Strengthening of the Rural Community and Corn Food Chain Through the Application of the WWP Model and the Integration of CFS-RAI Principles in Puebla, México

Abstract

Strengthening producer groups, the rural community, and agri-food chains are important actions to help solve the problem of food poverty, improve the living conditions of producers and promote sustainable development in rural México. It is necessary to seek new ways to improve decision-making by producer groups and establish some principles to strengthen the different links in agri-food chains. The objective of this study was to analyze the integration of the Principles for Responsible Investment in Agriculture (PRIA) in the corn agri-food chain in order to assess its strengthening. A study was carried out in three cases based on the application of the “Working With People” (WWP) model as well as interviews with key actors. It was found that cooperating groups with a higher degree of application of the WWP model and PRIAs have a higher degree of stability and sustainable development and strengthen the integration and cooperation of local action groups. These groups have the technical component better organize the agri-food processes and better incorporate the PRIAs and improve their economic, social, and environmental development compared to other groups that do it in a traditional way.

1. Introduction

Based on data from the Agricultural Census (2022) of the National Institute of Statistics and Geography of Mexico (Spanish acronym INEGI) [1,2], shown in

Table 1. Characteristics of the Production Units at the national level and in Puebla State.

Elements	National, México	State, Puebla
Total production units	4,440,265	440,752
Surface area for agricultural use (ha)	26,104,422.68	1,015,173.77
Sown area (ha)	20,547,097.17	926,890.58
Receiving “senior adults” support	895,837	85,728
Tractor use	1,793,338	187,816
Credit use	265,508	14,437
Insurance use	78,140	621

Source: INEGI, 2022. [1,2].

, it is possible to demonstrate that agricultural activity both nationally and in the state of Puebla are important activities, especially for producers living in agricultural and very agricultural regions in these two areas. The most predominant crops in these regions are corn and beans, planted under rainfed conditions, whose production is destined for self-consumption and a surplus that is sold in the local market. The production levels obtained in these crops are low, although there is evidence, as has been documented among corn producers in Tlaltenango, Puebla [3], that shows high levels of grain and forage yields in corn, when the available technology is applied with greater precision. However, it is important to highlight the poor relationship between the area planted and the low use of agricultural machinery, insurance, and agricultural credit, strategic components for regional agricultural development.

In addition to the low use of machinery and factors related to financing, Mexican agriculture faces a set of specific problems that further affect the income levels of the population engaged in agricultural activities. Based on Figure 1, a group of problems detected by the production units can be observed; however, there are some that, according to the opinion of the production units, have a greater impact on food production. Among these are (1) climatic and biological factors, (2) the high costs of inputs and services, (3) difficulties in marketing products after the pandemic, and (4) insecurity problems. The perception of the production units with respect to this problem indicated that more than 88.8% considered that the high costs of inputs and services and climatic and biological problems were the factors that most affected Mexican agriculture.

The limitation that most affects the production units cannot be addressed from an individual perspective; it requires a group effort. In this sense, the experience generated in the processes of strengthening producers and rural communities indicates that the “Working White People” (WWP) model and the proposal developed in the territory under study, considering associativity and organization, the latter considered as a company, are the most appropriate tools to reduce the intensity of this limitation on production and towards the strengthening of the rural community. De los Ríos [4] and Cazorla [5] point out that the WWP model is presented as a conceptual proposal to address the integrated approach to rural prosperity, based on the consideration of three dimensions: political-contextual, technical–entrepreneurial, and ethical–social. These three dimensions of the model can be synthesized into two central concepts: partnership and enterprise. The origin and integration of these concepts go back to the work developed by Smith [6] in 1962. In his discussion on the importance of separating associations and institutions, he points out that, in 1949, MacIver [7] mentioned that when “man creates associations he must also create rules and procedures for the handling of common affairs and for the regulation of the activity of the members among themselves, such forms are: indistinctly institutions”. In the work developed by Hodgson [8], it is mentioned that organizations are a special type of institutions that stand out for establishing chains of orders that define the responsibilities within the organization, an important feature of a company.

On the other hand, Niño [9] points out that in order to understand the role of both concepts and their application in the process of social development, it is necessary to define them. In this sense, and through an intellectual process, he established that an association is an “instrument to establish purposes, to constitute and develop as a collective subject and to join forces or individual powers to form a greater power, sufficient to relate positively and successfully with other subjects on the way to the realization of the purposes established by the partners themselves”. Instead, “an organization is just a company, that is, a space that can have different dimensions but that does not vary in terms of its generic objective: the maximization of economic profit”. The integration of both concepts to build social development processes at the territorial level makes it possible to consolidate the strengthening of rural communities in the territory through the application of Principles of Responsible Investment in Agriculture and Food Systems (CFS-RIA) [10]. With this integration, it is possible to improve the production, transformation and consumption stages of the maize agri-food chain in rainfed conditions [11]. In this process of improvement, the principles of (1) food security and nutrition, (2) economic development, and (9) governance and accountability [10] are considered. Albisu [12] mentions that agri-food chains perform their functions from the moment a product starts from its raw materials until it is consumed, along with what are known as the links.

From the point of view of socioeconomic reality, the agri-food chain is understood as a system that groups interrelated economic and social actors who participate in activities that add value to a good from its production until it reaches the consumers [11]. The Catalan Food Safety Agency [13] considers that, in the food chain, the production stage is a very important initial phase; however, once the product is obtained, the transformation and distribution phases begin. In the latter, the food industry plays a relevant role, emphasizing a retail structure, such as bars, restaurants, flea markets, and markets on wheels, which come into direct contact with the consumer phase (transport, handling, preservation). These processes constitute the agri-food chain models In México, the “Secretaría de Agricultura” [14] has identified three models developed within the framework of neoliberal policy: (1) the Mexican Food System (SAM), (2) the neoliberal agri-food regime, and (3) the agri-food chain based on production, transformation, and commercialization in family agriculture, which provides income and food for consumption and the market, contributing to food security and sovereignty; the study in question is located in the latter model.

Regardless of the food chain model, different actors participate in each of its phases. In the specific case of the corn food chain, which is practiced in rainfed conditions by small producers, a group of actors has been identified, which, according to Moctezuma-López [15], is made up of agricultural input suppliers, production systems, storage, processing, distributors, and final consumers.

The research questions posed in this study are as follows: (1) What are the existing maize and other crop agri-food systems in the Izta-Popo territory? (2) How has the WWP used in conjunction with the PRIAs strengthened the integration and efficiency of the farmer producer associations that make up the cases studied? The objectives of this research were to identify three agri-food models of maize and other crops in the Izta-Popo territory in order to apply PRIAs in these cases using the WWP model as a support method.

1.1. Intervention Territory

The main problems affecting active agricultural use units in the state of Puebla are climatic factors, high costs of inputs and services, and low prices of agricultural products [1]. Thus, the intervention territory is located in the east of the state of Puebla (Figure 2). It is composed of 11 municipalities that comprise part of the natural regions of the Puebla Valleys and the Sierra Nevada. This space has an area of more than 800 km². This territory has a flat topography in the area of the Puebla Valley but a rugged topography in the foothills of the volcanoes.

The altitude of this region ranges from 2100 m in Juan C Bonilla to 5465 m in San Nicolás. Due to this altitudinal gradient, the most important climates are temperate and semi-cold sub-humid with summer rains, and in the higher parts of the volcanoes, there are cold and very cold climates. The average temperature is around 15 °C, but in some municipalities, such as San Salvador, Chiautzingo, and Calpan, there are average temperatures between 2 and 8 °C. The most representative soils are arenosols, andosols, phaeozems, and cambisols, which have favorable characteristics for agricultural development [17,18,19,20,21,22,23].

These physical conditions of the territory allow for the production of different annual crops and fruit trees in temperate climates; most rainfed agriculture takes place in the flat part of the territory and on the lower slopes of the volcanoes (Figure 3). The annual crops grown in the flat area are mainly corn and beans. On the slopes of the volcanoes, fruit trees and annual crops are grown interspersed with fruit trees.

Figure 3. Distribution of rainfed agriculture in the territory. Source: Own elaboration with spatial information from the Digital Map of México [16].

Figure 3. Distribution of rainfed agriculture in the territory. Source: Own elaboration with spatial information from the Digital Map of México [16].

Corn is the most important crop in terms of area planted and volume and value of production. Beans are also important in terms of area planted. However, both crops have low yields, which means that there is significant potential to increase their production. These grains are the basis of the local population’s diet, and producers are applying strategies to add value to them. The inclusion of the Principles for Responsible Investment in Agriculture (PRIA) in these strategies will strengthen agri-food chains.

Regarding fruit trees, peach and pear are the most important in terms of area planted and volume and value of production. Walnut and apple are less important in terms of area but have an important production value (

Table 2. Main crops and fruit trees that support the agri-food chains in the territory.

Agricultural Species	Planted Surface (ha)	Production
		Volume (tons)	Value (Thousands of Mexican Pesos)
Corn	21,178.7	38,579.1	269,672.8
Beans	1791.2	1767.9	26,323.3
Peach	543.1	3775.1	31,607.4
Apple tree	191.8	1203.5	9525.9
Pear tree	796.4	6646.2	22,895.3
Hickory	127.0	534.7	15,673.1

Source: [24].

). These fruit trees are of great culinary relevance, since they are the raw material for making “chiles en nogada” (chilis in walnut sauce), which is a stew that is highly appreciated by the population and visitors at “chiles en nogada” fairs. Currently, the establishment of plantations of these trees is being promoted to cover the great demand for their fruits.

Regarding socio-demographic conditions, the total population of the territory is more than 400,000 inhabitants. The municipalities with the largest populations are San Martin Texmelucan and Huejotzingo, with more than 100,000 inhabitants. The least populated municipalities are Domingo Arenas and Tlaltenango, with around 7000 people [25]. The average population density is 500 inhabitants/km², although the municipalities of San Martin and Juan C. Bonilla exceed 1000 inhabitants/km².

On the other hand, the population 15 years of age and older without basic education is 41%, and illiteracy is 50%. The marginalization index varies from 54.4 to 58.2%, i.e., most of the municipalities have a low and very low degree of marginalization [26]. Likewise, 68.4% of the population lives in poverty (Figure 4), but the most outstanding aspect is that 18.5% of this percentage lives in extreme poverty and 81.5% in moderate poverty [27].

These are the socio-demographic, marginalization, and poverty conditions in which the population of this territory lives and which, for its development, depends on the different agri-food chains based on small-scale rainfed family farming. It is necessary to seek strategies or elements that contribute to strengthening the agri-food chains, such as the RIA principles, so that the chains can better contribute to improving the poverty and marginalization conditions of the territory and, in turn, promote more sustainable human development in all aspects.

Figure 4. Distribution of poverty in the intervention territory. Source: Own elaboration with spatial information from the Digital Map of México [16] and poverty information from CONEVAL [27].

Figure 4. Distribution of poverty in the intervention territory. Source: Own elaboration with spatial information from the Digital Map of México [16] and poverty information from CONEVAL [27].

In the intervention territory, called “izta-popo”, the environmental and socio-cultural conditions and food patterns have influenced the planting of corn and beans in monoculture or associated systems, in addition to intercropping systems with fruit trees, where the agri-food model of family farming prevails. This model takes into account the resources available for the exploitation of the production units, which has allowed the construction of specific models of agri-food chains whose agglutinating axis is the cultivation of corn. These models are as follows. Model (1): The agri-food chain of corn production is associated with beans at the family level that transforms corn into different by-products that are marketed in tianguis in México State [28]. Model (2): The agri-food chain of corn in monoculture is produced at the family level. In this model, corn is transformed and marketed in the form of tortillas and tostadas. The product is made using a tortilla machine obtained by a group of producers [29]. Model (3): The chain of corn and chili is produced at the family level. Corn and chili are marketed through a cooperative with a technical commerce component [30]. Knowledge about the integration of PRIA-FAO in these models is the objective of this article. In

Table 3. Local characteristics similar to each agri-food system.

		Model 1	Model 2	Model 3
Territory	Municipality	Huejotzingo	Tlaltenango	Calpan
	Locality	Miguel Tianguizolco	No location	San Andrés
Production	Product	Corn, beans, ayocote and pumpkin.	Corn	Fruits, poblano peppers and corn
	Farmers	50	500	250
	Total Surface	100 ha	1200 ha	208 ha
Transformation	Product	Tlacoyo and tortilla	Tortilla and tostada	Chile en Nogada
	Families	600	100	80
Commercialization	Points of sale	50 markets in CDMX y Edo. de México	280 places, e.g., miscellaneous, schools, and others.	150 restaurants and 5 events.

Source: Prepared by the authors with approximate data from key informants.

, we visualize the local agri-food conditions and characteristics similar and corresponding to each model mentioned and the selected municipalities of the intervention territory.

1.2. Criteria for Case Selection

Among the other relevant aspects considered for the first case are the following points. (1) The rural family production unit studied belongs to the community of San Miguel Tianguizolco, located between the communities of San Juan Pancoac and Santa María Tianguistengo in the municipality of Huejotzingo. Within this area, there are more than 1000 family production units dedicated to the transformation of corn and beans into other by-products. In other words, it is a representative unit of the agri-food model addressed in the case in question. (2) Since 2023, researchers from the Colegio de Postgraduados, linked to the University Network for the application of PRIAs, selected this rural-family production unit to participate in the establishment of a demonstration module to develop an economic development project (PRIA 1) based on peach or Creole peaches and food security (PRIA 2) through the planting of corn associated with guide beans, pumpkin, and inoculation of Huitlacoche in 1000 corn plants. (3) The members of the family unit are willing to participate in activities related to linkage and research processes of professors and students of the Colegio de Postgraduados.

The second case justified its inclusion because it is a unique experience in the territory in terms of integrating the association and organization, the latter understood as a company. Its construction dates from the year 2010, starting its integration with the parents. Currently, the association is integrated by the children of the first initiators of a technological application project to raise the levels of corn yields, considering the principles of the WWP model at that time. This group has observed the application of PRIA 2, food security and nutrition, and the current principles of 8, 9, and 10, promoting safe food systems, governance, and accountability.

The third case is very interesting because it has a structure that is not observed in many associations under the associative and legal figure of a “cooperative”. In this case, they manage the market through a manager with a specialty in marketing. Their experience of integrating processed agricultural products into local, regional, and international markets motivated them to link this association even more to generate experiences in the application of PRIAs and because of the willingness of the board of directors to be involved in these activities as a result of the collaboration with researchers from the Colegio de Postgraduados.

2. Materials and Methods

From the empirical component, this research was based on the case study that was used to learn, in greater depth, the characteristics and differences presented by each of the agri-food models identified in the territory. Due to the nature of the study and the approach to the process of constructing the different agri-food models in the territory in question, a multiple-case study was applied [31,32]. The first case consists of an agri-food model based on production, transformation, and commercialization by the members of one family unit. The second case analyzes production, transformation of grain to tortilla, and its commercialization through a partnership called “Sociedad de Producción Rural de R. L.”. Finally, the third case is a cooperative in which the members are in charge of the production and transformation process; however, in the commercialization phase, they have a technical component, an expert in the market who is in charge of carrying out all the management related to this phase. To gather information, questionnaires were applied to all members of family units and partnerships working in the different models of the maize agri-food chain. In addition, in-depth interviews were conducted with one or two key informants per case in order to delve more deeply into some specific issues of the chain, complemented by the experiences generated with the application of the WWP model. Six participatory workshops were also held with corn producers, technicians, public officials, and other key stakeholders to identify needs, priorities, and development opportunities [33]. The workshops promoted a reflection on the Principles for Responsible Investment in Agriculture and Food Systems (PRIA) and their applicability in the local context as well as the monitoring of plots established on the land of the partners that make up the groups that constitute the tools used to carry out demonstrations and to directly observe the application of the principles in each of the cases [4]. These PRIA were developed by the FAO Committee on World Food Security (CFS).

The process of development and weighting of the qualitative and quantitative indicators and variables of this research are based on consultations with university experts from the GESPLAN Group of the “Universidad Politécnica de Madrid” and the “Colegio de Postgraduados” of Mexico. as Also, a joint design is applied, involving the community of the three cases of the Izta-Popo territory in Puebla, using the WWP model. The following software was used for data processing: IBM SPSS Statistics version 24.0, Excel Build 16.0.19003.42309, Word Build 20250606.7 from Office 365 A1 and QGIS 3.34 Prizren. Another part of the analytical framework is based on the references shown at the end of each table in the Results section. A detailed explanation is added in the Supplementary Materials “Research Methods Instruments and Construction of Indicators”.

2.1. Methodology

2.1.1. The WWP Model, PRIAs and Food Systems

The research from the conceptual part was based on the WWP model that focuses on social learning, community participation, and the integration of ethical–social, technical–entrepreneurial, and political–contextual dimensions, seeking a balance between technical, behavioral, and contextual competencies. In the process of social learning, the concept of local action groups (LAGs) has shown to be an effective tool to promote rural development from a territorial perspective [34]. LAGs facilitate interaction between local actors and promote participatory development management [35]. The use of the components of the WWP model has contributed to linking the principles and their application with the different groups involved in the different components of the maize agri-food chain.

It is important to point out that the WWP model was highlighted as a central concept of this study, and the process of development and application of its components has resulted in the integration of rural production units in the form of associations. These are understood as the concentration of power through the union of individual forces to achieve common objectives. The association constitutes the social–ethical component of the WWP, but experience has shown that this component is not sufficient to address the challenges faced by rural family units in the production, transformation, and commercialization processes, since a technical–entrepreneurial component that integrates the concept of business organization is required. Associative (social) and organizational (economic) processes are fundamental pieces in agricultural and rural development processes. These variables have been used to observe the behavior of the cases and are the concepts developed in this article. The other theoretical part that complements this research is based on the framework of the ten PRIAs, which were created by the UN Committee on World Food Security.

As a component of the materials and methods, RIA principles and food systems were included, which constitute a range of activities related to production, transformation, and market [10]; while food systems comprise another wide range of individual, collective, and institutional actors that carry out the components of the agri-food chain, in a socio-political, economic, technological, and natural framework, the chain activities are carried out. The five RIA principles most closely related to the agri-food chain models managed by family units in the intervention territory are as follows: (1) contribute to food security and nutrition; (2) contribute to inclusive and sustainable economic development and poverty eradication; (3) respect cultural heritage and traditional knowledge; (4) support diversity and innovation; and (5) incorporate inclusive and transparent governance structures, processes, and grievance mechanisms.

2.1.2. Agri-Food Chain Models

According to INEGI [36], México has an area of 2.2 million hectares, of which 1.9 million correspond to rural areas and 0.3 million to population centers, roads, and bodies of water, among other geographic features. In the rural areas during the period 2021–2022, an agricultural use of one million hectares was recorded, representing 53% of the total rural area. Of this area, 329,761 hectares were cultivated with white corn. However, in the central, southern, and southeastern regions of México, small production units have less than 5 hectaes for cultivation and are mostly managed under rainfed conditions where in addition to white corn, more than 60 native corn breeds are cultivated [37]. When the “Project Puebla” started in the current area of influence of the Postgraduate College in Puebla State, it had 116,000 hectares of agricultural land, of which corn represented 69%, beans 15.9%, and the rest in other crops. The most important production systems prevalent at the beginning of the project are maize alone, association with guide beans (Phaseolus vulgaris), bush beans (Phaseolus vulgaris), intercropped maize in fruit orchards, and ayocote (Phaseolus coccineas) [38]. In the study area, maize monoculture continues to prevail as an important crop in terms of area planted as well as the production systems of association with guide bean and intercropped maize in fruit orchards. Agri-food chain models were generated around these production systems [30].

3. Results

3.1. Case 1: Agri-Food Chain Maize-Bean Guide Bean Association

3.1.1. Relationship of the Family Unit to the CFS-RAI Principle

Before addressing the details of the chain, it is important to point out that the first international meeting on CFS-RAI principles at the “Colegio de Posgraduados”, Campus Puebla, México, was held from 7 to 11 July 2024. On 7 June, a field trip was conducted in the community of San Miguel Tianguizolco, which belongs to Huejotzingo, one of the municipalities that make up the Izta-Popo territory. This territory is the area of intervention for the application of the economic development and food security project within the framework of the principles of Responsible Investment in Agriculture and Food Systems, all based on the production, transformation, and commercialization of native fruit trees, as well as the planting of native seeds of corn, beans, squash, and huitlacoche [39]. The project is using the Intercropped “Milpa” model with fruit trees under dry conditions as a unifying axis [40,41]. The owner of the plot and project participant, as well as academics from the Technological Institutes of Atlixco and San Martin Texmelucan, were present during the field tour of the meeting (Figure 5). These institutes are part of the Network of Higher Education Institutions, formed within the framework of the implementation of the RIAs in Latin America. During the tour, the owner of the plot indicated that his family unit has six hectares of dry land in his production unit, and with the support of his members, they transform corn and beans into products that are marketed in México City, such as tlacoyos, gorditas, and tortillas. They also sell fruits [28].

3.1.2. Characteristics of the Family Production Unit (FPU)

The climatic and soil conditions as well as social and economic factors allowed the family unit to generate, conserve, and improve the agri-food chain. This unit produces, transforms, and markets products and different by-products derived from the different crops grown in the FPU. The FPU is located in San Miguel Tianguizolco. The unit is made up of three men and three women. The average age of the members is 49 years, and the level of schooling is up to 6 years. They have 6 hectares of farmland, in rainfed conditions, and the family has its own machinery, including a tractor with implements and farming tools that allow them to carry out soil preparation and cultural activities in a timely manner. Even though decision-making and labor come from the members of the FPU, at certain times of the year, local laborers are hired to carry out cultural work (weed and pest control) and harvesting. Approximately 86-day laborers are hired each agricultural cycle at a total cost of MXN 25,800.0.

3.1.3. Production, a Component of the Corn–Bean and Ayocote Agri-Food Chain

The FPU is organized and uses its own resources to produce the necessary raw materials. It produces corn and beans for self-consumption and as inputs to transform them into various by-products. The productive activity begins with the preparation of the land during the months of February and March, and then, depending on the available humidity in the soil, planting can take place in April and May; however, due to the adverse effects of climate change, planting has been delayed until June, as happened during the 2024 agricultural cycle. According to the representative of this FPU, production involves an average investment of MXN 12,000.0 per hectare and yields 3.0 tons of corn and 500 kg of guide beans per hectare. With the sale of these products, a gross income of MXN 42,000.0 is obtained; with this cost and income, a benefit–cost ratio of 3.5 is obtained; for every peso invested, a profit of 2.5 pesos is obtained. This means that in the production phase, this agri-food system is profitable.

3.1.4. Processing, Transformation

The FPU transforms its production into various by-products made from corn and beans. Tlacoyos are the main by-product produced in the transformation process in the corn–bean agri-food chain. Pérez-Hernández et al. [42] documented the process of transformation of maize and beans into tlacoyo in the community of “San Miguel Tianguizolco”, and, in this case, the same process was observed, which includes the following stages: (1) reception of raw material; (2) cleaning of corn and beans; (3) nixtamalization of corn and cooking beans; (4) grinding; (5) conditioning on a table; (6) manual or semi-manual molding; and (7) cooking on an iron comal. Considering these stages of the transformation process and the available labor, FPU manufactures tlacoyos, tortillas with nopal and wheat additives, and memelas, among other products. Ttlacoyos are made from nixtamalized corn and beans and are packaged by the dozen.

3.1.5. Commercialization, Marketing

The transformed products are marketed in the CDMX in the so-called “markets on wheels” on each Friday. The products sold in these public spaces are tlacoyos, wheat and nopal tortillas, memelas, and other products, which are transported in their own vehicle to the place of sale, travel on Fridays, stay on Saturdays, and return to their place of origin on Sundays. This has been the route commonly used by this family unit and other producers for more than 40 years. The people in charge of the FPU are responsible for marketing these products. Marketing is not delegated to the children or other people; it is the exclusive responsibility of the heads of the family. The construction of this market scheme was carried out by people living in Mexico City who visited the town of San Miguel Tianguizolco and interacted and agreed with the family members of the FPU to market local corn and bean products. A transportation network has been developed around the commercialization process that is responsible for transporting the tlacoyo producers from their place of origin to the points of sale and vice versa. The prices are set based on supply and demand. The FPU under study receives MXN 40.0 for each dozen tlacoyos it sells and MXN 25.0 for each dozen tortillas. Likewise, the production cost for making a dozen tlacoyos is MXN 15.0. With these costs and incomes, a benefit–cost ratio of MXN 2.60 for each dozen tlacoyos is estimated, which indicates that it is a profitable activity [43]. Tlacoyo can contribute to improve the income of FPUs engaged in its production.

3.2. Case 2: Corn Agri-Food Chain and Its Transformation into Tortillas Through a Rural Production Society

This case is located in the municipality of Tlaltenango, Puebla [44]. The agri-food model most commonly practiced in this locality is monoculture corn combined with dairy cattle farming. Regarding milk production, in verbal communication with key informants in the community, an estimated production volume of 20,000 L of milk per day is marketed to intermediaries in the neighboring towns of the municipality.

3.2.1. Personal Characteristics of the Members of the Association

The “Sociedad de Producción Rural” (SPR) Campo Lima began its integration process in 2010; however, it was in 2015 when it was legally constituted as a legal entity within the framework of the agrarian law of Title Four, which deals with the operation and formation of rural societies [45]. The SPR is made up of seven partners whose average age is 46 years and have an average of 8 years of schooling. Among the members of the society, they have a total area of 45 hectares of arable land in irrigated and rainfed conditions. All the partners have their own machinery (tractor and implements) and implement to carry out agricultural activities.

3.2.2. Production, Transformation and Commercialization as Elements of the Maize Agri-Food Chain of the Campo Lima Society and Its Relationship to the CFS-RIA Principles

In the background to the application of the CFS-RIA principles, it is important to note that the president of the Campo Lima Rural Production Society participated in the second version of the business course organized by the GESPLAN research group of “Universidad Politécnica de Madrid” (UPM).

The SPR Campo Lima is developing a model within the framework of the production, transforming, and commercialization process, which consists of having greater participation in these components of the chain, especially in processing and marketing. The main elements of the model are (1) production of certified seed of the HS-2 hybrid from the “Colegio de Postgraduados”; (2) marketing of the seed for commercial planting; (3) grain storage; (4) processing of the grain into tortillas; and (5) tortilla marketing strategy (Figure 6). The figure shows two important components for the structuring of the associative processes: the integration of partners for decision-making and the configuration of the technical–entrepreneurial component for the execution of decisions. From this component, the actions related to production, transformation, and commercialization will be carried out.

3.2.3. Seed Production and Commercial Plantings

The SPR Campo Lima and the “Colegio de Postgraduados” signed a licensing agreement to produce HS-2 corn seed, a patent generated by researchers at this Public Research Center to produce certified seed. SPR plans to produce a volume of 5 tons of HS-2 corn seed in 2025, with the supervision of the National Seed Inspection and Certification System (Spanish SNICS), the federal government institution in charge of seed certification in México. With this volume of certified seed production, the SPR will design a strategy for its distribution among local producers and, in some cases, outside the municipality. A record will be kept of the producers benefiting from the seed with the purpose of stockpiling the volume of harvested grain for its transformation into tortillas.

3.2.4. Transformation and Commercialization

The SPR acquired a tortilla machine at the end of 2024 to begin the process of transforming corn grain into tortillas and to be able to face two problems that affect them, namely (1) an unfavorable market, since the owners of the small-scale tortilla factories set the prices of the grain, so the prices are generally low, and (2) the deferred payment for the sale of the grain that is generally made very late and without paying an interest rate due to the ease of credit. This problem was the reason for the group of small producers that make up the SPR to venture into the processing of their corn harvest. This experience is unprecedented in the locality and in the region. In other words, it was the first time that a group of small producers ventured into a process of transforming their raw material through an entrepreneurial approach [29].

According to the Apolo Company [46], the tortilla machine purchased by the group has the following characteristics. (It produces 30 tortillas per minute or 1800 tortillas per hour, processing between 45 and 55 kg of dough per hour with tortillas of 25 g each. The total cost of the equipment was MXN 392,899.34. The current demand for corn grain from the tortilla machine is 250 kg per day; with this milling volume, the SPR requires 84 tons of corn annually to supply this demand. With the corn yield levels obtained by the group and considering the available surface area, they are able to produce 60 tons, with a shortfall of 20 tons to complete the grain demand; the shortfall can be solved by stockpiling grain from other local producers who plant H-S2 corn.

The tortilla transformation company (Figure 7) is operated by two full-time employees, one with experience in handling the equipment and in the processing method, and the other is an assistant in activities related to this activity and sales on the premises (delivery person). The delivery person is in charge of distributing tortillas to the group of clients who buy them from the company.

3.3. Case 3: Agri-Food Chain of Maize Produced at the Family Level but Transformed and Marketed Through a Cooperative

3.3.1. Relationship of the Cooperative’s Activities with the CFS-RIA

Before describing this third case, it is interesting to highlight the participation of the cooperative’s representatives in the second version of the training course aimed at entrepreneurs, which was given online by the GESPLAN Research Group of the Universidad Politécnica de Madrid (UPM) in 2024 [47]. They are currently linked with the Colegio de Postgraduados to build living laboratories whilst applying the WWP model and emphasizing the planning model as social learning.

In this agri-food chain, the main actor is a cooperative society called Guardianes de Calpan, which is similar to the other two models in that the members produce and transform corn at the family level. However, it has a feature that makes it different from the other two cases: Its integration into the market is through technical personnel specialized in the subject. The group develops the three stages of the corn agri-food system: production, transformation, and commercialization, as well as other complementary productive activities such as rural gastronomic experiences and the promotion of handicrafts made with materials from the region. The society was integrated in 2003 and was legally constituted in 2017, developing the three components of the agri-food chain. The group is composed of 17 partners, of whom 6 are men and 13 are women (Figure 8). The members of the cooperative have an average age of 55 years, although the age of some members is 20 years. The level of schooling is 9 years; this data coincides with the years of studies that the general population has.

3.3.2. Production

The cooperative is located in the municipality of Calpan. Agriculture in this municipality is based on a traditional production system that combines staple crops (corn and beans) with various species of fruit trees, including peach (Prunus pérsica), capulín (Prunus salicifolia), plum (Prunus domestica), pear (Pyrus communis), walnut (Juglans regia), and apricot (Prunus armeniaca). Corn and fruit production is carried out using a combination of traditional soil preparation, planting, fertilization, and harvesting practices. Maize is planted with colored creole corn, with the blue seed being the most important because it is used to make pinole, a very traditional drink among the inhabitants of the territory [30,48,49].

3.3.3. Transformation

The productive base of the members of the cooperative allows them to obtain a diversity of products between the months of May and December, which are the raw materials for making mole poblano, chiles en nogada (Figure 9), tamales, tlapaxtamales, atoles, tlatlapas, cacamas, chileatoles, stews with quelites, huazontles, or nopales, tlacoyos, tortillas, pipianes, huaxmoles, breads, liquors, and sweets (ates, jams, syrups, pinoles, muéganos, and jamoncillos). However, of all the diversity of derivatives obtained from agricultural and fruit production, the cooperative places greater emphasis on the processing of blue corn into flour and the preparation of chiles en nogada; this dish was named Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO in 2010, and is made with local fruit products, including panochera apple, pear, peach, walnut, pomegranate, and sour pomegranate. The work developed in this transformation process allows the cooperative to link up with a network of companies and restaurants located in different parts of México. In this way, the cooperative is certified and recognized as a member of the network by providing information and promoting the consumption of its products, which are made with local ingredients and sold at fair prices.

3.3.4. Commercialization

The incorporation of the cooperative to the network of companies and restaurants was made possible by the presence of a technical member in the work team who is in charge of marketing the different products that the members produce, mainly pinole and chile en nogada, which are derived from corn and fruit trees. This marketing component is a process that consists of the following aspects: (1) depending on the demand towards the inside of the cooperative, the available volume of each product is quantified; (2) with this data, the entrepreneurs are interviewed and more information is provided about the origin of the products; (3) for the case of corn flour, it is highlighted that it comes from native blue corn; (4) it is ensured that the production is obtained with limited use of mineralized fertilizers and (5) they are produced by small producers who practice family farming [50].

The production of fruits, especially native species, are the most important elements in the production of chile en nogada; in this activity, again, the technical member of the cooperative team plays an important role in the marketing process. Holding a fair between the months of August and September (lasting approximately nine weeks), the technical member promotes the arrival of tourists from Mexico City and Puebla; these visitors generate an important economic benefit for the cooperative and the family units that participate in this regional event. The technical member is in charge of organizing field trips with tourists to the cooperative members’ plots to show them firsthand how they manage their fruit trees. The cooperative produced and sold 450 chiles en nogada in 2024, each one was priced at MXN 300.0. This amount generated a production value of MXN 135,000.0. Also, the company marketed fresh chiles poblanos and delivered 3556 kg of them; on average, eight chiles weigh 1 kg. A comparison of the three agri-food cases of the Izta-Popo Valley in Puebla is shown on

Table 4. Comparison of the three agri-food chain cases.

	A. Maíz-Frijol Guía	B. SPR Campo Lima	C. Guardianes Calpan
Location	Huejotzingo	Tlaltenango	Calpan
Irrigation	Rainfed and well	Well and rainfed	Rainfed and well
Surface area	6 ha	45 ha	8 ha
Members	5	7	17
Average age	49 years	46 years	55 years
Schooling	6 years	8 years	9 years
Production	MIAF *	seed, grain and corn	Fruits, chile poblano
Transformation	Tlacoyos and gorditas	tortilla de nixtamal	Chiles en nogada, others
Marketing	Local markets	tortillería shop, stores	Restaurants, fairs
Production cycles	2 to 6 months	2 to 6 months	3 to 4 months
Contract labor	86	90	40
cost–benefit analysis	3.5	3.4	4
Associative figure	Family Unit	Rural Production Society	Cooperative

* Milpa interspersed with corn, beans, squash, and fruit trees. Source: Prepared by the authors based on data collected in interviews, field visits, and surveys of the groups in the three cases.

.

3.4. Relationship Between the Application of the CFS-RIA Principles and Agri-Food Models

Based on the empirical evidence documented with the people who manage these agri-food systems, the level of progress in the application of the CFS-RIA principles in each model was categorized as High, Medium, and Developing (

Table 5. Level of advancement of CFS-RIA principles in agri-food models.

CFS-RIA Principle	Progress Indicators *	AM α	SL β	GC θ	Identified Strengths	Identified Challenges
1. Contribute to food security and nutrition	▪ Increase in corn yields per hectare.	84	90	80	There has been an increase in the production of corn and other staple foods, as well as an increase in crop diversification, local consumption, and self-consumption of nutritious foods.	Dependence on external inputs (fertilizers and seeds) for corn. Limited access to fair markets.
	▪ Crop diversification through polyculture strategies.	80	74	88
	▪ Increased availability of food for family consumption.	88	88	94
	▪ Promote local consumption.	86	96	94
	▪ Include simple and nutritionally balanced foods in the market.	94	94	94
	GLP **	86	88	90
2. Contribute to sustainable and inclusive economic development and the eradication of poverty	▪ Diversification of products derived from or transformed from crops (innovation).	90	90	96	Family income is strengthened through crop diversification and the sale of surpluses and by-products. The action groups optimize the use of resources and improve profitability in corn and polycrop production. Increased adaptation of technologies and practices to local needs.	Prioritization of economic profitability over sustainability. Lack of access to credit or savings banks. Difficulty competing with large producers and companies or switching to a high value-added market through product transformation.
	▪ Promotion of action groups.	84	86	96
	▪ Encourage local business relationships and improve business and production practices.	80	88	94
	▪ Adoption and awareness of basic sustainable practices.	82	80	90
	GLP **	84	86	94
9. Incorporate inclusive and transparent governance structures, processes, and grievance mechanisms	▪ Creation of Territorial Action Groups (TAGs) for participatory development management.	80	84	90	The association of small producers is the main objective of the interventions, encouraging their participation in decision-making and their association in cooperatives or societies. The relationship with academic institutions is strengthened through research projects and field training.	Limitations of governmental structures. Lack of formalization due to the absence of specific laws.
	▪ Strengthening producer organizations and strategic collaboration networks.	78	92	94
	▪ Sharing useful and relevant information.	82	88	96
	▪ Promoting mediation mechanisms to provide solutions.	84	86	94
	GLP **	82	88	94

* The PRIA Progress Indicator was calculated as a percentage according to a weighting of quantitative data and the average valuation obtained from interviews, PRIA courses, and perception surveys. AM α = Case 1, SL β = Case 2, GC θ = Case 3. ** General Level of Progress (GLP) is the rounded average of PRIAs progress indicators, where less than 50% is Basic or Developing, 50% to 70% is Medium, 71% to 90% is High, and 91% to 100% is Very High. Source: Own elaboration based on information collected and [3,4,10,30,35,47,51,52,53,54,55,56].

). The analysis indicated that the three agri-food models present an average level of high progress in the application of PRIA 1, 2 and 9.

In the three agri-food cases, a medium or moderate level of implementation progress was generally observed in PRIAs 3, 7, and 8; while in PRIAs 4, 5, 6, and 10, a basic or developing level was observed.

3.5. Relationship of the Application of the Working with People Model in Each Agri-Food Model

Working With People is a strategy to carry out linkage projects considering the processes of associativity and organization. This process is supported by the following components of the WWP model: (1) Technical–entrepreneurial; (2) ethical–social; (3) political–contextual. The process-approaches are (4) social learning [57]; (5) project management [58]; and (6) asset building [59]. Based on the results derived from the field work, it was detected that the technical–entrepreneurial, ethical–social, and social learning components present a high level of application (

Table 6. Level of application of the WWP model in agri-food cases.

WWP Model	Application Indicator *	AM α	SL β	GC θ	Identified Strengths	Identified Challenges
1. Technical–Entrepreneurial Component	▪ The participation of the technical market component in the stages of the production chain.	74	82	98	The application of this component is high, especially in the Campo Lima and Guardianes de Saberes Sabores de Calpan groups, because they have a high level of associativity within their groups.	Consolidate the entrepreneurial component of the “Campo Lima” group. Replicate the experience of the Guardianes de Saberes y Sabores de Calpan cooperative in the other two agri-food cases. Generate commercial synergies among the three groups.
	▪ Structuring and business organization for transformation.	80	88	92
	▪ Acceptance of strategic support from universities and their academic integration with rural groups.	90	90	90
	▪ Coordination of meetings as an incentive for joint actions.	80	92	94
	▪ Quality and standardization of the groups’ products.	88	96	94
	GLP **	82	90	94
2. Ethical–Social Component	▪ Creation of local action groups (LAGs) and rural development councils.	80	84	90	The participation of rural groups in decision-making is promoted and gender equity is fostered, although inequalities persist.	Inequality in access to resources and opportunities. Persistence of traditional gender roles. Difficulty in achieving a balance in the participation of all stakeholders. Lack of trust in institutions and agents for dialog. Abuse of intermediaries that affect fair trade.
	▪ Implementation of participatory planning processes.	82	90	92
	▪ Inclusion of women and young people in workshops and productive activities.	80	80	96
	▪ Promotion of dialog and negotiation between stakeholders.	82	84	86
	▪ Approach and mediation with rural groups to promote and strengthen organizational work behavior and attitudes.	88	90	94
	GLP **	82	86	92
4. Social Learning process-approach	▪ Use of participatory methodologies such as workshops and focus groups for group and stakeholder development.	78	82	88	Collective learning and the adaptation of strategies based on experience are encouraged, as well as an interdisciplinary reflection and analysis of the actions undertaken.	Difficulty in systematizing information and learning. Need to strengthen monitoring and evaluation capacities. Resistance to evaluation and feedback.
	▪ Exchange of knowledge and experiences to promote social dynamics between producers and universities.	92	90	90
	▪ Participatory monitoring and evaluation of projects.	88	88	90
	▪ Adaptation of development models to local conditions through innovation.	84	92	90
	GLP **	86	88	90

* The WWP Application Indicator was calculated as a percentage based on a weighting of quantitative data and the average value obtained from interviews, WWP workshops, and perception surveys. AM α = Case 1, SL β = Case 2, GC θ = Case 3. ** General Level of Progress (GLP) is the rounded average of the PRIAs progress indicators, where less than 50% is Basic, 50% to 70% is Medium, 71% to 90% is High, and 91% to 100% is Very High. Source: Prepared by the authors based on the information collected and [4,5,10,30,34,35,47,51,56,59,60,61,62].

). However, the rest of the components are in the moderate and developing categories.

4. Discussion

One of the most important findings of this study is the identification of different models of agri-food systems based on the level of associativity of the actors that manage these models. It is important to mention that one of the agri-food models (Case 3), in addition to being immersed in a process of association, includes, in its structure, the technical component of market competencies to carry out the commercialization process. In this model, more and better results are observed in terms of economic prosperity and in the application of RIA principles. These results are consistent with other studies in which the integration of the social and economic components constitute the elements favoring the economic income and social cohesion of the members, as in the case of the Camposeven cooperative [4,63]. They also correspond to other studies that highlight the importance of participation, innovation, and territorial management for sustainable rural development [4,59]. The application of the WWP model, with its emphasis on social learning, active participation, and respect for local knowledge, proved to be an appropriate framework for the integration of the CFS-RIA principles in the maize chain [64].

The findings made it possible to learn the use made by these three cases of the tools provided by the Working White People (WWW) model and the degree to which the Principles of Responsible Investment in Agriculture and Food Systems are applied, that is, to put the motto of working with people first to create joint actions that integrate the knowledge of experience and expert knowledge that allows solving problems by integrating both kinds of knowledge [62]. The integration of the agri-food models with the components of the WWW made it possible to observe the degree of application of the PRIAs in the production, transformation, and marketing processes; in this sense, in principles 1 and 9, their application was high for the three cases studied. These results agree with the findings of Acosta et al. (2023) [60] and Jiménez et al. (2023) [53], who, when weighing the perception of the population regarding the importance and prioritization of objectives to select the PRIAs, found that more than 91% of the population interviewed fixed their attention on principle 1 (“Contribute to food security and nutrition”), and in its prioritization, it was considered among the first places. In the case of principle 9, although its application was high, it was more relevant in two cases where the agri-food model is developed through associative processes. For principle 2 (“Contribute to sustainable economic development and poverty eradication”), congruence was found between the high degree of application in the Mexican cases and the findings of Requelme and Afonso (2023) [65], who highlight that this PRIA is incorporated in Ecuador’s agricultural policies with the highest percentage of appearance in the policy guidelines and is aligned with the SDGs.

According to Fontana et al. (2025) [66], the application of the RAI principles and the WWP Model in Paucar del Sara Peru allowed them to carry out an integrative and multidimensional analysis considering the territory as the object of study. In the case of the Izta-Popo territory in Puebla, three cases of agri-food models were considered that used maize as the binding axis. These cases develop processes based on the components of the WWP model: political–contextual, technical–business, and ethical–social, to improve the processes that integrate the entire corn agri-food chain, applying some of the principles of responsible investment. Cachipuendo et al. (2025) [67] found that the development of agroecological technologies and the recovery of ancestral knowledge have been fundamental to improve the sustainability of the local agri-food system among other factors, which allow food availability and improve profitability, in line with the SDGs and the CFS-RIA principles. The three case studies in México provide elements that indicate the importance of generating processes to improve ancestral agri-food models; such is the case of the classic milpa, which integrates a diversity of crops among which corn, beans, and squash stand out. When technical and social innovations are used in the production process of this agri-food system, especially in the transformation and commercialization processes, there is greater availability of food and improved income, as was found in the results.

On the other hand, this study integrated the concept of living laboratories through the establishment of demonstration plots, which function as spaces for experimentation and learning; in these plots, producers validated innovative technologies and practices [3,30]. In this sense, knowledge transfer was not limited to a linear model but was based on a process of dialog and interaction between different actors [61].

Although significant progress has been made in strengthening rural communities, it is important to recognize that major challenges remain. Lack of access to financing, market uncertainty, and the effects of climate change are some of the obstacles that must be addressed to ensure the sustainability of development processes [59]. It is necessary to continue strengthening the capacities of producers, consolidating local organizational structures, and promoting public policies that support family farming and rural development with a territorial approach [68].

The cultivation of corn in the territory of action continues to be a priority for the production units that, through innovation processes, have developed agri-food systems that seek not only to produce their own food but also to generate new ways of participating in the stages of the food chain of transformation and commercialization, a scheme that was not observed before. The identification of the three agri-food systems is an important finding of this research because it highlights the efforts made by farming families, either at the family level or through associative processes, to make better use of available resources and improve their relationship with other actors within and outside the territory.

5. Conclusions

The incorporation of PRIAs in the maize agri-food chain using the WWP model is an effective strategy for strengthening rural communities in Puebla, México. Its application in the three Puebla agri-food cases demonstrates that it is possible to achieve a fairer, more equitable, and sustainable rural development, as long as active participation, respect for local knowledge, innovation, and territorial management are prioritized. The comparative case study demonstrated that the food chain is better organized when PRIA 1 and 2 are applied together with the technical–entrepreneurial and ethical–social components of the WWP model, which led to improvements in crop production and diversification, as well as in local consumption and self-consumption of nutritious food. A better strengthening of the association in rural groups was achieved with the application of PRIA 9, and the integration of stakeholders in the agri-food models was reached through the application of the social learning approach of the WWP model, which favors the generation of sustainable development projects that are more effective and relevant in meeting local needs, based on the convergence of knowledge, resources, action, and experience. It is necessary to continue with teaching, research, and linkage with study groups through the continuous improvement of projects based on the PRIAs and WWP, leading to the addition and optimization of more responsible investment principles in their practices and the creation of more initiatives that promote balanced sustainable development in its three dimensions: economic, social, and environmental. Thus, ensuring that projects remain relevant, effective, long-lasting, and that they promote and strengthen safe, healthy, and sustainable agri-food systems is important.

This study provides valuable information for the formulation of public policies and the implementation of rural development projects with a territorial approach in Mexico and other countries with similar challenges. It is essential to continue researching, adapting, and improving the strategies and models used in this study in order to achieve an even greater impact on strengthening rural communities and building a more prosperous and sustainable future. For example, as part it efforts to strengthen public policies in Mexico, the Polytechnic University of Madrid has offered a training course on PRIAs in international cooperation since 2021. The course is aimed at professional managers interested in working with people in rural territories and applying PRIAs, and it is a public policy recommendation designed to improve the work of stakeholders such as the government and public universities in rural territories. Additionally, public policy recommends identifying and consolidating the primary agri-food systems in the rural Izta-Popo territory of Puebla. These systems should be approached as living laboratories to facilitate the transmission of knowledge to decision-makers at local and regional levels as well as to technicians and association representatives interested in responsible investment in agriculture and food systems.