Evaluating the Sustainability of the Natural Gas-Based Methanol-to-Gasoline Industry: A Global Systematic Review
Abstract
1. Introduction
1.1. Environmental Impact
1.2. Social Effects
1.3. Economic Growth
1.4. Objective and Rationale of the Review
2. Literature Review
2.1. Global Assessment of the Methanol and Gasoline Industries’ Sustainability
2.2. NGTM and MTG Processes and Supply Chain
2.2.1. Natural Gas to Methanol
2.2.2. Methanol to Gasoline
2.3. Comparative Fuel Characteristics of Methane, Methanol, and Gasoline
2.4. Research Gap Identified
3. Methanol and Gasoline Uses in the World
4. Challenges, Opportunities, and Future Directions for Sustainable Fuel Transition
4.1. Challenges in Using Methanol and Gasoline as Fuels
4.2. Selecting Sustainable Supply Options
4.3. Technological Innovation and Design Limitations
4.4. Energy Security and Resilience
4.5. Sustainability and Safety Considerations
4.6. Aligning with Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
4.6.1. Environmental Impact: Eco-Friendly Practices and Climate Action
- SDG 6: Ensuring universal access to clean water sources and sufficient sanitation;
- SDG 7: Increasing access to affordable, sustainable, and dependable energy;
- SDG 9: Encouraging technical innovation, industrial growth, and robust infrastructure;
- SDG 13: Acting quickly to mitigate the effects of climate change;
- SDG 14: Preserving maritime biodiversity and marine habitats;
- SDG 15: Promoting sustainable land use and protecting terrestrial ecosystems.
4.6.2. Human Impact: Health, Safety, and Community Development
- SDG 3: Promoting general well-being and ensuring healthy lives for people of all ages;
- SDG 4: Promoting high-quality, inclusive, and equitable education for all;
- SDG 8: Facilitating access to productive employment and inclusive economic growth;
- SDG 11: Encouraging inclusive, resilient, and ecologically sustainable urban growth.
4.6.3. Economic Impact: Growth, Innovation, and Responsible Business Practices
- SDG 8: Encouraging sustainable economic growth and equitable job opportunities;
- SDG 12: Promoting sustainable patterns of production and consumption as well as effective resource use;
- SDG 17: Increasing international cooperation and partnerships to accomplish sustainable goals.
4.6.4. Strategic SDG Mapping and Integration
- Environmental Dimension: Technologies that support emissions reduction, clean energy generation, and natural resource conservation (SDGs 6, 7, 13, 14, 15).
- Social Dimension: Initiatives aimed at health, education, workforce safety, and community development (SDGs 3, 4, 8, 11).
- Economic Dimension: Emphasis on innovation, productivity, circular economy adoption, and global cooperation (SDGs 8, 9, 12, 17).
4.7. Sustainable Development Strategies
- Research and Development: Investments in renewable methanol production technologies, such as solar-driven CO2 hydrogenation, can significantly lower carbon intensity.
- Policy Support: Governments should establish incentives for renewable methanol production and mandate blending ratios for biofuels in gasoline.
- Public Awareness: Educating stakeholders on the benefits of alternative fuels and addressing safety concerns are critical for consumer acceptance.
- Global Collaboration: Sharing best practices and fostering international partnerships can accelerate the adoption of sustainable fuel technologies.
4.8. Policymakers’ Role and Opportunities
4.9. Future Research Directions
- AI in Fuel Systems: Leveraging AI for predictive analytics in engine design, fuel optimization, and supply chain management. To enable smart engines that maximize both fuel economy and emission profiles, future research should investigate AI models that integrate real-time combustion metrics with environmental outcomes. It is also possible to investigate applications in autonomous fuel management systems.
- Carbon-Neutral Pathways: Advancing CO2 capture technologies and integrating renewable hydrogen production for green methanol synthesis. Decentralized, small-scale methanol production facilities utilizing modular electrolyzers and carbon capture systems should be considered in future research. In isolated or off-grid areas, these could offer local green fuel production.
- Circular Economy Models: Exploring the feasibility of fully recycling CO2 into fuel production. Sustainability standards may be redefined by closed-loop methanol production, in which CO2 released during combustion is absorbed and recycled. Pilot demonstration projects and complete techno-economic validation are needed for this concept.
- Energy-Efficient Infrastructure: Developing materials and systems to reduce energy losses in fuel storage, transport, and use. Infrastructure innovation should prioritize the use of phase-change thermal buffers, nanocomposites, and enhanced insulation materials to reduce energy loss during transportation.
- Safety Innovations: Designing next-generation handling and containment systems to mitigate methanol’s toxicity and flammability risks. Emerging safety technologies, including predictive hazard analytics, autonomous valve shutoff systems, and AI-based leak detection, can significantly improve safety in storage and distribution. It is necessary to validate these by modeling high-risk scenarios.
4.10. Benchmarking and Continuous Improvement
5. Conclusions and Future Work
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
AI | Artificial intelligence |
AVGAS | Aviation gasoline |
CCUS | Carbon capture, utilization, and storage |
DME | Dimethyl ether |
EROI | Energy return on investment |
GHG | Greenhouse gas |
LCA | Life cycle assessment |
LCM | Levelized cost of methanol |
LCSA | Life cycle sustainability assessment |
MTBE | Methyl tertiary butyl ether |
MTG | Methanol-to-gasoline |
MTO | Methanol-to-olefins |
NGTM | Natural gas-to-methanol |
SDGs | Sustainable development goals |
SI | Spark ignition |
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ID | Authors | Year | Country | Method | Analyzed System | Scope | Document Type * |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Biswal, et al. [14] | 2024 | India | Experimental and LCA | Gasoline-methanol blended fuel | Life cycle environmental sustainability assessment of blended fuels | A |
2 | Kexel, et al. [15] | 2024 | Germany | Integrated and prospective LCA | Propulsion systems | Sustainability impacts of renewable and hybrid propulsion systems | CP |
3 | Boretti [16] | 2024 | Australia | Narrative review | Green hydrogen-based fuels | Feasibility of CO2 hydrogenation for sustainable energy storage | A |
4 | Moretti, et al. [17] | 2023 | Switzerland | LCA and techno-economic analysis | Solar thermochemical fuel production | Feasibility and cost of solar-based fuels | A |
5 | Klein, et al. [18] | 2023 | United States | Techno-economic and LCA | Biorefinery strategy for alcohols | Economic and global warming potential analysis of hybrid biorefinery | A |
6 | Luo, et al. [19] | 2022 | China | LCA | Methanol vehicles | Sustainability comparison of methanol and other alternative vehicles | A |
7 | Ryu, et al. [20] | 2022 | South Korea, United States | Systematic analysis framework | Carbon capture and utilization | Sustainability analysis framework for global market dynamics | A |
8 | Benavides, et al. [21] | 2022 | United States | Techno-economic analysis and LCA | Biomass-derived fuel | Feasibility of bioblendstock production for advanced engines | A |
9 | Bartling, et al. [22] | 2021 | United States, Switzerland, UK, Sweden, Belgium | Techno-economic analysis and LCA | Biorefinery processes | Cost and environmental impacts of reductive catalytic fractionation | A |
10 | Sarp, et al. [23] | 2021 | United States | Literature review | CO2 -based methanol production | Potential and challenges of methanol as a renewable fuel | R |
11 | Al-Qahtani, et al. [24] | 2020 | UK, Switzerland, Spain | Life cycle modelling and analysis | Methanol from CO2 | Transportation–power nexus of green methanol production | A |
12 | Torres, et al. [25] | 2020 | United States | LCA | Biodiesel from waste cooking oil | Environmental impacts of biodiesel fuels | CP |
13 | Lopez, et al. [26] | 2020 | Philippines, United States | Life cycle-based cost-benefit analysis | Alternative vehicles | Evaluation of costs and benefits of alternative vehicles | A |
14 | Hoseinzade and Adams [27] | 2019 | Canada | Techno-economic analysis | Biomass and natural gas | Feasibility of liquid fuel production using carbonless heat | A |
15 | Bicer and Dincer [28] | 2018 | Canada, Qatar, Turkey | LCA | Alternative fuels | Environmental impact of various fuels for transportation | A |
16 | Sundaram, et al. [29] | 2017 | Netherlands, Germany | Process simulation and LCA | Gasoline production routes | Comparison of new and conventional gasoline production pathways | A |
17 | Kim, et al. [30] | 2012 | United States | System-level analysis | Solar-thermal fuel production | Feasibility and cost of CO2 and water conversion to liquid fuels | A |
18 | Tarka and Chen [31] | 2009 | United States | Process evaluation | MTG process | Environmental and economic implications of coal-based gasoline | CP |
19 | Renó, et al. [32] | 2009 | Brazil | LCA | Methanol from sugarcane bagasse | Environmental and energy impacts of bio-methanol production | CP |
20 | Zhang [33] | 2007 | United States | Experimental and system evaluation | Carbohydrates as hydrogen carriers | Feasibility of carbohydrates for hydrogen production in transportation | CP |
21 | Zhou, et al. [34] | 2007 | China | Multi-criteria assessment | Various fuels | Sustainability index rating across multiple fuel types | A |
22 | Joshi, et al. [35] | 2002 | United States | Comparative life cycle analysis | Alternative transportation fuels | Environmental and energy performance of various fuels | CP |
Fuel Parameters | Unit | Natural Gas (Methane) | Methanol | Gasoline | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Molecular composition | - | CH4 | CH3OH | C5–C12 | [40] |
Density at 15 °C | kg/m3 | ~0.83 * | ~795 | ~750 to 765 | [41,42,43] |
Specific gravity | - | ~0.55 | 0.79 | 0.72 to 0.76 | [44] |
Boiling point | °C | -161 | 64 | 27 to 225 | [41,42,43] |
Ignition threshold | °C | –188 | 11 | –43 to –50 | [45,46] |
Research octane number | – | ~120 | ~110 | ~91 to 100 | [41,42,43] |
Net calorific value | MJ/kg | ~50 | ~19.9 | ~43 to 44 | [47,48] |
O2 content | wt% | 0 | 50 | 0 | [41,42,43] |
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Al-Yafei, H.; Aseel, S.; Kunju, A.A. Evaluating the Sustainability of the Natural Gas-Based Methanol-to-Gasoline Industry: A Global Systematic Review. Sustainability 2025, 17, 5355. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17125355
Al-Yafei H, Aseel S, Kunju AA. Evaluating the Sustainability of the Natural Gas-Based Methanol-to-Gasoline Industry: A Global Systematic Review. Sustainability. 2025; 17(12):5355. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17125355
Chicago/Turabian StyleAl-Yafei, Hussein, Saleh Aseel, and Ali Ansaruddin Kunju. 2025. "Evaluating the Sustainability of the Natural Gas-Based Methanol-to-Gasoline Industry: A Global Systematic Review" Sustainability 17, no. 12: 5355. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17125355
APA StyleAl-Yafei, H., Aseel, S., & Kunju, A. A. (2025). Evaluating the Sustainability of the Natural Gas-Based Methanol-to-Gasoline Industry: A Global Systematic Review. Sustainability, 17(12), 5355. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17125355