategies. The tools will incentivize them to take productivity-enhancing risks like the adoption of technology and switching to high-value crops and products. These tools include weather and agricultural insurance, futures contracts, and loan-guarantee funds. Climate mitigation and adaptation policies are particularly useful in managing risk while improving productivity. The USDA has developed several risk management tools for farmers [179]. Unfortunately, these tools are complicated and sometimes expensive to access. Two example tools developed by the Farm Service Agency (FSA) are shown in

Table 2. Examples of the FSA risk management tools for small-scale farmers.

Tool	Purpose	Reference
Price Loss Coverage	Provides payments when the effective price for a covered commodity falls below its effective reference price	[179]
Noninsured Crop Disaster Assistance Program	Offers financial support to producers of non-insurable crops to protect against natural disasters. Can cover specialty crops.	[179]

. There are many others with special provisions targeting small-scale farmers who may not be aware of their existence. Small-scale farmers are risk-averse, a characteristic that limits them from participating in many farming activities. Insurance tools can palliate this, thereby enabling them to participate. Information about these tools should be given to the target farmers.

4.6. Ensure Smallholder-Friendly Financing

Small-scale farmers’ success is constrained by a lack of finance. Novel approaches to enhance credit facilities for these farmers should be developed. The focus should shift to more medium- and long-term financing mechanisms that support critical infrastructure, such as land and storage facilities. Access to finance can be simplified by taking several steps that include the following:

(i)

Making collaterals flexible by, for example, using crop inventories;

(ii)

Developing mechanisms to easily identify borrowers, e.g., use of credit bureaus;

(iii)

Synchronizing loan repayment plans with agricultural seasonality;

(iv)

Encouraging them to take more risks by integrating weather-based insurance together with credit.

4.7. Recruitment of Younger Farmers

U.S. farmers are getting older while a smaller number of young people are entering agriculture. More than a third of them are over the age of 65, with the average age increasing each census year [106]. As was expressed by the former U.S. Agricultural Secretary Tom Vilsack to the Agricultural Outlook Forum on 12 August 2014 “We have an aging farming population. If left unchecked, this could threaten our ability to produce the food we need.” [186]. This calls for concerted effort to recruit younger farmers who are more likely to expand their farming operations [187].

4.8. Linking Agricultural Production to Nutrition and Health

Small-scale farms play critical roles in local food production and consumption that impacts food safety. They can potentially play a significant role in maximizing linkages and synergies between farm productivity, nutrition, and health. Investments to increase farm productivity should also target nutrition and health improvement. This way, farmers will benefit economically while consumers derive nutritional and health benefits. Food safety regulations and monitoring systems should be developed and implemented to ensure products do not harm people’s health without alienating farmers. Land grant universities, partnerships, farmer cooperatives, and local NGOs, can help to disseminate information, technologies, and training on these requirements. More small-farm-specific research to integrate farm productivity, nutrition, and health is necessary to make this successful.

4.9. Promoting Pro-Small-Scale Farmer Value Chains

To build resistance to shocks and improve their productivity, small-scale farms should be linked to agrifood value chains. Unfortunately, these farms cannot fully participate in these value chains because they produce in small quantities and may not meet the strict quality standards and logistic requirements. Although it may be challenging to build connections and trust between market actors, these farmers should be supported to develop collaboration with buyers and suppliers. Communication channels on market information to enhance their understanding of products, processes and consumer requirements should be developed. Opportunities offered by increasing the demand for diverse high-value-added foods in urban markets should be targeted.

4.10. Investing in Agricultural Research, Technology, and Extension Services

With supportive context-specific science-based policies, small-scale farms can successfully adapt and expand their operations. These farmers often experiment and innovate with new agricultural practices. Extension services should take advantage of this to improve their performance. These trials are site-specific and can be readily acceptable to fellow farmers. This has been recognized in the US where institutes accept proposals from farmers working with technical advisers. One example is the Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education (SARE) grants [188] where farmers apply to try new innovations with the guidance of an expert. Another such successful program is the beginner farmer internships where experienced farmers take up prospective farmers and train them in farming [189]. Other effective options for disseminating innovative ideas include farmer-to-farmer exchanges and site visits. Proper record and bookkeeping should be prioritized in everything they do. Integrating technology into their operations will enhance efficiency [190] through provision of real-time market information on prices, demand, quality requirements, and weather. It will help farmers make informed decisions on production and marketing and effectively participate in the food value chains. Finally, it is important to consider farmer intentions and decision-making process in diversifying their agricultural production [191].

5. Conclusions

Small-scale farms provide food and other economic, environmental, and socio-cultural benefits in both rural and urban communities of the United States. The diverse nature of these farms elicits varied needs that trigger an array of distinct biophysical, socio-economic, institutional, and technological challenges. This study revealed that a major cluster of challenges faced by these farms is related to access to land, capital, and markets. Lack of land and capital hinder investment and adoption of sustainable farming practices and technology. On the other hand, market limitations prevent efficient product selling and profitability. The review proposed targeted potential pathways to address these challenges. It offers valuable insights to enhance their productivity and profitability. In order to translate findings into implementable outcomes, the review underscores the importance of production factors and their availability, accessibility, and utilization. These include the provision of risk management tools, development of small-scale value chains, access to information, friendly financial support programs, and incentivization. Others include leveraging stewardship ethics, investing in agricultural research and extension services and farmer empowerment programs. Market access should include both input and output. Emphasis should be on promoting diversified, value-added, high-quality products while aligning with consumer demand.

Small-scale farmers are often risk-averse, meaning they are cautious and tend to avoid uncertainty in their farming operations. This risk aversion can lead to decisions that may not maximize potential profits but instead prioritize minimizing the chance of losses. Promoting risk management tools can palliate this. It will enable them to participate in viable practices including technology adoption, to improve production efficiency. Leveraging social capital provides several pathways to ensure success of these farms. Developing local networks and relationships within the community can open several opportunities. The prominent one is farmer–consumer relationships which if embraced, can optimally support thriving local food systems.

Small-scale farms play critical roles in local food production and consumption. They have the potential to maximize linkages and synergies between farm productivity, nutrition, and health. Therefore, strategies aimed at increasing farm productivity should also target nutrition and health improvement. Food safety regulations and monitoring systems should be developed and implemented to ensure products do not harm people’s health without alienating farmers. Federal and local governments, land grant universities, farmer groups and community-based organizations have significant roles to play to ensure the successful development and sustenance of these farms. All these call for more targeted small-farm research.