Managerial Mastery or Mere Misperception? Exploring the Dunning–Kruger Effect in Agricultural Businesses
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Literature Review
2.1. Managers
2.2. Managerial Competencies
2.3. Problem-Solving
2.4. Thinking Skills
2.5. Blockers of Problem-Solving and Thinking Skills
2.6. Cognitive Bias
2.7. The Dunning–Kruger Effect
2.7.1. Impact on Managers’ Skills
2.7.2. Antecedents
2.7.3. Outcomes
2.8. Conceptual Framework
2.9. Research Gap and Research Questions
- RQ1: Does the DKE manifest among managers?
- RQ2: What are the antecedents of the DKE among managers?
- RQ3: What are the consequences of the DKE among managers?
- RQ4: What is the perceived impact of the DKE on managers’ problem-solving and thinking skills?
3. Methods
3.1. Design, Data Collection Method, and Paradigm
3.2. Sample
3.3. Informed Consent
3.4. Interview Guide
3.5. Data Collection and Analysis
3.6. Rigour
4. Findings and Discussion
4.1. Demographic Summary of the Respondents
4.2. Dunning–Kruger Effect Manifestation in Businesses
4.2.1. Overestimation (Overconfidence) in Abilities
“I think the place where it mostly exhibits itself is whenever you give a task to someone that’s doing the task for the first time…”Participant 4
“…I think to a large extent, we do that sort of behaviour in the business, and that comes down to the Dunning–Kruger effect in my personal view.”Participant 7
“But that isn’t that what all managers do?”Participant 8
“From a Payroll perspective and HR perspective, I say to great extent…”Participant 10
“It does exist in our business…”Participant 12
“I made some notes just after lunch before the interview, so I would say I did go through the bias and, I would say, to a very large extent.”Participant 17
“It is there to some extent to some managers…”Participant 20
“Ja, ek dink verseker dit is verseker deel van ons besigheid. Ek sien dit baie met tak bestuurders wat ek mee werk…”Participant 13
“I think it has a large impact in the lower job grades, because it definitely does exist…”Participant 19
“…they don’t have the specific knowledge or even expertise to complete certain tasks or to reach deadlines with those certain tasks. It is definitely frustrating to see because they work with me, they are unfortunately paid the same as me but they don’t have what it takes to do the work to perform the tasks and it’s extremely frustrating to work with, it’s extremely frustrating to work with these people however they do always where they always feel overconfident in their abilities…”Participant 1
4.2.2. Underestimation (Underconfidence) in Skills
“To be honest, at the company I work for and especially the department I work in, I don’t think that people in general overestimate themselves; in fact, I think most of the people that work in my department underestimate themselves.”Participant 3
“Nee, ek dink nie dit gebeur te veel nie, ek sal eeder sê mense onderskat hulle abilities.”Participant 9
“…I think it actually exists in my perception on two levels. My first exposures, when you’ve given me the definition of what the Dunning–Kruger effect is, meaning that you overestimate your capabilities or maybe even underestimate. It was a few years ago where I, as a manager, had a performance review on employees, and I saw two individuals, according to my view, where they had the same level of academic experience or qualification of knowledge, they had the same level of years’ experience, but their performance levels were different…”Participant 3
4.3. DKE Impact on the Three Levels of Management
“…I would say it’s not as evident in my superiors.”Participant 4
“No, I don’t think so. I report to the CEO. So, he’s a CA, a chartered accountant.”Participant 6
“I have to say that I have not yet had this type of problem from the superiors.”Participant 16
“…that’s a bit difficult because I have to look at it at subordinate level.”Participant 4
“Maybe if it was one of their peers, maybe I would’ve seen it to a stronger degree, but I can’t say.”Participant 5
“…that’s a difficult one to answer because they also send you stuff to read, but they don’t interact that much with you…”Participant 8
“I think sometimes there is a feeling that some superiors always think they know best…”Participant 3
“I think especially the higher the management level I would say you can increasingly see it…”Participant 5
“Nobody will ever be as good, or as smart. So, definitely. I definitely see that in one of the superiors.”Participant 7
“…I have definitely seen this amongst colleagues…”Participant 1
“I think due to the age and experience of people you tend to see it in a lesser way amongst my peers, but you tend to see it more with the young people coming through.”Participant 12
“I think the challenge that we have is ego…”Participant 20
“I think with the subordinates it’s far better than with people that are on the same level with [me]…”Participant 20
“…the subordinates, I would say to a lesser degree, because they are still unsure and still learning and still strongly relying on the guidance of their supervisors.”Participant 5
“So, definitely amongst the subordinates, definitely that effect amongst my subordinates more so through the subordinates than the colleagues…”Participant 1
“But I would say, I see it especially in young sort of junior managers with little experience, which was for short period in roles.”Participant 12
“From my perspective, no it doesn’t exist. Yes, there is the exception of a junior…”Participant 14
4.4. Self-Reported Manifestation of DKE
“…if somebody asks you how to do something, say yes and learn how to do it later… Yes, it does exist in me as well; I’ll admit that.”Participant 1
“I always think I know more than I do, and I accept when I’m wrong, but I always fight till the end to make my point.”Participant 5
“I do yes, I do use it sometimes when I don’t have knowledge …”Participant 8
“It does, I think it exists within everyone. We all think we know a lot more than we actually do.”Participant 19
“…I definitely think I underestimate myself sometimes…”Participant 3
“Well I am also guilty in the parts of sometimes I need to do a bit of self-investigation by initially just think this is maybe a little bit over my head, I might just take a step down then if when you go and do it and see—evaluate yourself and say, okay but listen, man, you are up to this, give it a go.”Participant 11
“…I do personally find myself doubting my own capability…”Participant 17
4.5. DKE’s Non-Existence in Businesses
“…I think overall we’re at a good level and I think we’ve got the right people in the right positions.”Participant 6
“No, not at all.”Participant 18
4.6. Answering RQ1: Does the DKE Manifest Among Managers?
4.7. Conceptualising the Impact of the DKE in Business
4.7.1. Antecedents of the Manifestation of the DKE in Businesses
“… most certainly, people that I can think of that when you ask them about anything, they are the expert according to them, and they’re not open for debate on whether they know or not. They just believe they are.”Participant 5
“And they tend to say they apply past knowledge but sometimes they don’t have enough [knowledge]…”Participant 12
“It does show itself among colleagues, especially when they get involved in job skills that they’re not very ‘au fait’ with. You know, you often get people that actually have no knowledge of something that will tell you how to do your job.”Participant 19
“I think the challenge that we have is we still have ego…”Participant 20
“…those people all are really arrogant…”Participant 5
“And maybe not always look at it critically enough, and they don’t critique the thinking, you know, in different ways.”Participant 7
“… it affects the remaining open to continuous learning as well. If you think you know everything, why listen to others?”Participant 12
“… but I think life in general has just increased the pace of exposures and decisions that you have to take…”Participant 16
“…their knowledge are really limited to what they do, and, but those people all are really arrogant with regards to everyone else’s work…”Participant 15
“I think the misunderstanding on skills is based on misunderstanding on maybe not clear on the descriptive or the requirements by the employer.”Participant 2
“…so we’ve got our operations manager position vacant, it needs to be filled…”Participant 17
“…managers are purely brand new to the company have been approached through nepotism, and they manage people, and through that they don’t know what objectives would need to be reached…”Participant 1
“I’ve got the expectation that people know exactly what I’m meaning when I ask for something…”Participant 19
“En ek sê ʼn ou verloor bietjie kontak met iemand wat dalk dink in elk geval hy weet meer as wat jy weet, jy weet, of dalk aan neem jy weet wat jy weet.”Participant 13
“…you under-promise because you are afraid of failure. You sometimes make 200% sure…”Participant 12
“I don’t like letting people down…”Participant 11
“I would rather say that they don’t always believe or not always sure that they are on the right track and its sort of confirming “am I doing what you want me to do?”Participant 3
“They are all very skilled and educated people and we work in an audit environment.”Participant 3
“…this is a new position within [the business] and it’s on the job learning position. So, I go out of my way to upskill myself with regards to this position…”Participant 20
4.7.2. Answering RQ2: What Are the Antecedents of the DKE Among Managers?
4.7.3. Outcomes of the DKE in Businesses
“… when you find that stumble block, you problem-solve quickly…”Participant 7
“As I said, they tend to jump to conclusions.”Participant 12
“…shoot from the hip and show everybody what she’s done, and it’s actually incorrect.”Participant 19
“So, we do what we do, but I mean it is counterproductive…”Participant 5
“My problem is I can never say no to people and that puts me in a very bad situation sometimes trying to keep up to date.”Participant 10
“…over-believer he will go and do [it] the way, and he will mess it up, and he will need to step back and then do it over again.”Participant 11
“…we’re not in a position where we can make suggestions to do things better, because they know better, but they don’t.”Participant 5
“… the people that I am on the same level with have been with within [the business] for so long so now they feel like they are too comfortable.”Participant 20
“They’re also blame-shifters. There’s always another scapegoat. They’re never wrong. They’re never the ones who take responsibility… ”Participant 5
“…certain activities that are given to them is passed on to people that know how to do it”Participant 10
“So, we are a service division that delivers to this department, and the people refuse to work with them just because of the way they do things…”Participant 5
“…it leads to wrong decisions, because they don’t delve into the problem enough… they don’t really get to the root cause if they think they’ve got their answer.”Participant 12
“…our staff turnover was quite high… it’s actually a very big challenge…”Participant 15
“So, there isn’t any continuous training or continuous improvement expected from their side as well.”Participant 20
“…they losing their subordinates’ respect because of the decisions that they making…”Participant 1
“…it makes me really upset. It makes everyone upset.”Participant 5
“I think most of the time there is a feeling that they want to really make sure that they on the right track with the work that they doing and I often have to reassure them…”Participant 3
“I definitely have to think if somebody over or underestimates themselves it can have a huge effect on how you need to manage people or the speed at which tasks are completed and completed accurately.”Participant 3
“…they would seldom help people and say: “You are wrong”, Maybe they would make suggestions, but in such a subtle way…”Participant 5
“I’d say new problems yes, not day-to-days, ’cause day-to-days is like a part of who you are by now, but new problems, yes, ’cause then you might overestimate yourself…”Participant 4
“So sometimes just believing in yourself, and in your abilities, without really knowing, that can push you to complete a task that might have looked very difficult in the beginning.”Participant 7
“…as iemand hom oorskat dan is dit mos eintlik goed, dan gee hy mos nou meer as wat hy het, wat hy eintlik kan gee.”Participant 9
“…they don’t have the expertise, experience or knowledge to complete the certain tasks even though they do feel confident in them, they feel that they are up to the task up to the challenge and everything which is sort of inspirational to see.”Participant 1
4.7.4. Answering RQ3: What Are the Consequences of the DKE Among Managers?
4.7.5. Answering RQ4: What Is the Perceived Impact of DKE on Managers’ Problem-Solving and Thinking Skills?
5. Managerial Implications and Recommendations
6. Contributions, Limitations, and Research Implications
7. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Thematic Category | Description |
---|---|
Main category 1: Antecedents | This main category encapsulates all the precursors of the manifestation of DKE in businesses according to the lived experience of managers. This main category contains two categories due to the two distinct manifestations of the DKE. The primary, and therefore the first category, is an overestimation of one’s ability when compared to others. This category has seven subcategories, of which the last sub-category is made up of three secondary sub-categories. The second category is the underestimation of one’s skills when compared to others, and it consists of four sub-categories. Quotes that convey these views are grouped under this main category. |
Category 1.1: Overestimation in relation to others | This main is the manifestation of the DKE and is known to be spurred by surface-level knowledge/skill, causing overconfidence in self-assessment due to limitations in the sufferers’ comprehension of the scope and depth of the domain. |
Sub-category 1.1.1: Double burden | A sub-category that denotes that managers’ overconfidence in their skills is caused by the same thing that perpetuates it. |
Sub-category 1.1.2: Ego | An unduly inflated perception of self leads to the DKE. |
Sub-category 1.1.3: Learning avoidance | Assuming that there is nothing left to learn, or being closed to the idea of continuous learning, propels the DKE in businesses. |
Sub-category 1.1.4: Meta-ignorance | A profound lack of metacognition precedes the rise of the DKE. |
Sub-category 1.1.5: Changing business world | Failure to be kept abreast with the constantly changing business environment drives the DKE. |
Sub-category 1.1.6: Unrelated expertise | Being a true expert in different, unrelated domains can be extrapolated to cause the DKE. |
Sub-category 1.1.7: Human resource management practices | Certain policies and practices by the human resources department can pre-empt the occurrence of the DKE. These include vague role expectations, pressure to fill vacancies and nepotism. |
Secondary sub-category 1.1.7.1: Vague role expectations | Unclear role descriptions cause unclear expectations of that role and ultimately unsuited fillers of that role and unsatisfactory performance in the role. |
Secondary sub-category 1.1.7.2: Pressure to fill vacancies | Pressure to fill vacancies causes rushed recruiting and placing of managers in roles that they are not fit to fulfil. |
Secondary sub-category 1.1.7.3: Nepotism | Hiring based on relationships instead of talent causes mismatched placement of managers. |
Category 1.2. Underestimation in relation to others | Although it is often less emphasised, the DKE is also shown when knowledgeable people underestimate their own abilities. This happens even though the sufferers are aware of the scope and depth of the domain; they erroneously assume that this awareness is commonplace. This limits their confidence in their self-assessment in comparison to others. |
Sub-category 1.2.1: Perception that being skilled is common | The view that competence is ubiquitous. |
Sub-category 1.2.2: Fear of failure | Some individuals’ fear of failure causes them to underestimate themselves when compared to others. |
Sub-category 1.2.3: Operating in a specialised domain | Functioning in an environment that is characterised by speciality education or expertise can be a breeding ground for underestimation. |
Sub-category 1.2.4: Being newly promoted | Managers who are new to their managerial roles are susceptible to notions of imposter syndrome. |
Main category 2: Outcomes | The second main category mostly captures participants views of the consequences of the DKE in business; however, some participants highlighted some positive outcomes of the manifestation of the cognitive bias. Since the DKE manifests in two separate manners, the consequences are also separated according to overestimation and underestimation of managerial skills. |
Category 2.1. Consequences of overestimation in relation to others | This category includes 10 sub-categories, which outline the impact of the DKE relating to overconfidence in managers’ skills compared to the skill level of others. |
Sub-category 2.1.1: Jumping to conclusions | Rushing the processes to find a quick solution is a result of the DKE. |
Sub-category 2.1.2: Lowered productivity and time being wasted | The DKE causes time wastage and hinders productivity in businesses. |
Sub-category 2.1.3: Complacency | After some time, sufferers and those around them do not seem to be as bothered by the DKE and its impact as they should be, making it unlikely that the cognitive bias will ever be addressed. |
Sub-category 2.1.4: Shrugging responsibilities | This sub-category is a result of the DKE where sufferers neglect their responsibilities and includes blame-shifting. |
Sub-category 2.1.5: Lowered team cohesion | These consequences are related to decreased team formation and dynamics. |
Sub-category 2.1.6: Ill-defined problems | This sub-category entails the erroneous formation and depth of problem identification and the root causes of the problems. |
Sub-category 2.1.7: Increased staff turnover | Codes that covered quotes related to decreased employee retention formed this sub-category. |
Sub-category 2.1.8: Staggered skills development | On a larger scale, the DKE hampers the skill development within businesses. Perceptions related to that are covered under this sub-category. |
Sub-category 2.1.9: Loss of subordinate respect | The lack of deference expressed and perceived by participants is captured by this sub-category. |
Sub-category 2.1.10: Frustration | Perceptions of discontent and anger are covered by this sub-category. |
Category 2.2. Consequences of underestimation in relation to others | This category includes three sub-categories which outline the impact of the DKE relating to underestimation of managers’ abilities as compared to those of others. |
Sub-category 2.2.1: Overly cautiousness in decision-making | Underconfidence results in managers being overly prudent during their decision-making. |
Sub-category 2.2.2: Reduced speed and accuracy of task execution | The utterances related to the decreased rapidness and precision of managers’ task execution are encapsulated by this sub-category. |
Sub-category 2.2.3: Ambiguous feedback | Suffering from this form of the DKE causes managers to be vague in their feedback-giving practices and withhold feedback. |
Category 2.3. Positive outcomes | Here, the positive outcomes, as highlighted by the participating managers, are covered in two sub-categories. |
Sub-category 2.3.1: Over performance | Overconfidence can lead to overperformance since the participants believe that it can allow sufferers of the DKE to function beyond their limits. |
Sub-category 2.3.2: Inspiration to others | Performing beyond one’s limits is seen as inspirational; this point of view was captured by sub-category 2.3.2. |
Appendix B
Main Category 1: ANTECEDENTS | |||
---|---|---|---|
Category 1.1: Overestimation in relation to others | |||
Sub-categories | Secondary sub-categories | F | Example quotes |
Sub-category 1.1.1: Double burden | 8 | “… most certainly, people that I can think of that when you ask them about anything, they are the expert according to them, and they’re not open for debate on whether they know or not. They just believe they are.”—Participant 5 “And they tend to say they apply past knowledge but sometimes they don’t have enough, and it affects the remaining open to continuous learning as well.”—Participant 12 “It does show itself among colleagues, especially when they get involved in job skills that they’re not very au fait with. You know, you often get people that actually have no knowledge of something that will tell you how to do your job.”—Participant 19 | |
Sub-category 1.1.2: Ego | 5 | “So definitely more amongst the subordinates even though they do feel overconfident sometimes … but they unfortunately don’t have what it takes yet…”—Participant 1 “…those people all are really arrogant…”—Participant 5 “I think the challenge that we have is we still have ego…”—Participant 20 | |
Sub-category 1.1.3: Learning avoidance | 2 | “…they need to be more curious about what they doing.”—Participant 2 “… it affects the remaining open to continuous learning as well. If you think you know everything, why listen to others?”—Participant 12 | |
Sub-category 1.1.4: Meta-ignorance (Lack of metacognition) | 2 | “They won’t even wonder. They will just say: “Whoever’s wrong.” I don’t think they lie awake and wonder about it. They’re not wrong, and there’s nothing to challenge.”—Participant 5 “And maybe not always look at it critically enough and they don’t critique the thinking, you know, in different ways.”—Participant 7 | |
Sub-category 1.1.5: Changing business world | 1 | “I think society, but I think life in general has just increased the pace of exposures and decisions that you have to take…”—Participant 16 | |
Sub-category 1.1.6: Unrelated expertise | 1 | “…their knowledge are really limited to what they do, and, but those people all are really arrogant with regards to everyone else’s work…”—Participant 15 | |
Sub-category 1.1.7: Human resource management practices | Secondary sub-category 1.1.7.1: Vague role expectations | 2 | “I think the misunderstanding on skills is based on misunderstanding on maybe not clear on the descriptive or the requirements by the employer.”—Participant 2 “… it really overlaps on to that because the HR feels that Payroll knows everything and Payroll feels that HR know everything.”—Participant 10 |
Secondary sub-category 1.1.7.2: Pressure to fill vacancies | 2 | “…so we’ve got our operations manager position vacant, it needs to be filled…”—Participant 17 “…maybe there is a post that is open unexpectedly and you will need someone to cover it up for the next 2 months or so and if you happen to be in that space the employee would be required to do a little bit extra and it will happen that during that time the employee can accept but at the same time they can be overwhelmed, so that’s where it shows…”—Participant 2 | |
Secondary sub-category 1.1.7.3: Nepotism | 1 | “…managers are purely brand new to the company have been approached through nepotism and they manage people and through that they don’t know what objectives would need to be reached…”—Participant 1 | |
Category 1.2: Underestimation in relation to others | |||
Sub-category 1.2.1: Perception that being skilled is common | 4 | “I’ve got the expectation that people know exactly what I’m meaning when I ask for something…”—Participant 19 “En ek sê ʼn ou verloor bietjie kontak met iemand wat dalk dink in elk geval hy weet meer as wat jy weet, jy weet, of dalk aan neem jy weet wat jy weet.”—Participant 13 | |
Sub-category 1.2.2: Fear of failure | 3 | “I would rather say that they don’t always believe or not always sure that they are on the right track and its sort of confirming “am I doing what you want me to do?”—Participant 3 “I don’t like letting people down…”—Participant 11 “…you under-promise because you are afraid of failure. You sometimes make 200% sure…”—Participant 12 | |
Sub-category 1.2.3: Operating in a specialised domain | 2 | “They are all very skilled and educated people and we work in an audit environment.”—Participant 3 “IT department they are willing, 90 percent of them to go and do the research and come with the true facts…”—Participant 14 | |
Sub-category 1.2.4: Being newly promoted | 2 | “…the subordinates, I would say to a lesser degree, because they are still unsure and still learning…”—Participant 5 “…this is a new position within [the business] and it’s on the job learning position. So, I go out of my way to upskill myself with regards to this position…” —Participant 20 |
Appendix C
Main Category 2: OUTCOMES | |||
---|---|---|---|
Categories | Sub-categories | F | Example quotes |
Category 2.1. Consequences of overestimation in relation to others | Sub-category 2.1.1: Jumping to conclusions | 17 | “… when you find that stumble block, you problem-solve quickly…”—Participant 7 “As I said, they tend to jump to conclusions.”—Participant 12 “…moet al die inligting bymekaar kry om besluite te maak. Jy weet, en as jy dit nie doen nie en jy gebruik, soos wat ek nou daar sien ook, jy weet, jy gebruik nie jou sintuie en jy gebruik nie dit wat jy weet al hierdie hulp middels om vir jou inligting bymekaar te maak om ʼn besluit te maak, gaan dit verseker ʼn invloed het op jou besluitneming.”—Participant 13 “It’s wrong.” He said, “Yeah, I never said I was accurate I just said I was fast.” So, that’s probably the type of effect that you would have in problem-solving…”—Participant 16 “…shoot from the hip and show everybody what she’s done, and it’s actually incorrect.”—Participant 19 |
Sub-category 2.1.2: Lowered productivity and time being wasted | 16 | “…you won’t make effective discissions and you won’t get to the result that you need to ja so it’s definitely important to calibrate yourself…”—Participant 3 “So, we do what we do, but I mean it is counterproductive…”—Participant 5 “My problem is I can never say no to people and that puts me in a very bad situation sometimes trying to keep up to date.”—Participant 10 “…over-believer he will go and [it] do the way, and he will mess it up, and he will need to step back and then do it over again.”—Participant 11 “…also think that’s the only thing they gonna do without looking at targets or making sure they’re actually on the right track.”—Participant 15 “It does because we all have to scramble to redo it in order to meet deadlines.”—Participant 19 | |
Sub-category 2.1.3: Complacency | 9 | “So, when they do take up the tasks, where they do take up the problems or whatever I can almost hear them say: “[Participant], so you’re gonna help us out with this?’”—Participant 1 “…we’re not in a position where we can make suggestions to do things better, because they know better, but they don’t.”—Participant 5 “I don’t think it’s a lack it is just, maybe more of a cultural thing. You don’t just do it you need to be told to do it.”—Participant 11 “… the people that I am on the same level with have been with within [the business] for so long so now they feel like they are too comfortable.”—Participant 20 | |
Sub-category 2.1.4: Shrugging responsibilities | 7 | “They’re also blame-shifters. There’s always another scapegoat. They’re never wrong. They’re never the ones who take responsibility… “—Participant 5 “…certain activities that are given to them is passed on to people that know how to do it”—Participant 10 “…we busy working on and trying to make sure that the manager actually realised that he is also responsible to make sure that whatever instruction you give is actually met.”—Participant 15 | |
Sub-category 2.1.5: Lowered team cohesion | 7 | “So, we are a service division that delivers to this department, and the people refuse to work with them just because of the way they do things…”—Participant 5 “…to get them working as a unit, it’s quite a challenge as well.”—Participant 6 “…it’s wrong because you have to have the whole team’s advice to get to the end destination…”—Participant 8 “I think it leads to, people tend to bypass them… It irritates their peers…”—Participant 12 | |
Sub-category 2.1.6: Ill-defined problems | 6 | “… as ʼn persoon homself onderskat dan gaan hy nie regte denk rigting hê nie, want hy voel hy weet nie regtig nie. ʼn Persoon wat homself oorskat kan dalk ʼn denk rigting hê maar hy het nie die nodige vaardighede en ondervinding nie so hy gaan ook die verkeerde denk rigting moontlik ingaan.”—Participant 9 “…it leads to wrong decisions, because they don’t delve into the problem enough… they don’t really get to the root cause if they think they’ve got their answer.”—Participant 12 “…he think he’s got the right answer on a big problem, but it isn’t a right answer. The result of what he’s thinking could have a big problem at the end of such a project, because if he had the right thinking and the right information at the start and he know it is the right thing, the project could have been, or the problems in the project could have been solved at the start of the project and not play out ‘til the end.”—Participant 14 | |
Sub-category 2.1.7: Increased staff turnover | 5 | “…if they fail to identify the gaps then they become incompetent. You see that by… a loss of talent…”—Participant 2 “…our staff turnover was quite high…it’s actually a very big challenge…”—Participant 15 “And unfortunately, we lost her. I think ja, we lost her and she was gone forever and she was a diamond, she was a girl with potential.”—Participant 20 | |
Sub-category 2.1.8: Staggered skills development | 3 | “So, there isn’t any continuous training or continuous improvement expected from their side as well.”—Participant 20 “And he would typically say he is always open for feedback, but he’s not. He’s lying.”—Participant 5 | |
Sub-category 2.1.9: Loss of subordinate respect | 3 | “…they’re losing their subordinates’ respect because of the decisions that they making…”—Participant 1 “I don’t think this person should have been a leader…”—Participant 20 | |
Sub-category 2.1.10: Frustration | 3 | “It is frustrating because you are teaching a person that should actually understand from the start. You are giving knowledge to a person that should know what is going on and I mean at the end of the day who is the manager?”—Participant 1 “…it makes me really upset. It makes everyone upset.”—Participant 5 | |
Category 2.2. Consequences of underestimation in relation to others | Sub-category 2.2.1: Overly cautiousness in decision-making | 3 | “I think most of the time there is a feeling that they want to really make sure that they on the right track with the work that they doing and I often have to reassure them…”—Participant 3 “…you would never even know that they’re disagreeing with you…”—Participant 5 |
Sub-category 2.2.2: Reduced speed and accuracy of task execution | 2 | “I definitely have to think if somebody over or underestimates themselves it can have a huge effect on how you need to manage people or the speed at which tasks are completed and completed accurately.”—Participant 3 “…even though they think it’s a stupid suggestion, they would never say that. So, and they would also in such a gentle way say: “Ah, that’s a great idea, but maybe we can do something that’s the total opposite”—Participant 5 | |
Sub-category 2.2.4: Ambiguous feedback | 1 | “…they would seldom help people and say: “You are wrong”, Maybe they would make suggestions, but in such a subtle way…”—Participant 7 | |
Category 2.3. Positive outcomes | Sub-category 2.3.1: Over performance | 2 | “So sometimes just believing in yourself, and in your abilities, without really knowing, that can push you to complete a task that might have looked very difficult in the beginning.”—Participant 7 “…as iemand hom oorskat dan is dit mos eintlik goed, dan gee hy mos nou meer as wat hy het, wat hy eintlik kan gee.”—Participant 9 |
Sub-category 2.3.2: Inspiration to others | 1 | “…they don’t have the expertise, experience or knowledge to complete the certain tasks even though they do feel confident in them, they feel that they are up to the task up to the challenge and everything which is sort of inspirational to see.”—Participant 1 |
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Participant | Gender | Province | Years of Management Experience | Functional Area |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Male | North-West | Five | Financial department |
2 | Male | Gauteng | Two | Operations department |
3 | Female | North-West | 10 | Financial department |
4 | Male | Western Cape | Two | Financial department |
5 | Female | North-West | Two | Human resources department |
6 | Male | North-West | 18 | Marketing department |
7 | Male | North-West | 18 | Executive—Managing director |
8 | Male | North-West | Six | Operations department |
9 | Male | North-West | 26 | Operations department |
10 | Female | Western Cape | 15 | Human resources department |
11 | Male | Western Cape | 16 | Executive—Regional manager |
12 | Male | Gauteng | 25 | Operations department |
13 | Male | Free State | 25 | Operations department |
14 | Male | North-West | 18 | Financial department |
15 | Female | Gauteng | 18 | Executive—General manager |
16 | Male | North-West | 15 | Information Technology department and Executive—Managing director |
17 | Male | Free State | 18 | Human resources department |
18 | Male | Free State | 12 | Operations department |
19 | Female | Free State | 14 | Marketing department |
20 | Female | Free State | Eight | Human resources department |
Variables | n | Portion | |
---|---|---|---|
Gender | Female | 6 | 30% |
Male | 14 | 70% | |
Experience | 1–5 years | 4 | 20% |
6–10 years | 3 | 15% | |
11–15 years | 4 | 20% | |
16–20 years | 6 | 30% | |
21–25 years | 0 | 0% | |
25+ years | 3 | 15% | |
Functional areas | Executive | 4 | 20% |
Financial | 4 | 20% | |
Human resources | 4 | 20% | |
Marketing | 2 | 10% | |
Operational | 6 | 30% | |
Province | Free state | 5 | 25% |
Gauteng | 3 | 15% | |
North-West | 9 | 45% | |
Western Cape | 3 | 15% |
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Longweni, M.; Meintjes, A. Managerial Mastery or Mere Misperception? Exploring the Dunning–Kruger Effect in Agricultural Businesses. Sustainability 2025, 17, 5951. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17135951
Longweni M, Meintjes A. Managerial Mastery or Mere Misperception? Exploring the Dunning–Kruger Effect in Agricultural Businesses. Sustainability. 2025; 17(13):5951. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17135951
Chicago/Turabian StyleLongweni, Mpumelelo, and Aloe Meintjes. 2025. "Managerial Mastery or Mere Misperception? Exploring the Dunning–Kruger Effect in Agricultural Businesses" Sustainability 17, no. 13: 5951. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17135951
APA StyleLongweni, M., & Meintjes, A. (2025). Managerial Mastery or Mere Misperception? Exploring the Dunning–Kruger Effect in Agricultural Businesses. Sustainability, 17(13), 5951. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17135951