Enhancing Public Health and SDG 3 Through Sustainable Agriculture and Tourism

Abstract

This study explores how private sector initiatives within the tourism industry can contribute to public health outcomes and Sustainable Development Goal 3 (SDG 3) through sustainable agricultural practices. Using a mixed-methods approach that combines a systematic literature review with an in-depth case study, the research examines how integrated strategies—such as pesticide-free farming, biodiversity enhancement, and edible landscape design—can reduce environmental health risks, improve nutritional quality, and promote local resilience. A series of sustainability interventions are analyzed using key performance indicators (KPIs) related to pesticide use, organic production, pollinator conservation, and community engagement. The findings reveal that business-led sustainability models can support systemic change when grounded in clear metrics and cross-sector collaboration. Although the absence of pre-2019 baseline data and direct health outcome measurements limit causal inference, the study provides a valuable blueprint for aligning private enterprise practices with global health and sustainability objectives. The implications are relevant for policymakers, hospitality operators, and public health stakeholders aiming to foster synergies between tourism, agriculture, and well-being.

1. Introduction

The adoption of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development by the United Nations General Assembly in 2015 marked a significant milestone in global efforts to address interconnected challenges in public health, environmental sustainability, and socio-economic equity. Central to this agenda are the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which collectively aim to eliminate poverty, ensure well-being, and foster sustainable development. Among them, Sustainable Development Goal 3 (SDG 3) focuses on “ensuring healthy lives and promoting well-being for all at all ages”, encompassing a broad set of targets, including the reduction of mortality rates, the prevention and management of communicable and non-communicable diseases, the promotion of mental health, and the mitigation of environmental health risks [1].

Achieving SDG 3 necessitates a multifaceted approach that acknowledges the interdependence of health, environmental, and socio-economic systems. Agriculture, a fundamental pillar of food security and economic development, significantly influences public health, particularly through the use of pesticides and fertilizers, which can pose risks to human and environmental well-being [2]. Research has shown that adopting sustainable agricultural practices—such as organic farming, crop diversification, and integrated pest management—can mitigate these risks while simultaneously enhancing biodiversity and food security [3]. In alignment with these principles, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) emphasizes that sustainable agriculture must not only ensure access to nutritious food but also safeguard natural resources, directly supporting the objectives of SDG 3 [4].

Within this framework, the private sector plays a crucial role in fostering innovation and facilitating collaboration. The World Health Organization (WHO) has identified the private sector as a key contributor to public health advancements through the development of innovative solutions and the mobilization of resources [5]. Effective partnerships between private enterprises and public institutions have the potential to implement large-scale, integrated interventions that simultaneously address health and environmental concerns. This perspective aligns with governance models such as Health in All Policies (HiAP) and the One Health Initiative, both of which advocate for a holistic and cross-sectoral approach to tackling health determinants [6].

Crete, the fifth-largest island in the Mediterranean, serves as an exemplary case for analyzing the intersection of sustainable agriculture, tourism, and public health. Its distinctive geographical and climatic characteristics position it as both a center for agricultural production and a prominent tourist destination, providing an opportunity to investigate integrated approaches to health and sustainability. This study examines the initiatives of Phāea Resorts, a leading tourism enterprise in Crete, which has introduced sustainability-driven programs such as the Phāea Farmers initiative, Sustainable Landscape Management, and Plan Bee. These programs aim to promote pesticide-free farming, enhance biodiversity, and strengthen ecosystem resilience. This is particularly relevant for Crete, where agricultural pesticide uses and seasonal tourism-related pressures have been associated with increased exposure to environmental health risks, including water contamination, respiratory conditions, and dietary-related chronic diseases. Such initiatives illustrate how private sector engagement can support Sustainable Development Goal 3 (SDG 3) by mitigating environmental hazards, improving dietary quality, and fostering socio-economic benefits for local communities [7].

Recent European initiatives underscore the importance of reducing pesticide use in agriculture, which is particularly relevant for agritourism enterprises. The European Commission’s Farm to Fork Strategy aims to reduce the use and risk of chemical pesticides by 50% by 2030, promoting integrated pest management (IPM) and organic farming practices [8]. Additionally, a foresight study by the INRAE explores scenarios for achieving pesticide-free agriculture in Europe by 2050, emphasizing the role of diversified farming systems and agroecological practices. These developments highlight a growing trend towards sustainable agricultural practices that align with public health objectives, making the case of Phāea Resorts a pertinent example of such integration in the agritourism sector.

This research employs a systematic review case study methodology to assess the impact of Phāea Resorts’ sustainability initiatives, particularly in the context of private–public partnerships contributing to SDG 3 and broader public health improvements. By combining eco-friendly farming with tourism operations, Phāea Resorts offers a replicable approach to tackling interconnected challenges in health, environmental management, and economic development.

The findings of this study add to the growing body of literature highlighting the critical role of private sector initiatives in driving systemic change and advancing global sustainability objectives. While existing research has explored the impact of sustainable agriculture on public health and environmental outcomes, this study distinguishes itself by focusing on the unique role of private sector tourism enterprises in driving cross-sectoral collaborations that align with SDG 3. By using Phāea Resorts as a case study, this research contributes novel insights on how integrated agricultural and hospitality strategies can create scalable models for health promotion and sustainability. To our knowledge, this is one of the few empirical investigations that examine the operationalization of sustainability initiatives in tourism with direct health outcomes, filling a significant gap in the current literature.

2. Literature Review

The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), introduced in 2015, constitute a comprehensive framework aimed at addressing global challenges, including public health, environmental sustainability, and socio-economic disparities [2]. Within this framework, SDG 3 focuses on ensuring healthy lives and promoting well-being for individuals of all ages. This goal encompasses multiple targets, such as reducing mortality from both communicable and non-communicable diseases, enhancing mental health care, and mitigating environmental factors that influence health outcomes [9]. Achieving these objectives necessitates an integrative approach that acknowledges the interplay between health, economic systems, and sustainable environmental practices.

A key area of concern in this context is the impact of agricultural practices on public health and environmental sustainability. As a fundamental source of food production and economic activity, agriculture significantly affects human health, particularly through the use of chemical pesticides and fertilizers, which pose substantial risks to both ecosystems and human well-being [10]. The adoption of sustainable agricultural techniques—such as organic farming, crop diversification, and integrated pest management—has been identified as an effective strategy for reducing these risks while simultaneously enhancing biodiversity and ensuring food security [3]. The Food and Agriculture Organization emphasizes that sustainable agriculture should not only ensure the availability of safe and nutritious food but also protect natural resources, aligning closely with the objectives of SDG 3 [4].

Extensive research has highlighted the adverse health effects associated with conventional farming practices, particularly due to prolonged pesticide exposure. Pesticides have been linked to various health complications, including cancer, reproductive disorders, and developmental impairments [2]. Given these risks, numerous studies advocate for the reduction or complete elimination of pesticide use as a means to safeguard both human health and environmental integrity [11]. The World Health Organization underscores the necessity of minimizing chemical exposure as a fundamental step towards achieving health-related SDGs, further emphasizing that the transition to sustainable agricultural methods presents a viable solution for mitigating these health hazards [5].

Interdisciplinary collaboration plays a crucial role in advancing health and sustainability objectives, as exemplified by the Health in All Policies (HiAP) framework. This approach advocates for integrated governance and cross-sectoral policymaking to comprehensively address health determinants [12]. Similarly, the One Health Initiative underscores the interconnectedness of human, animal, and environmental health, emphasizing the need for a unified response to emerging health challenges [6]. These frameworks highlight the significance of holistic and cross-sectoral strategies in achieving sustainable health outcomes, while also underscoring the potential of partnerships between the public and private sectors.

Within this framework, private sector involvement is increasingly being acknowledged as a critical enabler of sustainable development. Industries such as healthcare, agriculture, and tourism possess the capacity to influence health determinants and drive sustainable practices. The World Health Organization identifies the private sector as a key innovator in public health, capable of implementing scalable solutions that benefit both human well-being and environmental sustainability [13]. By fostering collaboration between public institutions and private enterprises, resources can be mobilized more effectively, innovation can be accelerated, and large-scale initiatives aligned with the SDGs can be successfully implemented.

A compelling example of such collaboration is found in Crete, where the convergence of agriculture and tourism presents unique opportunities for sustainable development. Owing to its favorable geographical and climatic conditions, Crete serves as both an agricultural center and a leading tourist destination. The integration of sustainable agricultural practices with environmentally responsible tourism initiatives has the potential to enhance public health, preserve natural resources, and promote economic resilience. A noteworthy case is Phāea Resorts, a major tourism enterprise on the island, which has introduced initiatives aimed at reducing pesticide use, encouraging sustainable farming, and improving public health through nutrition and environmental stewardship. This example illustrates how targeted private–public collaborations can contribute to SDG 3 by fostering a balance between economic growth, environmental sustainability, and health promotion.

By collaborating with agronomists, the program strengthens the resilience of the supply chain and ensures that high-quality, locally sourced produce is incorporated into the resort’s operations. A key aspect of this initiative is a reduction in pesticide use, which supports public health objectives by limiting exposure to harmful chemicals and fostering healthier dietary practices.

Beyond sustainable food production, responsible tourism practices contribute to broader environmental and public health goals. Phāea Resorts has implemented the Phāea Sustainable Landscape Management program, which aims to lower greenhouse gas emissions, integrate organic farming principles, and enhance biodiversity through sustainable landscaping strategies. These initiatives underscore the potential of the tourism industry to drive environmental sustainability and public health improvements. This aligns with the UNWTO recognition of sustainable tourism as a vital tool for advancing the SDGs [14].

In response to international frameworks like the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and the European Green Deal, the tourism industry is increasingly adopting sustainable practices to mitigate its environmental impact. Hospitality enterprises are implementing measures such as energy-efficient infrastructure, waste reduction programs, and sustainable procurement policies [15]. However, while these initiatives address general environmental concerns, the integration of health-oriented approaches, particularly in food systems, remains limited. Few studies have systematically examined how tourism enterprises can contribute to public health through their food systems—whether by eliminating pesticide use, promoting biodiversity, or supporting local, nutrient-dense food production [16].

This oversight is significant given that tourism operations, especially in resort contexts, manage extensive food supply chains that could serve as strategic entry points for health-aligned sustainability interventions. The academic discourse lacks real-world models that integrate these elements within a coherent sustainability framework, especially in alignment with SDG 3. Empirical studies evaluating the impact of hotel- or resort-based agricultural practices—such as pesticide-free farming, organic sourcing, or edible landscaping—on environmental, nutritional, and health objectives are scarce. Addressing this gap is crucial for developing comprehensive strategies that align tourism operations with broader public health and environmental goals [17,18].

The existing literature highlights the substantial role that cross-sectoral collaboration, particularly with private sector engagement, can play in achieving health and sustainability objectives. Integrated approaches to land management, reduction in chemical exposure, and biodiversity conservation have been shown to yield positive health outcomes while simultaneously supporting ecosystem services [19]. The case of Crete exemplifies how such initiatives can create a mutually reinforcing relationship between environmental stewardship, public health, and economic development, demonstrating the far-reaching benefits of sustainable practices within the tourism and agricultural sectors.

Despite increasing interest in sustainable food systems and tourism, a significant research gap remains in how private sector actors operationalize health-linked agricultural practices within hospitality settings. While existing studies address either sustainability in tourism or public health in agriculture, few explore their convergence in real-world, business-led interventions. Even fewer studies provide detailed, KPI-driven evidence of how hospitality enterprises contribute to SDG 3. This study addresses that gap by combining a systematic literature review with an in-depth case study of a hospitality group implementing pesticide-free farming, biodiversity-oriented landscaping, and pollinator conservation—all linked to public health and environmental objectives. It offers an empirical model of how private enterprises can integrate sustainable agriculture with health promotion at the local level.

3. Materials and Methods

To thoroughly examine the research topic, this study employed a dual-methodological approach. The first phase centered on exploring the relationship between sustainable agricultural practices and the mitigation of health risks, with particular attention to the impact of pesticide reduction. This investigation was conducted through an extensive review of the existing literature, utilizing the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses, see Supplementary Material) framework and the scoping study approach outlined by [20]. Adhering to PRISMA guidelines ensured methodological transparency and reproducibility in the research process.

The systematic literature review involved structured articles from PubMed Central, employing a predefined set of Medical Subject Heading (MeSH) terms and a Boolean logic search strategy [21]. This approach was designed to enhance the precision and relevance of the retrieved studies, focusing specifically on SDG 3 and sustainable agricultural practices. Studies were evaluated based on their contributions to public health, environmental sustainability, and private sector involvement in advancing these objectives. This methodological framework was selected to provide a robust theoretical foundation for subsequent thematic analysis. The development of search terms and Boolean logic combinations used in this systematic review is detailed in

Table 1. MeSH terms and Boolean operators for logic caption and algorithm development.

MeSH Terms and Boolean Operators for Logic Caption and Algorithm Development
sustainability:	"sustainability"[All Fields]
Sustainable Development goal:	"sustainable development"[MeSH Terms] OR ("sustainable"[All Fields] AND "development"[All Fields]) OR "sustainable development"[All Fields] OR ("sustainable"[All Fields] AND "development"[All Fields] AND "goal"[All Fields]) OR "sustainable development goal"[All Fields]
Agriculture:	"agriculture"[MeSH Terms] OR "agriculture"[All Fields]
health:	"health"[MeSH Terms] OR "health"[All Fields]
pesticides:	"pesticides"[All Fields] OR "pesticides"[MeSH Terms] OR "pesticides"[All Fields]
European Union:	"european union"[MeSH Terms] OR ("european"[All Fields] AND "union"[All Fields]) OR "european union"[All Fields]

.

The thematic analysis in this study adhered to the framework established by [22], which involves six key phases: familiarization with data, generation of initial codes, identification of themes, review of thematic patterns, definition and refinement of themes, and the final synthesis of findings. The coding process was conducted iteratively, ensuring that key aspects related to the intersection of public health outcomes and sustainable agricultural practices were systematically identified. To enhance interrater reliability and mitigate potential researcher bias, multiple researchers independently coded the data, with discrepancies addressed through regular collaborative discussions. This rigorous approach facilitated a comprehensive and nuanced identification of direct and indirect themes associated with SDG 3 and cross-sectoral collaborations.

The selection of an appropriate case study was fundamental in illustrating the role of private sector initiatives in promoting sustainable agricultural practices that contribute to the achievement of the SDGs, with particular emphasis on SDG 3, which aims to enhance public health [23]. Phāea Resorts, a tourism enterprise in Crete, was chosen as a focal point due to its proactive engagement in sustainable farming practices, including the elimination of pesticide use an initiative that aligns closely with the objectives of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development [24].

Data collection for an appropriate case study was extensive, incorporating content analysis of Phāea Resorts’ publicly available materials, such as sustainability reports, corporate initiatives targeting environmental and human health, and KPIs. Additionally, direct collaboration with the company’s Sustainability Committee provided valuable insights into the implementation and effectiveness of these strategies. The methodological approach ensured transparency and replicability, allowing for validation and further exploration of the findings by making all research materials, data, and protocols readily accessible. Furthermore, the study adhered to stringent ethical research standards, particularly concerning data integrity and representation, thereby contributing novel perspectives to the existing body of literature on sustainable development and public health.

3.1. Screening Criteria and Search Strategy

The literature review was conducted in five sequential stages, following the PRISMA flow diagram and the methodological framework for scoping studies outlined by [20]. The process involved (i) formulating the research question, (ii) establishing selection criteria (inclusion/exclusion), (iii) identifying relevant literature, (iv) selecting studies based on predefined criteria, and (v) extracting, categorizing, summarizing, and reporting key findings. A detailed account of each stage is provided below.

The responsible use of pesticides is a fundamental principle of sustainable agriculture. This study systematically identified, retrieved, and evaluated peer-reviewed articles examining the effects of pesticide use on both human and environmental health. A comprehensive database search was conducted using specific keywords, including ‘sustainable development goal’ and ‘agriculture’ or ‘agriculture’ and ‘health’ in conjunction with ‘pesticides’. The review focused on studies published between 2016 and 2021, aligning with the European Union’s strategic response to the SDGs and the implementation of its 2030 Agenda, which was officially introduced in November 2016 through the ‘Sustainable Development: EU Sets Out Its Priorities’ framework [25].

To ensure the relevance and methodological rigor of the selected studies, the inclusion and exclusion criteria detailed in

Table 2. Inclusion and exclusion criteria.

Inclusion Criteria	Exclusion Criteria
The topic is agricultural practices in relation to public health; there is mention of pesticides and relevance for Europe	Articles that refer solely to other regions outside Europe
There is mention of the 2030 Agenda/SDGs	Articles written in languages other than English
Primary and secondary research, including qualitative and/or quantitative studies	Editorials and perspectives, summaries of workshops and conference abstracts
Articles written in English
Full-text articles

were applied throughout the screening process. Both primary and secondary research was considered, irrespective of whether the studies employed qualitative or quantitative methodologies.

The final selection of articles was systematically categorized based on their relevance and the extraction of key information. The categorization framework encompassed studies examining the relationship between pesticide use and health concerns, policy documents, reports from the private sector, and research on sustainable agriculture and environmental impact. The literature review specifically incorporated articles that addressed the association between pesticides and health risks.

Articles that did not fall under the category of pesticide-related health effects were classified into alternative thematic areas based on predefined criteria. These articles contributed to the broader discussion, contextual analysis, and overall structure of the study, as well as informing the selection of the case study. The classification criteria included studies focusing on public or planetary health, research highlighting sustainable agricultural practices in the absence of pesticides, policy documents outlining relevant regulations and frameworks, analyses of initiatives aimed at reducing pesticide use, private sector efforts directed at pesticide elimination, and reports detailing the implementation and outcomes of such initiatives. The overall screening and selection process is illustrated in the PRISMA flow chart (Figure 1).

3.2. Case Study Selection

The selection of Phāea Resorts as the case study is representative for several reasons. First, the enterprise operates in Crete, a region that exemplifies the convergence of intensive agricultural activity and mass tourism, making it a microcosm of broader Mediterranean sustainability challenges. Second, Phāea has implemented measurable, multi-dimensional sustainability initiatives—including pesticide elimination, biodiversity conservation, and food system reforms—providing a robust empirical basis for assessing SDG-aligned impacts. Third, the resort’s integration of agriculture, hospitality, and community engagement makes it an ideal case for exploring cross-sectoral strategies that address both environmental and public health outcomes. As such, this case offers both context-specific relevance and transferable insights applicable to similar tourism-driven regions worldwide.

The empirical findings were derived from two primary sources. First, data were gathered through a content analysis of the official websites of both the corporate headquarters and individual hotel properties. This analysis sought to address key research questions, including the following:

RQ1: To what extent does the company’s website address issues related to sustainability, health and well-being, nutrition, and agriculture?

RQ2: Do the company’s initiatives related to agriculture and nutrition contribute to both human and planetary health?

RQ3: Do these initiatives foster cross-sectoral synergies?

Given the substantial impact of a hospitality group operating five-star hotels with over 200 rooms, investigating this field is both relevant and justified.

The website analysis was conducted based on specific evaluation criteria, including the presence of corporate social responsibility (CSR) activities, the existence of a climate strategy, initiatives promoting human health and well-being through nutrition, agricultural sustainability efforts, climate communication at the subsidiary level, mechanisms for measuring and monitoring sustainability objectives, the commitment of top management to these goals, and the content of the company’s sustainability report.

Additionally, further insights, as well as key performance indicators (KPIs) related to the company’s initiatives and overall sustainable development strategy, were gathered through collaboration with Phāea Resorts’ Sustainability Committee. This comprehensive assessment offers a structured framework for examining health and well-being initiatives within this group of five-star hotels in Crete.

4. Results

4.1. Systematic Review Outcomes

The systematic review process commenced with an initial pool of 543 articles. Following the application of pre-defined inclusion and exclusion criteria, 77 articles were selected for a detailed abstract review. Subsequent evaluation further narrowed this down to a final analysis set comprising 32 articles. These articles offered a multifaceted perspective on the impact of sustainable agriculture on health and environmental outcomes. Key findings indicated that 42% of the articles established a clear link between pesticide use and increased health risks, highlighting critical public health implications.

Among these, studies were further categorized into those examining direct health effects—such as occupational or dietary pesticide exposure linked to illnesses—and those focusing on indirect pathways, including improved nutrition, ecosystem services, and biodiversity preservation that contribute to broader health and well-being outcomes.

Additionally, 37% of the articles emphasized the environmental benefits associated with sustainable agriculture practices, demonstrating their potential to enhance ecological resilience and reduce environmental degradation. A further 21% of the articles focused on policy development aimed at achieving health-related SDGs. Notably, none of the articles directly addressed the role of private sector initiatives in sustainable agriculture aimed at the elimination of pesticides, indicating a gap in the existing literature (Figure 2).

4.2. Phāea Resorts’ Farmers and Case Study Analysis

The contributions of Phāea Resorts’ initiatives extend beyond their immediate impact on the local environment and community. By prioritizing the elimination of synthetic pesticides and fostering sustainable practices, these programs directly address public health risks, enhance dietary quality, and promote ecosystem balance. This approach aligns with and advances the broader objectives of SDG 3 by demonstrating how private sector initiatives can drive holistic improvements in health and well-being. The lessons learned from these efforts offer a replicable model for other regions seeking to integrate sustainable practices within tourism and agriculture, ultimately contributing to a healthier, more resilient planet.

Phāea Resorts’ sustainability initiatives exemplify a proactive approach to achieving SDG 3 through innovative private sector strategies. At the forefront is the Phāea Farmers program, which promotes sustainable food production and biodiversity preservation while reducing chemical exposure to benefit health. This initiative empowers resort staff who are also local farmers by providing training, hands-on workshops, and support from agronomists to adopt organic and pesticide-free farming practices. As a result, the program enhances the resilience of the supply chain, ensures food security in the face of climate challenges, and improves the nutritional value of produce used in resort kitchens.

Complementing this effort, the Sustainable Landscape Management initiative employs practices such as xeriscaping, composting, and the use of organic fertilizers. By eliminating synthetic pesticides and herbicides from resorts’ landscaping, the initiative protects soil and water quality, reduces greenhouse gas emissions, and promotes biodiversity through the planting of native and edible species. These actions not only minimize the environmental footprint of the resorts but also transform gardens into vibrant ecological spaces that engage visitors and staff [26,27].

Another key initiative, Plan Bee, underscores the interconnectedness of biodiversity and public health by supporting pollinator conservation. Through partnerships with local beekeepers, this program creates safe habitats for bees, enhances local biodiversity, and ensures essential ecosystem services like pollination. By raising awareness among employees, guests, and the community, Plan Bee fosters a deeper understanding of sustainable bee keeping practices and their broader environmental implications [28].

These initiatives are supported by measurable KPIs that demonstrate their impact. For instance, the Phāea Farmers program has expanded the land area dedicated to sustainable farming and increased the volume of pesticide-free produce. The Sustainable Landscape Management initiative has improved soil health and water efficiency while engaging visitors through educational activities. Similarly, Plan Bee has shown growth in honey production and the number of beehives maintained, as detailed in

Table 3. Phāea Farmers’ KPIs. Note: “Production (kg)” refers to the total weight of pesticide-free agricultural produce harvested by Phāea Farmers annually. This includes only the portion supplied directly to the resort’s restaurants.

Phāea Farmers
Key Performance Indicators (KPIs)	2019	2020	2021	2022
Hours of training	20	24	24	31
Number of participants	3	3	8	11
Land parcels	11	11	18	23
Communities affected	5	5	9	12
Production (kg)	2.050	1.607	13.521	16.329
PHĀEA farmers’ income support (EUR)	10.870	2.600	36.900	37.600

and

Table 4. Phāea Sustainable Landscape Management KPIs. Note: The organic gardens cover 1720 m² across Phāea Resorts properties. While this represents a portion of the overall resort grounds, they play a central role in the sustainability and food sourcing strategy.

Phāea Sustainable Landscape Management
KPIs	2020	2021	2022
Organic gardens (m2)	750	985	1720
Hours of training	40	40	45
Production (kg)	487	1.783	3.896
Number of garden tours for guests	16	20	24
Number of participants in garden tours	80	100	192
Use of synthetic pesticides and herbicides (kg)	0	0	0

.

Despite the successes, challenges persist, particularly in implementing the One Health Framework, which seeks to integrate human, animal, and environmental health perspectives. Barriers such as interdisciplinary gaps, delays in systemic modeling, and limited cooperation have been mitigated through cross-sector collaborations involving agronomists, local authorities, and community leaders. Financial incentives for participating farmers further encourage the adoption of sustainable practices, ensuring long-term commitment.

Collectively, these initiatives align with SDG 3 by addressing public health risks, improving dietary quality, and promoting ecosystem balance. By showcasing how private sector programs can advance sustainability and health, Phāea Resorts provides a replicable model for integrating sustainable practices in tourism and agriculture, ultimately contributing to a healthier, more resilient planet.

4.2.1. Sustainable Landscapes

The Phāea Sustainable Landscape Management approach embraces sustainable practices designed to reduce and lessen the impact of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions on a local scale. Each Resort monitors, measures, and reports on its GHG emissions. This is one reason why Phāea Resorts embrace technology and actively seek to change ingrained behavior. The main focus lies in diverting waste from landfills, recycling, food composting, implementing a series of water and energy management actions, and moving towards a plastic-less operation. Through the collaboration of each and every one, Phāea Resorts contribute to a healthier environment for future generations.

The program has been designed to improve soil health, mitigate climate change, and increase energy efficiency in landscape, among other things. The program’s focus is to implement sustainable practices, moving away from synthetic pesticides, planting endemic and xeriscape-friendly flora species, and adopting Edible Landscape orientation, with certified organic edible plants. The sustainable use of pesticides is a major target as synthetic pesticides can be harmful to human health. Regarding Sustainable Landscape Management, there are three categories in which Phāea Resorts operate.

For Soil Health, organic fertilizers, micro and macro on-site composting sites, and earthworm compost use are of the greatest importance. Maintaining healthy soil is the integral base of every landscape. As for Water Use, the Phāea Sustainable Landscape Management program recycles water for irrigation (lawns excluded). Through this initiative, the water footprint decreases. Phāea Resorts’ Landscapes are pesticide- and herbicide-free and biodiversity zones are protected and promoted, while there is also certification for organic lawns.

The Certified Organic Hotel Farming program has raised awareness of the benefits of Hotel Farming and promotes sustainable agriculture in Crete. Open-air organic vegetable gardens, covering an area of 1720 m², cultivate many varieties of fruit trees, vegetables, and aromatic herbs that are endemic to the island. The home-grown gardens are cared for by a team of avid local gardeners and have produced more than 25 kinds of vegetables, fruits, and herbs in past years, which were given to Phāea Resorts’ kitchens. The organic kitchen gardens are open to visitors, while curated awareness activities and experiences, for both children and adults, are organized throughout the season.

Edible Landscape is the practical integration of plants that produce food in a garden with ornamental use. Among the ornamental plants, there are some food-producing plants to be found, like eggplants, vines, peppers, aromatic plants, sour trees, pomegranates, olives, laurel, and many more. In this way, an ornamental garden can acquire a useful character through the production of food. Edible plants have special ornamental value, offering an aesthetically pleasing and unexpected element to hotel gardens that engages and delights visitors. Their presence encourages guests to explore the gardens, enhancing the overall visitor experience. By incorporating edible plants, the gardens of Phāea Resorts serve not only as a distinctive decorative feature but also as a source of health, aesthetic, and economic benefits [29].

The use of edible plants also highlights the resorts’ commitment to sustainability. Plants are labeled with multilingual signs that provide identification and include brief educational texts encouraging guests to learn more about environmental stewardship, community engagement, and Sustainable Management Practices. This approach aligns with the report’s broader goal of promoting awareness and fostering deeper connections between guests and sustainable principles.

An integral part of this Edible Landscape is the organic co-cultivated vegetable garden, which features over 40 varieties of vegetables and herbs. These gardens supply fresh, pesticide-free produce directly to the resort’s restaurants, contributing to the creation of nutritious, locally sourced dishes. The total absence of synthetic pesticides and herbicides from these gardens, in accordance with scientific evidence on the health risks posed by such chemicals [2], significantly reduces occupational and consumer exposure, thus protecting the health of both employees and guests.

Moreover, performance data indicate consistent improvement across KPIs, as detailed in Table 4. These include an upward trend in productivity and sustainability metrics, alongside the complete elimination of synthetic pesticide and herbicide usage since 2020. Collectively, these efforts underscore Phāea Resorts’ dedication to advancing sustainable practices, improving public health outcomes, and enhancing environmental resilience.

4.2.2. Plan Bee

Phāea Resorts actively support the rescue of pollinators by placing hives with active bee populations in selected hotels. In collaboration with local beekeepers, they are managed with sustainable beekeeping practices. Thus, the hotels provide a new home for bees, adjacent to gardens rich in flowering plants. Through this partnership, hotels actively support the survival of bees in their area and the conservation of biodiversity. While the resort’s honey needs are partially met through in-house production, the majority of honey sourced through partnerships with local bee keepers, thereby supporting the regional economy and promoting sustainable practices.

Notably, KPIs associated with the Phāea Plan Bee initiative have shown a consistent upward trend, as outlined in

Table 5. Phāea Plan Bee KPIs.

Phāea Plan Bee
KPIs	2021	2022
Number of beehives	3	12
Hours of training	8	11
Honey production (kg)	40	101

. This progress is particularly remarkable given that the program was launched during the challenges of the COVID-19 pandemic, with its official inception on 30 January 2020.

The results from the case study and the systematic review underscore the significant role of private sector initiatives in advancing sustainable development and public health goals. The initiatives at Phāea Resorts exemplify a successful model for integrating sustainable agricultural practices within a broader framework of public health and environmental stewardship.

5. Discussion

The findings of this research, centered on the initiatives of Phāea Resorts in Crete, highlight the transformative potential of private sector-led practices in sustainable agriculture and tourism on public health and SDG 3 goals. By prioritizing sustainable agriculture, reducing pesticide usage, and enhancing biodiversity, these initiatives contribute to improved health outcomes and environmental sustainability. This aligns with the objective of SDG 3: to ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all. The case study underscores how cross-sector collaboration can drive progress toward achieving the SDGs, demonstrating that strategically aligned private sector engagement can deliver tangible health and sustainability benefits.

However, the implementation of such initiatives is not without its challenges. Resistance from traditional farming communities to adopting new sustainable practices was a significant barrier, often stemming from concerns about costs, unfamiliarity, or perceived risks. Addressing these challenges requires multifaceted approaches, including targeted education and training, financial incentives, and ongoing support mechanisms to facilitate a smoother transition. Another challenge involved the integration of sustainability across different sectors, necessitating the alignment of diverse stakeholder interests and coordinated policy support. Policy makers and industry leaders must therefore collaborate to create incentives, foster cross-sector communication, and implement robust frameworks for monitoring and evaluating progress.

The findings of this research both align with and diverge from the existing literature on sustainable agriculture and public health. Consistent with previous studies, this research found that reducing pesticide use and incorporating organic farming practices can produce significant health and environmental benefits [2,3]. The emphasis on private sector initiatives, however, presents a unique perspective by highlighting the critical role businesses can play in driving sustainability efforts. Unlike studies that primarily focus on regulatory interventions or public sector initiatives, this case study illustrates how market-driven private sector actions can serve as catalysts for change, complementing traditional policy-driven models.

Real-world examples of cross-sector collaborations further demonstrate the potential for scalable solutions. For instance, the One Health Initiative emphasizes a holistic approach to human, animal, and environmental health, showing that coordinated action across sectors can deliver comprehensive health benefits [6]. In other regions, community-led organic farming cooperatives supported by public–private partnerships have successfully reduced chemical pesticide usage, improved community health, and fostered local economic resilience. These examples highlight the value of collaborative approaches in achieving health and sustainability goals [30].

The integration of sustainable agriculture with tourism, as seen in Phāea Resorts’ initiatives, offers a practical model for fostering public health and sustainability. The Phāea Farmers program and other efforts demonstrate that private sector engagement, through targeted sustainability practices and partnerships, can significantly contribute to broader health goals. By reducing pesticide exposure and promoting organic practices, these initiatives not only enhance community well-being but also generate positive economic and environmental outcomes [31].

Additionally, this research illustrates that effective cross-sector collaboration can amplify the impact of sustainability efforts, enabling broader systemic change. Addressing challenges such as stakeholder alignment, resource mobilization, and community buy-in remains critical to the long-term success of such initiatives. Lessons learned from successful projects can guide future efforts to create scalable, high-impact strategies for health and sustainability. To replicate and scale up the successful elements of Phāea Resorts’ sustainability initiatives, policymakers, private companies, and other stakeholders should consider several concrete actions. For policymakers, the establishment of supportive regulatory frameworks is essential to incentivize sustainable agriculture and environmental stewardship. This can include tax incentives, grants, and subsidies for businesses that adopt organic practices, eliminate synthetic pesticides, and prioritize local sourcing. Clear guidelines and monitoring mechanisms should be put in place to ensure compliance and measure progress toward public health and sustainability goals [32].

Private companies are encouraged to integrate sustainability into their core business models by adopting practices similar to Phāea Resorts’, such as investing in training and capacity-building programs for staff and local farmers. Collaborating with experts, such as agronomists and environmental scientists, can further strengthen these efforts and enhance the effectiveness of sustainability initiatives. Companies should also prioritize transparency by regularly publishing data on KPIs related to their environmental and health impacts, fostering accountability and encouraging continuous improvement.

Collaboration across sectors is key for achieving meaningful and lasting change. NGOs, community organizations, and academic institutions should work together to create cross-sectoral partnerships that leverage expertise and resources for greater impact. This includes supporting educational campaigns to raise awareness about the health and environmental benefits of sustainable practices and promoting community engagement through participatory initiatives [33]. By fostering a culture of sustainability, stakeholders can drive the adoption of best practices and create scalable models that contribute to global public health and sustainable development goals [34].

6. Limitations of the Study

While the present study contributes novel insights into the integration of sustainable agricultural practices within the tourism sector and their alignment with public health objectives, it is important to acknowledge several methodological and contextual limitations.

Firstly, the study adopted a single-case design centered on Phāea Resorts in Crete. Although the case offers a compelling illustration of private sector engagement in sustainability and health promotion, the findings may not be readily generalizable to other geographic or institutional contexts. Variability in regulatory frameworks, market structures, environmental conditions, and stakeholder engagement across different regions may influence the transferability of the model.

Moreover, the absence of systematically recorded baseline data prior to 2019 constrains the capacity for a robust pre/post intervention analysis. As a result, trends and impacts were assessed from 2019 onwards, which may overlook earlier conditions or the initial trajectory of change. This temporal limitation restricts the depth of causal inferences that can be drawn regarding the longitudinal effects of the interventions.

Also, the assessment of public health outcomes relies primarily on indirect indicators, such as reductions in synthetic pesticide use, improvements in biodiversity, and enhancements in nutritional provisioning. While these factors are well-established proxies for health benefits in the literature, the study does not include direct empirical measurements of health outcomes—such as epidemiological data or biomarkers of exposure—which would strengthen causal attribution.

Furthermore, the data on sustainability initiatives and performance indicators were derived predominantly from corporate sustainability reports and internal documentation provided by Phāea Resorts. Although supplemented by interviews and collaborative engagement with the Sustainability Committee, the reliance on self-reported data introduces a potential risk of information bias and limits external validation.

Additionally, the study did not systematically capture the broader socio-economic dynamics affecting non-participating members of the local community. Issues such as informal labor practices, equity of benefit distribution, and the influence of these initiatives on local food systems warrant deeper exploration through ethnographic or participatory methods.

Lastly, while the case was examined within the framework of the Sustainable Development Goals and referenced relevant European policy developments, a comprehensive policy analysis is beyond the scope of this study. Future research should incorporate comparative case studies across multiple regions and conduct multi-level policy analyses to enhance generalizability and provide a more integrated understanding of enabling conditions for success.

7. Conclusions

The findings of this study reaffirm the significant and underexplored role that private sector enterprises—particularly within the agritourism industry—can play in achieving public health objectives and advancing Sustainable Development Goal 3 (SDG 3): ensuring healthy lives and promoting well-being for all at all ages. Using Phāea Resorts in Crete as a case study, we demonstrate that sustainability-oriented initiatives embedded in tourism operations can generate measurable health, environmental, and socio-economic co-benefits, particularly through the adoption of sustainable agricultural practices.

One of the core contributions of this research lies in its focus on the intersection of sustainable agriculture, public health, and tourism within a private sector context. While public and non-profit sectors have long been recognized as central to sustainability and health efforts, this study offers empirical evidence of how a for-profit hospitality enterprise can successfully integrate pesticide-free farming, edible landscape design, pollinator protection, and biodiversity-oriented landscaping to support broader public health goals. These interventions not only minimize chemical exposure and enhance dietary quality but also promote community engagement and build local resilience through farmer training, income support, and environmental education.

The incorporation of KPIs related to pesticide elimination, produce yield, biodiversity measures, and visitor engagement further adds to the robustness of the model. These metrics allow for transparency, comparability, and ongoing evaluation, which are often absent from sustainability claims in the tourism sector. Moreover, by grounding the study in both a systematic literature review and field-level data collection, we offer a methodologically rigorous approach to assessing the tangible contributions of private sector sustainability practices.

Despite these strengths, several limitations must be acknowledged. The study is based on a single-case analysis, which limits its generalizability. While the selected case provides a rich, in-depth perspective, the contextual specificity of Crete—with its unique agroclimatic conditions, tourism dynamics, and local governance structures—may not be directly transferrable to other regions or business models. Further research involving cross-case comparisons is necessary to identify common enablers and barriers across different socio-economic and environmental settings.

In addition, the absence of systematic baseline data prior to 2019 restricted our ability to conduct a full pre/post intervention analysis. This constraint limited our capacity to quantify the degree of change attributable to the interventions over time. While the KPI trends provide strong directional insights, more comprehensive longitudinal data would allow for stronger causal inferences. Moreover, the study did not include direct measurements of health outcomes, such as biomonitoring for pesticide exposure or dietary intake analysis among employees, guests, or community members. Future studies should incorporate such indicators to more definitively link sustainability initiatives with public health impacts.

The reliance on internal documentation and self-reported data from the enterprise introduces potential bias, although efforts were made to triangulate findings through collaboration with the company’s sustainability personnel. Additional third-party evaluations would enhance the objectivity and credibility of the reported outcomes.

Despite these limitations, the implications of this research are both timely and actionable. First, the case underscores the importance of aligning private sector sustainability initiatives with structured governance frameworks and evidence-based health strategies. The integration of corporate sustainability reporting with SDG-aligned health metrics creates opportunities for enhanced accountability and cross-sector dialogue. Second, the research highlights the need for policy incentives that support such business transitions—such as tax relief for organic certification, subsidies for biodiversity restoration, or public–private training collaborations focused on sustainable farming.

This study also contributes to the emerging discourse on One Health and Health in All Policies (HiAP) by providing a concrete example of how sectoral integration can be operationalized through tourism-based models. The interplay between environmental management, food systems, and community well-being embodied in Phāea Resorts’ approach illustrates the systemic thinking required to address complex public health challenges in the Anthropocene.

Finally, the replicability of the model depends on the availability of local knowledge, institutional support, and community buy-in. Strategic partnerships with local governments, universities, and civil society organizations can further scale such interventions and promote innovation. By demonstrating how business interests can align with environmental sustainability and human health, this study lays the groundwork for a new model of responsible tourism that transcends traditional CSR paradigms.

In conclusion, this research provides strong conceptual and empirical grounding for understanding how private sector actors in agritourism can contribute meaningfully to sustainable development and public health. While further evidence is required to validate these findings across broader contexts, the Phāea Resorts case represents a scalable and adaptable blueprint for future efforts. With appropriate policy backing, stakeholder engagement, and monitoring systems, private sector sustainability initiatives can evolve from isolated practices to central pillars in the global movement toward health, equity, and environmental resilience.