Examining the Factors Influencing Pedestrian Behaviour and Safety: A Review with a Focus on Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Communities

Abstract

Pedestrian behaviour and safety are essential components of urban sustainability. They are influenced by a complex interplay between various factors from different perspectives, particularly in culturally and linguistically diverse (CALD) communities. This study presents a comprehensive overview of the factors influencing pedestrian behaviour and safety with a focus on CALD communities. By synthesizing the existing literature, the study identifies six key groups of influencing factors: social–psychological, cultural, risk perceptions, environmental, technological distractions, and demographic differences. It discovers that well-designed interventions, such as tailored education campaigns and programs, may effectively influence pedestrian behaviour. These interventions emphasize the importance of targeted messaging to address specific risks (e.g., using mobile phones while crossing the road) and engage vulnerable groups, including children, seniors, and CALD communities. The study reveals that CALD communities face higher risks of pedestrian injuries and fatalities due to language barriers, unfamiliarity with local road rules, and different practices and approaches to road safety due to cultural differences. This study underlines the importance of developing and promoting tailored road safety education programs to address the unique challenges faced by CALD communities to help promote safer pedestrian environments for all.

1. Introduction

Pedestrian safety remains a critical yet sometimes overlooked component of urban sustainability and public health. Despite ongoing efforts to improve road safety, pedestrians continue to face significantly higher risks. In 2021, pedestrian fatalities in Australia comprised a total of 11.9% of all road fatalities [1]. Pedestrians are identified as a vulnerable road user group in Australia’s National Road Safety Strategy 2021–2030 [2]. To understand pedestrian behaviour, it is important to look beyond overall statistics and examine the different factors that affect road safety performance. Although numerous initiatives have been implemented to reduce the road toll, most of these initiatives are designed for the broader community, with less attention paid to the needs of culturally and linguistically diverse (CALD) communities, like specifically designed road safety education materials. There is evidence that members of CALD communities have a higher risk of involvement in crashes in their new country [3,4].

This study comprehensively consolidates the evidence from behavioural theories and empirical studies to address a key gap in understanding pedestrian behaviour and safety performance. It explores how pedestrian behaviour responds to safety education campaigns in tackling the specific challenges faced by CALD communities. This leads to the identification of six key groups of influencing factors: social–psychological, cultural, risk perception, environmental, technological distraction, and demographic differences. The study finds that well-designed interventions, including tailored education campaigns and programs, may effectively influence pedestrian behaviour.

This paper is organised as follows. After the introduction, Section 2 introduces the methodology of the study, and Section 3 explores the theoretical models and discusses the factors that influence pedestrian behaviour and safety. Section 4 examines education campaigns for pedestrian safety. Section 5 investigates road safety programs for CALD communities. Section 6 discusses the limitations and future work. Finally, Section 7 presents the conclusion, summarizing the key findings gained from the review.

2. Methodology

This comprehensive review study synthesizes existing knowledge on pedestrian be-haviour and safety, emphasizing the key influencing factors, trends, and gaps in the literature. The review follows a structured approach, integrating qualitative analysis of the related studies from various sources. Unlike systematic reviews that adhere to strict inclusion and exclusion criteria, this study adopts a broader perspective, allowing for a more comprehensive exploration of relevant themes. The review primarily focuses on peer-reviewed journal articles and authoritative conference papers published in English, ensuring reliability and scholarly rigour in the sources examined.

The literature search was conducted using major academic databases, such as Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar. The selection process involved identifying studies based on keywords related to the scope of the study. Keywords were strategically selected to capture three interrelated themes: (1) pedestrian safety (e.g., “pedestrian behaviour”, “road safety”, “walking risk factors”), (2) safety education (e.g., “safety programs”, “campaigns”, “interventions”, “road safety projects”), and (3) CALD populations (e.g., “CALD”, “culturally diverse groups”). Boolean operators (AND/OR) were employed to link these themes, such as pairing “pedestrian behavior” with “CALD” and “interventions” to capture relevant studies. When initial searches yielded limited results, the strategy was to refine the search by expanding terms (e.g., substituting “CALD” with “migrant communities”, “immigrants”, or “foreign residence”) and reviewing reference lists of key articles to identify additional sources.

Studies were selected using a rigorous step-by-step methodology. Publications between 2000 and 2025 were prioritized where available, supplemented by backward citation tracking of key articles. The initial screening involved reviewing titles and abstracts for relevance. Eligible studies then progressed to a keyword check to filter out articles that were not closely relevant to the core themes (e.g., when examining behavioural influencing factors, if the article focused on road safety in general instead of pedestrian safety, it did not pass this check). Full-text reviews were then conducted to assess the content more deeply for further analysis.

A thematic analysis approach [5] was employed to categorize the findings into key areas. Using this method, the influencing factors for pedestrian behaviour were classified into six groups, including social–psychological factors, cultural factors, risk perceptions, environmental factors, technological distractions, and demographic differences. Multiple subcategories were further identified within each group. For instance, technological distractions comprised texting and answering calls, listening to music, using a mobile phone for other reasons, and using other digital devices. Based on synthesized insights from the literature, a Venn diagram (Figure 1) is used to visually represent the overlapping thematic categories of influencing factors, where intersections illustrate shared characteristics and interactions among the six key groups. Overlaps are intentionally shown using semi-transparent circles, as some sub-factors may be related to more than one group. To further illustrate the interactions among certain categories, especially where boundaries are ambiguous, such as between social–psychological, cultural, and risk perception factors, bidirectional dotted arrows have been added in Figure 1. These visual elements aim to reflect the dynamic and interconnected nature of the factors. Relevant publications are cited in the format of author and year and placed near the corresponding factors within each main category’s circle. This approach greatly facilitates the identification of recurring patterns, emerging trends, and existing research gaps to inform future studies. A detailed discussion of each category and its associated literature (as depicted in Figure 1) is presented in Section 3.

3. Critical Factors Influencing Pedestrian Behaviour and Safety

Pedestrian safety is a complex issue influenced by a variety of factors ranging from individual psychology to environmental and social contexts. This review section investigates current research on the factors impacting pedestrian behaviour and safety.

Earlier studies on pedestrian behaviour have demonstrated that compared to other road users, pedestrians exhibit the highest flexibility and responsiveness, yet they are also very unpredictable and not always effectively controlled by regulations [6]. Understanding pedestrian behaviour and safety is a complex task that requires the integration of various theoretical frameworks.

Over the years, several models have been developed to explain the factors influencing how pedestrians navigate their environments and respond to potential risks. These models provide a structured approach to understanding and analyzing the factors that shape pedestrian behaviour. This section explores some of the most influential theoretical models, including the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB), the Theory of Interpersonal Behaviour (TIB), the Health Belief Model (HBM), and the Protection Motivation Theory (PMT), that are commonly used in road safety studies. Details of these models and a comparative analysis are summarized in

Table 1. Comparative analysis of theoretical models of pedestrian behaviour and safety research.

Model (Developer)	The Core Idea of the Model (Key Constructs)	Key Studies	Strengths in Pedestrian Safety Research	Limitations for Pedestrian Research	Relevance to CALD Population
Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) (Ajzen, 1991) [7]	Attitude, Subjective Norms, Perceived Behavioural Control, Behavioural Intention	[7,8,9,10,11,12]	- Effective for modelling intention-driven behaviours (e.g., obeying signals) - Incorporates social norms and perceived control	- Neglects habitual and emotional influences; requires cultural adaptation of norms - May not capture spontaneous or risky behaviours	High: Accounts for cultural norms and peer influence on pedestrian decisions
Theory of Interpersonal Behaviour (TIB) (Triandis, 1977) [13]	Intention, Habit, Affect, Social Roles, Norms, Facilitating Conditions	[13,14]	- Includes habitual and emotional components - Addresses routine and context-dependent behaviours	- Complex to implement and measure; less frequently used in transport safety - Less frequently used in empirical studies	High: Useful in multicultural contexts with habitual, affect-driven behaviours
Health Belief Model (HBM) (Rosenstock, 1974) [15]	Perceived Susceptibility, Severity, Benefits, Barriers, Cues to Action, Self-Efficacy	[15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22]	- Highlights risk perception and protective behaviours - Useful for designing educational interventions	- Lacks emphasis on social norms and behavioural intention (e.g., peer pressure, community influence) - Assumes rational decision making and often neglects social/environmental factors	Moderate: Can be adapted to assess CALD individuals’ perceived vulnerability and barriers
Protection Motivation Theory (PMT) (Rogers, 1975) [23]	Threat Appraisal (Severity, Vulnerability), Coping Appraisal (Response Efficacy, Self-Efficacy)	[23,24,25]	- Strong for evaluating response to safety campaigns - Addresses motivation to adopt protective actions	- Limited attention to habits or social context - Requires careful operationalization	Moderate: Applicable in safety messaging and culturally tailored interventions

, including their relevance to the CALD population.

The TPB and the TIB are primarily social–psychological models developed to explain and predict human behaviour. The TPB, developed by Ajzen [7], is a widely recognized and validated model for understanding individuals’ decision making and predicting their behaviours in various circumstances [8]. The TPB suggests that human actions are guided by intentions, which are influenced by three key components: attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control. It has been extensively applied to study pedestrian behaviour [9,10,11], particularly in understanding and predicting violations of traffic regulations [12]. The TPB is particularly useful for modelling rational, deliberative behaviours and allows for the inclusion of socio-cultural norms, making it relevant for understanding pedestrian actions in CALD communities. However, the TPB underemphasizes habitual behaviour and emotional or affective influences, which can be significant in real-world pedestrian decision making. On the other hand, the TIB, developed by Triandis [13], integrates normative and social environmental factors into a conceptual framework for explaining how individuals behave under specific situations. The TIB proposes that behaviour is determined by intention, which is influenced by factors like the social environment, habits, and facilitating conditions. This broader framing enhances its applicability in diverse urban environments and among groups with entrenched walking practices. Nevertheless, the TIB is more complex and less frequently operationalized due to its multidimensional structure, limiting its widespread use. The TIB has been applied to investigate the factors influencing pedestrians to prefer at-grade crossings over provided footbridges [14].

In contrast to general behaviour models like the TPB and the TIB, both the HBM and the PMT are tailored mainly to health-related and safety behaviours. The HBM was originally formulated by Rosenstock in the 1970s [15]. The HBM is formulated to explain health behaviour. It has been used to predict whether individuals are likely to engage in risk reduction prevention. This model suggests that individuals’ decisions to change behaviour are influenced by perceived barriers, benefits, self-efficacy, and cues to action. The HBM’s strength lies in its detailed treatment of perceived vulnerability and perceived barriers, which are especially pertinent in safety education campaigns. However, its limited attention to social norms and intention formation can make it less effective for capturing socially mediated pedestrian decisions, particularly in multicultural settings. In recent years, The HBM has been extensively applied to studies on safe driving behaviour [16,17,18], as well as cyclist safety [19,20] and pedestrian safety behaviours [21,22]. Similarly, the PMT was also originally proposed and used in the health sector, focusing on perceived threats and strategies for coping with them [23]. The PMT focuses on how individuals assess perceived threats and coping strategies they adopt in response, particularly in health and safety contexts. It explains why people engage in unhealthy practices and offers suggestions for prevention to change those behaviours. It is well-suited to evaluating interventions and understanding motivations behind protective behaviours. Still, like the HBM, the PMT can sometimes overlook broader environmental and habitual influences that affect pedestrian behaviour. In recent years, it has been applied in educational interventions and road safety campaigns [24,25].

In summary, the TPB and the TIB are most effective for modelling intent-driven behaviours and incorporating social and normative influences, while the HBM and the PMT are stronger frameworks for evaluating risk-based decision making and response to safety interventions. Each of the theoretical models offers unique insights into the motivations and decisions that underlie pedestrian actions, thereby contributing to a more comprehensive understanding of pedestrian behaviour and safety. These theoretical models serve as a foundation for understanding the psychological and social factors influencing pedestrian behaviour, while cultural, demographic, and environmental factors are also discussed extensively in the literature. Additionally, the role of technologies, especially mobile device usage, emerges as a contemporary challenge to pedestrian safety.

The following section discusses the factors influencing pedestrian behaviour and safety. Six main groups are identified based on the thematic analysis, as mentioned in the methodology section: (i) social–psychological factors, (ii) cultural factors, (iii) risk perceptions, (iv) environmental factors, (v) technological distractions, and (vi) demographic differences. Each group includes multiple subcategories, which provide a comprehensive overview of the factors shaping pedestrian behaviour. A visual representation of the relationships among the influencing factors is presented in Figure 1. Detailed discussions of each main category and the relevant literature are presented in the following sub-sections.

Figure 1. Conceptual Venn diagram illustrating key factors influencing pedestrian behaviour. Sources shown in diagram include: Diaz (2002) [9]; Zhou et al. (2009) [11]; Zhou et al. (2016) [12]; Evans and Norman (1998) [26]; Dannick (1973) [27]; Yagil (2000) [28]; McIlroy et al. (2020) [29]; Yang et al. (2006) [30]; Zhuang and Wu (2011) [31]; Xu et al. (2013) [32]; Mukherjee and Mitra (2019) [33]; Nordfjærn and Şimşekoğlu (2013) [34]; Li (2013) [35]; Rouse (2002) [36]; Jain et al. (2014) [37]; Arellana et al. (2022) [38]; Marisamynathan and Vedagiri (2018) [39]; Hamed (2001) [40]; Sisiopiku and Akin (2003) [41]; Li and Fernie (2010) [42]; Bendak et al. (2021) [43]; Rasouli et al. (2017) [44]; Kweon et al. (2021) [45]; Lamberg and Muratori (2012) [46]; Bungum et al. (2005) [47]; Retting (2017) [48]; Zhang et al. (2019) [49]; Murray (2006) [50]; Nasar and Troyer (2013) [51]; Schwebel et al. (2012) [52]; Thompson et al. (2013) [53]; O’Hern et al. (2020) [54]; Mwakalonge et al. (2015) [55]; Hou et al. (2021) [56]; Harrell (1991) [57]; Tiwari et al. (2007) [58]; Holland and Hill (2007) [59]; Bernhoft and Carstensen (2008) [60]; Deb et al. (2017) [61]; Tom and Granié (2011) [62]; Mamun et al. (2018) [63]; Oxley et al. (1997) [64]; Papadimitriou et al. (2017) [65]; Roll and McNeil (2022) [66].

Figure 1. Conceptual Venn diagram illustrating key factors influencing pedestrian behaviour. Sources shown in diagram include: Diaz (2002) [9]; Zhou et al. (2009) [11]; Zhou et al. (2016) [12]; Evans and Norman (1998) [26]; Dannick (1973) [27]; Yagil (2000) [28]; McIlroy et al. (2020) [29]; Yang et al. (2006) [30]; Zhuang and Wu (2011) [31]; Xu et al. (2013) [32]; Mukherjee and Mitra (2019) [33]; Nordfjærn and Şimşekoğlu (2013) [34]; Li (2013) [35]; Rouse (2002) [36]; Jain et al. (2014) [37]; Arellana et al. (2022) [38]; Marisamynathan and Vedagiri (2018) [39]; Hamed (2001) [40]; Sisiopiku and Akin (2003) [41]; Li and Fernie (2010) [42]; Bendak et al. (2021) [43]; Rasouli et al. (2017) [44]; Kweon et al. (2021) [45]; Lamberg and Muratori (2012) [46]; Bungum et al. (2005) [47]; Retting (2017) [48]; Zhang et al. (2019) [49]; Murray (2006) [50]; Nasar and Troyer (2013) [51]; Schwebel et al. (2012) [52]; Thompson et al. (2013) [53]; O’Hern et al. (2020) [54]; Mwakalonge et al. (2015) [55]; Hou et al. (2021) [56]; Harrell (1991) [57]; Tiwari et al. (2007) [58]; Holland and Hill (2007) [59]; Bernhoft and Carstensen (2008) [60]; Deb et al. (2017) [61]; Tom and Granié (2011) [62]; Mamun et al. (2018) [63]; Oxley et al. (1997) [64]; Papadimitriou et al. (2017) [65]; Roll and McNeil (2022) [66].

3.1. Social–Psychological Factors

The interactions between community members and their peers’ influence significantly impact pedestrian behaviour and safety practices. Observational learning can either reinforce safe pedestrian practices or encourage risky behaviours, which shape the social norm. Research consistently demonstrates that pedestrian road crossing behaviour is significantly influenced by social–psychological factors. Evans and Norman [26] construct hierarchical regression models to analyze road crossing behaviour using questionnaire data collected in the UK. It was found that the social–psychological variables examined could account for 39% to 52% of the variation in the intention to cross the road, as illustrated in scenarios of three potentially dangerous road crossing behaviours.

Social and peer influences on pedestrian behaviour have been extensively studied in traffic research. Dannick [27] provided foundational evidence that when a pedestrian adheres to traffic laws, it significantly increases the likelihood that others also follow “don’t walk” signals. However, a model violating the law is observed to influence more pedestrians. Yagil [28] further developed this understanding through multivariate regression analysis. The findings indicate that crossing against a “Don’t walk” signal is influenced by perceived consequences of the behaviour, along with normative motives.

3.2. Cultural Factors

Cultural norms and community influence further shape pedestrian safety practices. Cultural factors, such as attitudes toward authority, perceptions of public space safety, and norms regarding pedestrian right-of-way, vary widely across different communities. These differences are particularly evident in cross-cultural comparisons. A study involving six countries, including Bangladesh, China, Kenya, Thailand, the UK, and Vietnam, employed a self-report measure of pedestrian behaviour. The results suggested that the relationships between safety attitudes and road user behaviours can vary across different cultures and countries [29].

China presents a notable case study. It was found that 40% of travel is completed on foot in China, and violations of traffic rules are common [30]. Zhuang and Wu [31] conducted a field observation involving 254 pedestrians on unmarked roadways in China, revealing that 65.7% of them do not check for vehicles after reaching the curb. A survey on jaywalking behaviour conducted in China found that past behaviour explained 42% of the variance in pedestrians’ intention to violate traffic laws [32]. Another survey conducted in China examined the effects of age, gender, and conformity tendencies on pedestrians’ intentions to cross the road in potentially hazardous situations, which showed that pedestrians have reported a greater likelihood of crossing when others are also crossing [11]. Furthermore, Chinese pedestrians report strong social influences from their family and friends, and they are concerned that engaging in this risky behaviour could lead to harm in a traffic accident [12].

Similar cultural effects appear in India. A study conducted in India found that pedestrian ignorance about traffic rules accounted for 22% of the reasons for pedestrian violation behaviour. To address this issue, road safety campaigns, education, and awareness programs are recommended to promote safer road use, particularly among young pedestrians [33].

While cultural background plays a key role in shaping pedestrian attitudes and behaviours, it is important to recognize that CALD populations are not homogeneous; behavioural norms, risk perceptions, and pedestrian practices can vary significantly across cultural backgrounds. For instance, individuals from countries with less regulated pedestrian environments may exhibit higher tolerance for risk-taking behaviours, such as crossing mid-block or ignoring pedestrian signals, compared to those from nations with stricter enforcement and pedestrian protections. Moreover, language proficiency, religious or gender-based mobility norms, and prior experiences with urban traffic systems can all influence how different CALD groups interpret and respond to road safety messages. Future pedestrian safety interventions should therefore be tailored with sensitivity to these intra-group differences.

3.3. Risk Perceptions

Risk perceptions, which are reflected in attitudes toward traffic rules, are another significant influence on pedestrian behaviour. Individuals with positive attitudes toward traffic regulations are more likely to comply with pedestrian safety guidelines, such as waiting for traffic signals and using crosswalks. On the other hand, those with negative attitudes or who perceive safety measures as inconvenient are more likely to engage in riskier behaviours. These different perceptions do not exist in isolation. They are often shaped by broader cultural factors. As demonstrated in a study conducted in Turkey, which examined the role of cultural factors and attitudes in pedestrian behaviour, it was found that positive safety attitudes were associated with lower levels of risk-taking pedestrian behaviour [34].

Perceptions of risk and attitudes toward traffic rules significantly affect pedestrian decision making processes. According to Li [35], risk-taking pedestrians are more sensitive than risk-averse pedestrians and thus are more likely to cross the street unsafely. Risk in crossing the road can be reflected in safety margins and time gaps, with pedestrians who maintain larger safety margins and longer time gaps being more cautious and taking fewer risks. A qualitative study conducted in Australia further examined how risk attitudes change with age [36]. It found that younger participants feel more confident in assessing risk, as they perceive themselves to be physically fit and quick to react, which makes them more likely to bend the rules.

Risk in crossing the road can be reflected in safety margins and time gaps, with pedestrians who maintain larger safety margins and longer time gaps being more cautious and taking fewer risks. A study conducted in India revealed that most pedestrians maintain safety margins between 1 and 4 s and accept gaps ranging from 2 to 6 s [37].

In addition to safety margins, other factors, such as cost and time savings, can also affect the way pedestrians cross the road. A survey conducted in Colombia indicated that pedestrians consider risks and costs when deciding how to cross roads [38]. The findings reveal that factors like waiting time, safety concerns, fines for jaywalking, personal security, and past experiences also play significant roles in shaping pedestrian behaviour when navigating urban roads. A study from India shows that a significant number of pedestrians (46%) violate the traffic signal to save time and for convenience [39]. Together, these findings reveal a complex decision making process involving risk perceptions.

3.4. Environmental Factors

The built environment and road infrastructure can significantly impact pedestrian safety. Urban design features, such as crosswalk placement and sidewalk width, influence pedestrian behaviour and risk exposure. Moreover, the quality of road infrastructure is crucial. Factors like insufficient lighting, poorly maintained sidewalks, and a scarcity of accessible crossing points all contribute to increased risks for pedestrians. Research has examined environmental factors that impact pedestrian behaviour. It reveals that approaching traffic volume and vehicle speeds significantly influence the pedestrian’s waiting time and the number of crossing attempts [40]. One study suggests using educational and public awareness campaigns to discourage pedestrians’ risky behaviour and promote safe road crossing practices.

Effective traffic control measures can improve pedestrian compliance with designated crossings. Research conducted in the US found that 74% of respondents agreed that the availability of pedestrian signals significantly influences their decision making [41]. The study recommends that city planners and traffic engineers prioritize pedestrian preferences and perceptions when designing efficient and pedestrian-friendly facilities. A study in Canada further emphasized the importance of evaluating how both traffic signal design and weather conditions affect pedestrians’ decision making and overall safety. It revealed that road crossing behaviour in inclement weather conditions is less safe compared to fine weather [42].

In addition to signal and weather conditions, the layout of road infrastructure and relevant urban design features also play a significant role in pedestrian behaviour. Bendak et al. [43] identify longer red pedestrian signal times and narrower roads as main factors that encourage pedestrians to cross during red signals. Another study evaluated more environmental factors, including lane width and intersection type [44]. The results indicate that, on average, pedestrians pay greater attention to approaching traffic before crossing wide streets compared to narrow streets. It also discovered that at non-designated crosswalks, pedestrians turned their heads toward traffic 81% of the time compared to 69% at zebra crossings and only 36% at signalized crosswalks. Additionally, Kweon et al. [45] found that the design of pedestrian environments, including the presence of sidewalks, buffer strips, and street trees, can affect people’s perceptions of pedestrian safety and their willingness to walk.

3.5. Technology Distractions

In contemporary society, pedestrians using mobile devices has become a common phenomenon. Lamberg and Muratori [46] claim that cell phones change the way people walk. Their study shows that the dual-task condition (i.e., walking while using a cell phone) impacts executive function and working memory, which may compromise safety. A study conducted in the US found that approximately 20% of walkers are distracted as they cross the street [47]. According to the analysis of pedestrian traffic fatalities in the US, distraction is identified as a contributing factor in pedestrian crashes. Retting [48] suggests that the increasing use of smartphones can significantly distract pedestrians.

Texting and talking on mobile phones while walking are the most frequently examined pedestrian distractions. Many studies indicate that engaging in phone conversations or texting adversely affects pedestrians’ ability to safely cross the road. For example, a study conducted in China using a logistic regression model found that pedestrians using mobile phones while crossing unsignalized intersections are at higher risk of accidents [49]. Similarly, research has shown that phone conversations negatively impact road crossing behaviours in a way that reduces safety [50]. Nasar and Troyer [51] found that using a mobile phone while walking puts pedestrians at risk of accident, injury, or death, which is supported by their analysis of hospital emergency data retrieved from the US Consumer Product Safety Commission from 2004 to 2010.

Listening to music or watching videos is another common source of distraction for pedestrians. In a virtual pedestrian environment study, participants who listened to music or texted while crossing were more likely to be struck by vehicles compared to participants who were not distracted [52]. These results remained consistent even after adjusting for demographic factors, frequency of walking, and how often participants used media. Thompson et al. [53] further investigated the influence of social and technological distractions on pedestrian crossing behaviour. They found that nearly one-third of observed pedestrians engaged in distracting activities, such as listening to music (11.2%), text messaging (7.3%), and using a mobile phone (6.2%). Text messaging posed the highest risk, as texting pedestrians are 3.9 times more likely than undistracted pedestrians to exhibit unsafe crossing behaviours.

In addition to mobile phone and media use, distractions from other technological devices or other sources of distraction are also identified. A pedestrian behaviour questionnaire (PBQ) survey conducted in Australia indicated that engagement with technologies demonstrated the highest mean scores among the four identified factors influencing pedestrian behaviour, which include unintentional errors, deliberate violations, aggression, and engagement with technologies [54]. Mwakalonge et al. [55] investigated how such distractions affect pedestrian road crossing behaviour. The authors claim that pedestrians, like drivers, often engage in multi-tasking, like using hand-held devices, listening to music, snacking, or reading while walking.

The psychological drivers of this behaviour are explained through the TPB. A Chinese study employing the TPB and online questionnaires explored how mobile devices may distract pedestrians and impact their behaviour [56]. The study revealed that using a mobile phone while crossing the street is very common in China, with 53% of respondents reporting such behaviour. It identified three standard TPB constructs (attitudes, intention, and perceived behavioural control) as significant predictors. Additionally, two other significant predictors were also identified: situation and mobile phone involvement.

3.6. Demographic Differences

Demographic differences in pedestrian behaviour have been widely studied, with three sub-themes being identified, including gender, age, and other factors, such as income, marital status, and family composition.

Gender has been widely identified as a key factor influencing pedestrian behaviour. Studies from various parts of the world have highlighted clear differences between the behaviours of male and female pedestrians. An early study conducted in Canada showed that women tend to be more inclined to exercise caution when crossing [57]. In Chile, men report more frequent violations of traffic rules compared to women [9]. An Indian study using video analysis showed that females generally wait longer than males to cross [58]. Similarly, research from the UK revealed that women are less likely to intend to cross in risky situations compared to men [59]. A study in Denmark using regression analyses showed that a higher proportion of younger women than men appreciate features like signalized crossings and street lighting [60]. A study conducted in the US revealed that pedestrian behaviour, which includes both aggressive and positive behaviours, is significantly influenced by gender [61]. An empirical study conducted in the UAE in recent years revealed that female pedestrians are more likely to engage in conversations while crossing, less likely to cross on red signals, and tend to walk at a slower pace compared to male pedestrians [43].

A study conducted in France further investigated gender differences in pedestrian rule compliance at both the temporal and spatial levels [62]. The results reveal that male pedestrians have a lower compliance rate with temporal crossing rules compared to females, although spatial crossing compliance does not differ between genders. Additionally, distinct gaze patterns are observed, as women tend to focus more on other pedestrians before and during crossing, whereas men focus primarily on vehicles.

Apart from gender, age also plays a crucial role in shaping pedestrian behaviour. An analysis of pedestrian crossing patterns in Jordan revealed that age and gender constitute the strongest behavioural determinants, significantly impacting both waiting time at crossings and frequency of crossing attempts [40]. A study conducted in India supports this by showing that females and older people tend to accept longer time gaps and have larger safety margins [37]. Similarly, an Australian study identified higher rates of risky behaviour among males and young adults [54]. Research in the US also found that women demonstrate higher levels of compliance in road crossing behaviour after receiving educational interventions [63].

Research consistently shows that older adults tend to be more cautious and less likely to engage in risky behaviour and that they prefer safer road crossing conditions [57,59,60]. These patterns are partly due to age-related declines in sensory, perceptual, and cognitive abilities, which Oxley et al. [64] identify as key contributors to older pedestrians’ vulnerability to crashes. Research on pedestrian safety in Australia [36] reveals that while younger participants are knowledgeable about road rules, they are also willing to bend rules. They express confidence in their ability to assess risks independently and feel physically capable and responsive. Similarly, Dıaz [9] found that young people perceive social norms as less restrictive and have a greater intention to engage in violations compared to adults.

The influence of different age groups on pedestrian behaviour was further demonstrated in a US study, which found that for aggressive behaviours, the only significant difference occurs between the youngest age group (18–30) and the oldest (45+). In contrast, for positive behaviours, the oldest group scored significantly higher than both younger age groups, including 18–30 and 30–45 [61]. Additionally, another study found that pedestrians between 16 and 39 years old are more likely to cross the road on red (either partly or fully) than other age groups [43].

In addition to age and gender, other demographic factors have also been found to influence pedestrian behaviour and safety outcomes. Papadimitriou et al. [65] examined three key demographic factors, including age, gender, and income. Their study found that low income can lead pedestrians to display more aggressive and less compliant behaviour. A study conducted in the US [63] identified additional significant demographic variables explaining pedestrian crossing behaviour. They are gender, age, marital status, driving frequency, and having children. Another US-based study [66] examined the factors contributing to increased pedestrian injuries and fatalities. It discovered that individuals from Black, Indigenous, and people of colour communities and those with lower incomes are associated with more pedestrian injuries.

4. Education Campaigns for Pedestrian Safety

Educational campaigns play an important role in raising public awareness and promoting behaviour change. This is especially true for road safety campaigns, either for encouraging safer driving practices [67,68] or improving pedestrian safety [63,69]. Assailly [70] outlines three primary objectives for road safety education: enhancing knowledge and comprehension of traffic rules and regulations, developing skills through practical training and experience, and influencing or modifying attitudes toward risk awareness, personal safety, and the safety of other road users.

Over time, the methods used to communicate these messages have evolved from traditional media campaigns to innovative digital interventions. This section explores the different approaches to pedestrian safety educational campaigns, examining how they have been applied, their challenges, and their impacts.

4.1. Traditional Media Campaigns

For many years, traditional media like television, radio, newspapers, and billboards have been key tools for delivering pedestrian safety messages. Among these, television advertising has received great attention due to its broad reach and visual impact. However, road safety campaigns that rely on mass media often encounter significant limitations. As several studies [71,72,73] have noted, these campaigns are often distributed during undesirable time slots and produced with a limited budget and marketing research. More importantly, many road safety communications are not designed based on any established behavioural change models [74].

Emotional appeals are commonly used in these campaigns to attract public attention. Lewis et al. [75,76] investigated the potential impact of positive versus negative emotional appeals in road safety television campaigns. Positive emotional appeals were found to be effective for promoting safe driving behaviours. While their research primarily focused on drivers, its insights can also shed light on potential applications in pedestrian safety campaigns. On the other hand, fear-based campaigns have also been found to be effective in changing attitudes and increasing awareness of the risks of drunk driving [68]. This aligns with findings from Twisk et al. [77], which show that pedestrian and cyclist safety programs relying on fear-based appeals are just as effective as those using informational and reasoning-based approaches.

In addition to mass media, other educational approaches have also been employed to improve pedestrian safety. According to Martin [78], educational programs are suggested to positively influence road user behaviour in London. These programs not only include communication channels, such as TV, radio, newspaper, magazine, posters, and leaflets, but also extend to more direct methods, such as formal classroom-based training and on-road training, which are also used to promote safe road use.

There is growing evidence supporting the effectiveness of interactive interventions. Hunt et al. [79] implemented a feedback-based training intervention to help road users better judge both the distance to and the speed of approaching vehicles. The results showed significant improvements in both the accuracy of speed estimations and the adequacy of gap-acceptance decisions when tested indoors on older adults. A study in the US [63] examined the effects of educational and interactive interventions on pedestrian crossing behaviour. The educational intervention involved distributing a printed document outlining key pedestrian safety facts, while the interactive intervention was based on group discussions and shared opinions. The study found that both instructional and interactive interventions can positively influence pedestrian crossing behaviour. Another US study also used printed materials to educate third-grade students. Berry and Romo [80] suggest that programs focusing on training children in real or simulated traffic environments may be more effective compared to those primarily focused on teaching safety facts and rules.

4.2. Technology-Enhanced Pedestrian Safety Interventions

As advertising methods evolve, there is growing interest in using modern communication strategies that involve social marketing to promote road safety. Wundersitz and Hutchinson [81] examined various innovative road safety advertising campaigns in Australia. Their findings indicate that target populations are more likely to engage with interactive communications focused on safety messages. Digital media platforms are particularly well-suited for these engaging formats, offering features like instant feedback, personalized content, and shareable multimedia. Reflecting this shift, the pedestrian safety campaigns launched in the US by the Federal Highway Administration use various media to deliver educational materials [82]. The campaigns use magazines, newsletters, newspapers, radio, and television to inform pedestrians about reducing safety risks and provide resources that clarify and enhance the operation of pedestrian facilities. Additionally, websites and other electronic media are heavily utilized to extend the campaign’s reach and engagement.

With advances in computer science, simulator-based training has become increasingly popular in pedestrian safety education, targeting vulnerable groups like children and the elderly. A study by Dragutinovic and Twisk [83] found that many pedestrian safety initiatives focus on children, particularly in high-income Western countries. They claim that practical training using computer support is effective when delivered to small groups of children. Similarly, Demetrem et al. [84] found that children trained on different road crossing simulations show significant transfer of skills between training tasks. For elderly pedestrians, Dommes and Cavallo [69] used simulator-based training on people aged 60 and above. Their combined behavioural and educational interventions resulted in significant differences immediately after training. They discovered that the intervention group crossed more quickly and used larger safety margins compared to the control group.

Innovative approaches making use of emerging technologies have greatly enhanced learner experience and engagement. Virtual reality (VR) technology has been extensively utilized across diverse fields of knowledge and industries, including education and public health [85,86,87]. More recently, the application of VR technology has expanded into the field of safety training. Schmidt and Glaser [88] investigated the use of VR to teach safety and public transport skills to adults with autism spectrum disorder. Their study concludes that VR is highly effective, providing a positive learning experience.

In the area of pedestrian safety, VR training has been introduced as a method to teach children street-crossing skills [89,90]. In a recent study, Schwebel et al. [91] conducted child pedestrian safety training via two different VR platforms and assessed the training outcomes. The results showed that nearly all children participants achieved adult-level crossing competency after several VR training sessions over both platforms. The analysis indicated that most children aged 7 and 8 can be successfully trained. On average, they required about 10 training sessions.

4.3. Road Safety and Pedestrian Safety Education Campaigns in Australia

Education and public awareness campaigns play a vital role in promoting pedestrian safety in Australia. Programs like Walk Safely to School Day and several state-level initiatives aim to educate both children and adults about safe walking practices [92]. These initiatives often focus on the dangers of distracted walking, particularly the use of mobile phones while crossing roads. Studies indicate that distractions can impair a pedestrian’s ability to perceive and react to oncoming traffic, thereby increasing the risk of accidents [46,51,52,53]. The effectiveness of these initiatives depends on strategic design and implementation. Shiwakoti et al. highlight that properly designed on-site road safety communication could change pedestrian behaviour, emphasizing the importance of using a well-established conceptual framework in the development and testing of road safety messages [93].

Research has established the need for comprehensive pedestrian safety education initiatives in Australia. O’Hern et al. [54] highlight the critical role of road safety campaigns in educating Australian pedestrians about avoiding potentially dangerous and distracting behaviours related to technology use. Hatfield et al.’s [94] observational study and survey conducted in Sydney metro and rural NSW further identified the need to address confusion regarding the rules and responsibilities associated with crossing pedestrians. It is recommended that education campaigns should be introduced to remind both the drivers and the pedestrians about their right-of-way and obligations.

Government and organizational efforts reinforce these educational campaigns. The Victorian Government, in partnership with TAC (Transport Accident Commission), has invested AUD 23 million in improving safety in high-traffic pedestrian areas and locations prone to pedestrian crashes [95]. An independent not-for-profit organization, Kidsafe Victoria, provides a range of pedestrian safety tips and resources to keep children safe around roads [96]. The Centre for Road Safety NSW created a series of campaigns to engage the community and encourage safer road behaviours [97]. One such campaign focusing on pedestrian safety emphasizes the importance of mutual awareness between pedestrians and drivers. It advises pedestrians to exercise caution when crossing the road and reminds drivers to stay alert and reduce speed for pedestrian safety.

4.4. Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Safety Interventions and Campaigns

While different types of educational interventions and public campaigns have been designed and implemented to promote pedestrian safety, their effectiveness is not always systematically evaluated. It is found that different empirical studies use different indicators to assess outcomes, such as knowledge improvement, behavioural change, and injury reduction. These differences make it challenging to compare results across studies.

Some studies rely on the assessment of improved safety knowledge. For example, Hunt et al. [79] used the measure of participants’ ability to estimate vehicle speed to evaluate their gap-acceptance accuracy after exposure to different intervention techniques. Berry and Romo [80] evaluated a child pedestrian safety program using a pre-test/post-test experimental design. They assessed changes in children’s safety knowledge and self-reported pedestrian behaviours. Although gains in knowledge were reported, the improved behaviour was found to be dependent on the individual teacher delivering it. This evaluation highlights the need for structured and standardized content.

Some studies focus more on direct behavioural observation. Mamun et al. [63] used traffic light compliance as an indicator to evaluate post-intervention street-crossing behaviour. Shiwakoti et al. [93] took the observed decrease in the proportion of jaywalkers as a sign of effective safety communication through on-site road safety posters. They found that the overall proportion of jaywalkers at selected locations dropped from 19% to 10%, and the difference was statistically significant.

Building on single-metric studies, Schwebel et al. [90] assessed pedestrian safety performance using three measures: the temporal gap before initiating crossing, the temporal gap remaining after crossing, and attention to traffic while waiting to cross. More measures were introduced by Dommes and Cavallo [69] to evaluate the effectiveness of combined behavioural and educational interventions on crossing decisions, with eight indicators, including the median accepted time gap (s), the initiation time (s), the crossing time (s), the safety margin (s), collisions (%), unsafe decisions (%), tight fits (%), and missed opportunities (%).

Recent research has incorporated cognitive and perceptual assessments into the evaluation of the effectiveness of pedestrian safety training. Schwebel et al. [91] examined the effectiveness of child pedestrian safety training in VR using four cognitive–perceptual skills: visual memory, visual perception, processing speed, and working memory. Additionally, the researchers also included parent-reported externalizing behaviours to capture a broader understanding of the intervention’s impact.

These studies demonstrate the value of using a range of well-defined, context-appropriate measures to evaluate campaign outcomes. Selecting the right indicators is critical to understanding effectiveness and guiding the development of evidence-based interventions.

5. Road Safety Strategy for CALD Communities

Improving road safety in CALD communities calls for strategies that are carefully designed and tailored to the target group. International and Australian research consistently shows that CALD groups are at greater road safety risk. This section examines the need for culturally responsive road safety strategies from both global perspectives and an Australian focus. Based on the review of international and Australian research, recommendations for strategy development are also provided.

5.1. Global Perspectives

Global research shows that foreign-born individuals are more vulnerable to road safety risks. Much of the existing evidence comes from the United States. A study in New York City found that neighbourhoods with a higher immigrant population, especially those from Latin America, Eastern Europe, and Asia, experience more crashes [3]. Similarly, a nation-wide study in the US discovered that individuals from Black, Indigenous, and people of colour communities and those with lower incomes are associated with more pedestrian injuries [66]. Another US-based study on pedestrian injuries highlighted the urgent need for intervention [4]. It revealed that apart from inadequate infrastructure, limited pedestrian education and language barriers are the major contributing factors.

As highlighted in the second section, social norms and cultural norms significantly influence pedestrian behaviour and safety. The term “Chinese Style Road Crossing” has gained great attention on social media since its creation in 2012. It describes the behaviour of a large group of Chinese pedestrians attempting to cross the road together, disregarding the traffic rules. This phenomenon of pedestrians running red lights is commonly observed in many Chinese cities, as well as in New York City [98]. To address the challenges associated with cultural differences and language barriers, the US Department of Transportation National Highway Traffic Safety Administration [99] provides a Pedestrian Safety Guide in Chinese.

Many other countries also acknowledge the importance of developing road safety strategies to accommodate the needs of CALD communities. In the UK, a study revealed that young Asians in Birmingham are twice as likely to be injured in pedestrian collisions [100]. In Sweden, a study discovered that foreign-born males run double the risk of being involved in a crash, while foreign-born females face a 70% higher risk compared to native-born individuals [101]. A review of international studies further indicates that the risk of involvement in a serious crash is higher for new arrivals [102].

5.2. Australian Focus

As Australia’s population is becoming more diverse culturally, CALD communities are playing an increasingly significant role in shaping society and contributing to various sectors. According to the 2021 census, 30.2% of Victorian households use a non-English language, which is significantly higher than the national average of 24.8% [103]. Mandarin is the most common non-English language used at home (3.4%), followed by Vietnamese (1.8%), Greek (1.6%), Punjabi (1.6%), and Italian (1.4%). Country of birth is another measure commonly used to define CALD status [104]. ABS data show that of all Victorian people, the top three countries of birth, excluding Australia, are India (4.0%), England (2.7%), and China (2.6%) [103].

Recognizing this diversity, the National Road Safety Strategy outlines specific actions to implement education campaigns to meet the road safety needs of CALD communities [105]. Young and Ooi [106] suggest that partnering with CALD communities offers opportunities to achieve desired outcomes by understanding their values around safety and by recognizing diverse approaches for problem solving.

Safety risks and challenges for CALD Groups have been commonly identified and discussed in Australia. A study on newly arrived migrants settling in the state of Victoria suggested that driver education programs are considered crucial for new arrivals [107]. An exploratory study reports that members of CALD communities have a higher risk of involvement in crashes in their new country [108]. Similarly, another study found that the risk of fatality and injuries due to road crashes is higher for both drivers and pedestrians who are born in foreign countries [109]. Both studies suggest that this increased risk may be due to difficulties in understanding local road rules and signage, as well as challenges adapting to different driving cultures, such as transitioning from right-hand to left-hand-side driving [108,109].

Several educational initiatives have been developed in Australia to support the road safety needs of CALD communities. For example, the Royal Automobile Club of Victoria (RACV) and the Transport Accident Commission (TAC) have initiated programs like a road safety video series with translations [110] and the New Arrivals Program [111] to address safety issues faced by new migrants. VicRoads, the agency responsible for registration and licensing services in Victoria, also offers various multilingual road safety resources [112]. Melbourne has a well-established Chinese community, with over 30% of Australia’s Chinese migrants choosing to reside there [113]. At the local level, the Whitehorse City Council provides road safety information available in Chinese on its website to support its large Chinese-speaking community [114].

A summary of these programs is provided in

Table 2. Examples of road safety initiatives in Australia and their relevance to the CALD population.

Initiatives	Details	Key Strengths	Limitations
RACV/TAC Multilingual Video Series	A series of road safety videos translated into multiple languages	Supported by experienced government bodies and road safety organizations	Content is directly translated; lacks cultural adaptation; limited focus on pedestrian safety
VicRoads Multilingual Road Safety Resources	Offer various road safety resources, including videos, handbooks, and fact sheets in multiple languages	Provide consistent multilingual support delivered by a government road authority	Generic messaging about road safety; limited cultural relevance
RACV New Arrivals Program	Safety training is designed for new migrants to gain driving experience	Addresses practical driving skills and safety gaps identified among new immigrants	Lacks pedestrian safety focus; limited attention to cultural norms or peer influences
Whitehorse City Council Web Resources	Road safety information for the local community is available in the Chinese language	On-demand access in a key CALD area (a popular residential community for Chinese migrants)	Passive engagement; content is auto-translated by Google’s web engine without any cultural adaptation; lacks details on pedestrian safety

. These initiatives demonstrate varying approaches to engaging CALD communities, each with its own strengths and different target audiences, ranging from community members to newly arrived migrants. However, most of those programs focus primarily on language accessibility. A common limitation across these programs is the lack of effort in addressing cultural differences in safety perceptions and practices. In addition, many initiatives focus broadly on general road safety or driver education, with limited content specifically addressing pedestrian safety. These findings highlight the need to develop context-specific and culturally tailored materials.

5.3. Knowledge Gaps, Recommendations, and Future Directions

Although some non-English media are used to promote road safety messages in Australia, these efforts remain limited in meeting the unique needs of CALD road users. An Australian study notes that existing road safety materials often fail to address broader cultural issues [108]. Dobson et al. [109] recommend developing educational materials to raise safety awareness among those immigrants at higher risk. Haworth et al. [115] suggest that road safety messages should either be culturally neutral to ensure broad generalizability or tailored specifically to resonate with each cultural group. To ensure effectiveness, Harrison and Tapsas [108] emphasize the importance of considering the target group’s culture norms and language skills when designing road safety programs for behaviour change.

Based on the identified gaps in current road safety education, we recommend taking a multi-phase, evidence-based approach to facilitate strategy development. The first phase involves a focus group discussion. Focus group discussions with CALD communities can help identify culturally specific needs and gaps in current road safety education. This method has proven effective in exploring people’s knowledge and experience, as demonstrated in the field of health research [116]. It also aligns with Dumas et al.’s recommendation to ensure that prevention programs work effectively across a broad range of culturally diverse target groups in the community [117]. The second phrase involves running public forums. Public forums not only provide a platform for broader community engagement but also offer an opportunity to validate the findings from earlier focus groups. A similar approach is used in Melbourne’s tram road safety project, where the tram driver focus group is consulted [118]. The third phase involves the implementation of a large-scale national survey. Similar methods have been used to evaluate the effectiveness of health education campaigns [119] and behaviour change intervention related to road safety [120]. Finally, the findings should be taken into account for policy adjustments, such as making dedicated efforts in structured community consultation and designing and delivering CALD-focused road safety educational programs.

As summarized in

Table 3. Key issues, challenges, and future research directions in pedestrian safety.

Critical Issues	Problems	Future Research Directions
Cultural Differences	CALD communities face higher pedestrian safety risks due to diverse road safety practices and attitudes.	Develop culturally responsive pedestrian safety frameworks incorporating local customs and norms.
Language Barriers	Limited understanding of road rules and signage increases risks for CALD pedestrians.	Investigate the effectiveness of multilingual safety campaigns and their adaptation to diverse cultural contexts.
Socioeconomic Disparities	Lower socioeconomic status in some CALD groups correlates with increased pedestrian injuries.	Explore tailored interventions considering socioeconomic inequalities and their impact on pedestrian behaviour.
Technological Distractions	Increased mobile phone use among CALD pedestrians contributes to higher accident rates.	Assess the effectiveness of digital literacy programs targeting distraction-related risks among CALD pedestrians.
Intergenerational Knowledge Gaps	Older CALD pedestrians may lack updated road safety knowledge, increasing their risk.	Study the impact of intergenerational educational programs on improving road safety awareness.
Social Norms and Peer Influence	Community norms may encourage risky crossing practices (e.g., group crossing against signals).	Conduct ethnographic studies to understand community-specific social norms affecting pedestrian safety.
Limited Safety Data	Lack of disaggregated data on pedestrian safety within diverse communities hinders targeted interventions.	Develop community-specific pedestrian safety datasets to identify high-risk patterns.
Educational Program Gaps	Road safety materials often overlook CALD-specific challenges.	Design and evaluate culturally tailored educational campaigns with participatory approaches.

, the analysis of pedestrian behaviour and safety in CALD communities reveals significant gaps related to cultural differences, language barriers, and socioeconomic factors. Future research should prioritize developing culturally responsive frameworks and evaluating tailored educational campaigns. There is a critical need for data-driven approaches that consider the diversity within CALD groups, including intergenerational differences and technological adaptation. Collaborative efforts involving CALD communities can improve the contextual relevance and effectiveness of safety interventions.

6. Limitations and Future Research

Despite its contributions, this review has several limitations that should be acknowledged. First, the study exclusively focuses on literature published in English, which may introduce language bias and limit insights from non-English research contributions. Future research could incorporate multilingual literature to gain a more comprehensive understanding of pedestrian safety issues across different regions.

Second, the review primarily relies on published journal articles and conference papers, excluding other valuable sources, such as technical reports, policy documents, and real-world case studies. Expanding the scope to include grey literature could provide a more holistic perspective on practical implementations and policy-driven interventions.

Third, while the review captures broad themes influencing pedestrian behaviour and safety, it does not employ a systematic review methodology with predefined inclusion criteria or meta-analytical techniques. Future studies could apply systematic or meta-analytical approaches to quantify the impact of various factors and interventions on pedestrian safety outcomes.

Fourth, the review does not account for real-time data and technological advancements in pedestrian safety, such as artificial-intelligence-driven risk assessments and smart infrastructure solutions. As technology continues to evolve, future research should examine the role of emerging innovations in enhancing pedestrian safety measures. Emerging technologies, such as VR and AR (Augmented Reality), offer more opportunities for pedestrian training. These technologies can help users develop road safety awareness and decision making skills in a safe and controlled environment [121,122]. This is particularly valuable for CALD communities, as such platforms can be tailored to address language barriers and cultural differences [123]. Likewise, emerging applications of artificial intelligence and sensor-based traffic systems in the field of Intelligent Transport Systems [124] may offer promising pathways for proactive pedestrian safety intervention.

Fifth, geographical variations in pedestrian safety policies and behaviours are not comprehensively analyzed. The review draws on studies from various countries, but a comparative analysis of regional and cultural differences through case studies could offer deeper insights into context-specific risk factors and effective interventions. Pedestrian safety conditions may vary considerably between urban and rural regions due to differences in infrastructure design, traffic volume, population density, and enforcement practices [125]. In metropolitan areas, pedestrian environments are typically supported by formal infrastructure, such as signalized crossings, footpaths, pedestrian overpasses, and traffic calming measures. In contrast, many rural and regional communities experience reduced access to pedestrian infrastructure. Rural roads often lack designated footpaths or controlled crossings, and lighting may be limited or absent. The visibility and maintenance of environmental design features, such as pavement markings, are crucial for road safety [126], especially at night or in poor weather conditions. Furthermore, rural communities may face barriers in accessing safety information and education programs, especially among CALD populations newly settled in regional areas through resettlement schemes. Recognizing these spatial disparities is essential for tailoring interventions.

Sixth, the study does not extensively address interactions between different road users, such as conflicts between pedestrians and autonomous vehicles or cyclists. As multimodal transportation becomes more prevalent, future research should investigate how pedestrian safety is influenced by interactions with other emerging mobility modes. For example, future research could examine how CALD pedestrians safely respond to fast-approaching e-scooters in shared spaces. Additionally, advancements in computer science and machine learning are contributing to more reliable predictions of pedestrian crossing behaviour. Recent studies have developed computational models that demonstrate promising results in accurate and timely prediction of pedestrian crossing intentions [127,128]. Integrating such technologies into future research could significantly enhance pedestrian safety performance in the context of autonomous driving.

Seventh, as found in this study, pedestrian safety challenges faced by CALD communities remain underexplored. Language barriers, cultural differences in road safety awareness, and limited access to pedestrian safety education can contribute to increased vulnerability among CALD populations. Future studies should investigate tailored safety interventions that consider linguistic accessibility and cultural sensitivities to improve pedestrian safety outcomes in these communities.

Eighth, the long-term impact of pedestrian safety interventions remains an open question. Most studies reviewed focus on short-term outcomes, whereas future research should explore the sustainability and effectiveness of safety measures over extended periods. Longitudinal studies and field experiments could provide valuable data on lasting behavioural changes and policy effectiveness.

Finally, while this review highlights key behavioural and cultural factors influencing pedestrian safety among CALD populations, it is important to acknowledge the limited availability of disaggregated crash or injury data across different cultural and linguistic groups. For example, in Australia, while national data show that Indigenous Australians (Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people) experience disproportionately higher rates of pedestrian injuries and fatalities [129], particularly in regional and remote areas, comparable statistics for other CALD communities remain sparse. This data gap limits the ability to make robust comparisons with the mainstream population or tailor interventions based on group-specific risk profiles. Future research should prioritize improved data collection practices that capture ethnicity, language background, and migration status in road safety reporting systems, enabling more nuanced and targeted approaches to policy and program design.

By addressing these limitations and exploring new research directions, future studies can further enhance the understanding of pedestrian behaviour and safety, especially by targeting CALD communities, contributing to more effective policies and interventions aimed at reducing pedestrian-related accidents and fatalities.

7. Conclusions

This literature review provides a comprehensive overview of the factors influencing pedestrian behaviour and safety, as well as education campaigns, with a distinctive focus on CALD communities. Drawing from behavioural models, such as the TPB, the TIB, the PMT, and the HBM, we classified six core categories of influence: social–psychological, cultural, risk perception, environmental, technological distractions, and demographic differences. While these categories offer a useful conceptual framework, we acknowledge overlaps—particularly among cultural, psychological, and risk-based dimensions—that highlight the complex interplay of internal and external factors shaping pedestrian decision making.

This review underscores the complexity of pedestrian behaviour, as highlighted by theoretical models, such as the TPB, the TIB, the HBM, and the PMT. These models provide valuable insights into the motivations and decisions that underlie pedestrian safety perspectives and actions. Key findings highlight that pedestrian behaviour is shaped by a complex interplay between factors. The identification of six key groups of influencing factors (including social–psychological, cultural, risk perceptions, environmental, technological distractions, and demographic differences) provides a comprehensive framework for understanding pedestrian behaviour. These insights lay the groundwork for developing targeted interventions, including culturally tailored and context-specific educational campaigns.

Our findings highlight that well-designed education campaigns can significantly improve pedestrian safety by raising awareness, influencing attitudes, and reducing risky attempts. Many campaigns focus on targeting vulnerable groups and incorporate tailored safety knowledge messaging. A growing trend is the increased emphasis on addressing distractions from technological devices, particularly mobile phone use. Campaign delivery methods are also evolving, ranging from traditional print and broadcast media to interactive formats, such as computer simulations and VR environments. It is critical to carefully select delivery methods that align with the target audience and campaign goals. In addition, culturally tailored and context-specific interventions remain essential to ensure relevance and engagement across diverse communities.

Our review of pedestrian education campaigns shows that although general programs can yield measurable safety benefits, their impact on CALD populations remains under-evaluated and likely limited by a lack of cultural tailoring. In Australia, several initiatives have sought to improve road safety awareness among CALD communities; however, these efforts are often fragmented, short-term, or insufficiently evaluated.

This review reveals that CALD groups often face higher risks of pedestrian injuries and fatalities due to factors like language barriers, unfamiliarity with local road rules, and differing cultural approaches to safety. As CALD populations grow, there is a critical need for tailored road safety education that considers cultural norms and language barriers. To enhance the real-world applicability of these findings, we propose several practical implementation pathways that transport planners, policymakers, and community organizations should consider:

• Localized co-design of pedestrian safety messages with CALD community leaders: We recommend developing culturally appropriate and linguistically accessible educational materials in collaboration with community organizations. Engagement with community elders, religious figures, or migrant support networks can foster trust and cultural relevance in road safety messaging. Co-designed campaigns are more likely to reflect linguistic nuances, behavioural norms, and values specific to each community, thereby improving message retention and compliance. These programs should be integrated into existing road safety initiatives. They can be piloted in areas with large CALD populations. To ensure effectiveness, before and after evaluations should be conducted using behavioural indicators and community feedback.
• Use of multilingual signage and tailored digital campaigns: Authorities should integrate multilingual pedestrian safety signage in areas with significant CALD populations and deploy culturally adapted online campaigns via social media and messaging apps (e.g., WhatsApp, WeChat). Tailored content could include visuals and video formats that reflect diverse demographics and urban walking contexts.
• Embedding inclusive engagement protocols into transport authority outreach: Transport departments and local councils should be required to report on inclusivity metrics, including the representation of CALD perspectives in pedestrian safety outreach programs and policy consultation. Providing bilingual translation services, interpreter support, and targeted outreach in community road safety education can ensure equitable access and engagement.

Embedding these implementation pathways within national and local transport strategies is essential to reducing pedestrian harm and fostering culturally responsive safety environments. Future research should prioritize co-evaluation methods that capture CALD-specific outcomes and explore how emerging technologies (e.g., AR/VR training modules or real-time hazard alerts) can further empower vulnerable pedestrian groups. Also, pedestrian safety strategies must move beyond “one-size-fits-all” approaches and consider regional context, ensuring that both metropolitan and non-metropolitan communities—especially those with vulnerable CALD populations—are adequately supported through appropriate infrastructure investment, culturally accessible education, and equitable policy implementation.

In conclusion, the insight gained from this review underscores the critical need for creating culturally sensitive and linguistically accessible educational materials for CALD communities. These findings highlight the potential for using theory-based and evidence-based methods to design impactful educational campaigns that foster long-term improvements in pedestrian safety. By integrating behavioural theory, empirical evidence, and equity-focused policy thinking, this review provides a foundation for more inclusive, effective, and evidence-informed approaches to pedestrian safety in multicultural societies, including Australia.