Building Sustainable Teaching Careers: The Impact of Diversity Practices on Middle School Teachers’ Job Satisfaction in China and the United States

Abstract

Given the growing global emphasis on inclusive education, it is critical to understand how diversity practices in schools influence middle school teachers’ job satisfaction and long-term retention. However, previous research has paid limited attention to cross-cultural differences and often overlooks how diversity-related demands interact with workplace resources. Grounded in the Job Demands–Resources (JD–R) framework, this comparative study conceptualizes perceived diversity practices as job demands that may place additional emotional and cognitive burdens on teachers, while teacher–student relationships are viewed as key social resources that can buffer these effects. Using data from the 2018 OECD Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS), we analyzed responses from over 6500 middle school teachers in the United States and China, employing regression analysis, Shapley value decomposition, and structural equation modeling (SEM) to examine direct and mediated pathways. The results reveal marked cultural variation: In the U.S., diversity practices as job demands are more likely to be associated with increased job satisfaction through direct institutional support—particularly for female and older teachers. In contrast, in China, the positive impact of diversity-related demands on job satisfaction is primarily achieved through strong teacher–student relationships, which serve as vital compensatory resources—especially for middle-aged educators. These findings underscore the importance of culturally responsive policy design; while individualistic educational systems may benefit from direct structural supports, collectivist systems may require relational strategies to foster sustainable teacher satisfaction and retention, ultimately advancing educational quality and equity.

1. Introduction

1.1. Global Focus on Diversity Practices in Education

In recent years, there has been a significant global emphasis on diversity practices within education, driven by the need to create inclusive learning environments that recognize and celebrate the cultural, ethnic, and linguistic diversity of students [1,2,3,4]. Diversity practices refer to deliberate institutional strategies and pedagogical approaches that aim to address and accommodate differences among students—such as those based on race, culture, language, or ability—in order to promote equity, social justice, and inclusive academic participation [5]. These practices include multicultural education, intercultural understanding, culturally responsive teaching, and the creation of policies that support marginalized learners [6].

International bodies, such as the United Nations, UNESCO, and OECD, have championed efforts to ensure that all students, regardless of their background, have access to equitable and inclusive education [7,8,9]. This global push underscores the importance of fostering sustainable educational environments where all students, especially those from marginalized groups, are provided with opportunities to thrive academically and socially [10].

Many countries are responding to this call by developing and implementing policies that promote inclusivity and diversity in schools. For example, schools are increasingly focusing on multicultural education, culturally responsive teaching practices, and curricula that reflect a broad spectrum of cultural perspectives [11,12,13]. Additionally, initiatives such as the inclusion of diverse voices in school governance and curriculum development have been adopted to promote equity and reduce barriers to educational access [14]. The emphasis on inclusivity goes beyond policy frameworks, as schools now regularly organize events and programs that celebrate cultural diversity and train educators to adopt inclusive pedagogical practices [15,16].

Past federal education reforms, such as Race to the Top, have shown that policy changes can significantly impact teacher qualifications, work environments, and job attitudes [17]. In this context, it is crucial to understand how diversity practices intersect with these policy changes to promote sustainable teacher retention. Recent research illustrates that evaluation systems may inadvertently perpetuate racial disparities [18]. These effects, coupled with diversity practices, may further shape teacher satisfaction in multicultural educational settings, highlighting the importance of well-integrated diversity initiatives to ensure positive outcomes.

Despite these efforts, challenges remain. In many regions, the full implementation of inclusive practices is hindered by systemic issues, such as insufficient teacher training, lack of knowledge and skills of educators, attitudes of students and parents, and resistance to change [19,20,21]. However, as schools continue to adopt more comprehensive policies and frameworks, the move towards truly inclusive educational systems is progressing. The focus on diversity is becoming more central to the mission of schools worldwide, reflecting broader global trends in human rights and social justice [21].

1.2. Female Middle School Teachers in Diverse Environments

Female teachers, especially those from underrepresented ethnic backgrounds, may encounter cultural dissonance and struggle to balance personal values with the expectations of their schools. This dissonance can be particularly evident in teacher–student interactions, where middle-class, white, female teachers often face the challenge of relating to culturally diverse students [22,23,24]. Studies have shown that these teachers must often navigate complex classroom management situations while maintaining effective teacher–student relationships, which refer to the emotional and instructional connections between educators and their students, encompassing trust, mutual respect, communication, and supportive interactions that influence both academic performance and social development [25]. Additionally, female middle school teachers are frequently expected to juggle various instructional roles, especially in co-teaching environments, which require collaboration with other teachers to meet the needs of diverse learners [26]. This requires additional planning and often leads to increased workload and stress.

Despite these challenges, female middle school teachers have unique opportunities to build strong, supportive relationships with students, particularly during critical developmental phases. Research suggests that teachers who develop quality relationships with students see fewer behavioral problems and greater academic performance [27]. Female teachers, in particular, are often able to leverage their nurturing roles to create environments where students feel supported and motivated, especially during the tumultuous middle school years.

Moreover, culturally responsive teaching, when implemented by female teachers, has shown to be effective in enhancing student engagement and success in diverse environments [28]. Teachers who are attuned to their students’ cultural backgrounds can foster deeper connections and promote inclusivity in the classroom.

1.3. Varying Impacts of Diversity Practices on Job Satisfaction

Previous research has shown that diversity practices can have varying impacts on teacher job satisfaction, depending on several factors such as the support provided, teacher–student relationships, and the teachers’ perceptions of diversity. For example, study found that positive perceptions of diversity management significantly predicted higher levels of job satisfaction among teachers [29]. This suggests that when diversity practices are well supported and integrated within the school’s culture, teachers tend to experience greater satisfaction in their roles.

However, other research has shown that diversity can also introduce challenges. A study reported that beginning teachers in schools with high levels of racial/ethnic diversity often experience lower job satisfaction and greater difficulties in establishing meaningful relationships with students [30]. This suggests that, without sufficient support or preparation, teachers may find it more challenging to adapt to diverse classrooms. Similarly, a longitudinal study highlighted that teacher who reported more openness to cultural diversity had more positive relationships with students but experienced a lower sense of professional efficacy [31], suggesting a trade-off between relationship building and perceived ability to effectively manage diverse classrooms.

1.4. The Need for Cross-Cultural Comparison Between the United States and China

Diversity in education varies across cultural and national contexts, notably between the United States and China. The United States emphasizes multiculturalism, focusing on integrating students from diverse ethnic, racial, and linguistic backgrounds, while China promotes national unity and ethnic integration, prioritizing uniformity in language and culture [32]. These differing philosophies influence teacher–student relationships and job satisfaction.

In the United States, teachers in diverse classrooms report higher satisfaction when supported but face challenges in under-resourced environments [29,33]. Conversely, Chinese teachers work within a framework of national identity, which impacts their perception of diversity and job roles [34]. Research shows that Chinese teachers struggle with adopting Western educational practices, such as the flipped classroom model, due to differing cultural norms [35].

While teachers in the United States emphasize individualized and culturally responsive teaching, Chinese teachers focus on standardized methods [36]. Cross-cultural studies reveal that Chinese teachers value financial compensation and professional support, while teachers in the United States report higher satisfaction from autonomy and social utility [37]. Both systems highlight unique challenges, with Chinese rural teachers facing low pay and teachers in the United States dealing with under-supported diversity in classrooms [38].

1.5. The Mediating Role of Teacher–Student Relationships in the Link Between School Diversity Practices and Teacher Job Satisfaction

Previous studies have indicated that teacher–student relationships significantly mediate the link between school diversity practices and teacher job satisfaction. These relationships are vital for a supportive learning environment in diverse schools, addressing challenges through mutual respect and emotional support [39,40,41]. Effective diversity practices that value inclusivity enhance teacher satisfaction, especially when combined with strong teacher–student bonds, reducing stress and improving engagement, thus promoting teachers’ sustainable career longevity [29,42,43,44]. Conversely, poor diversity practices or weak relationships can lead to dissatisfaction and higher burnout among teachers struggling with cultural differences [45]. Therefore, teacher–student relationships are not only a well-supported empirical predictor but also a theoretically grounded mechanism through which diversity initiatives can exert their effects on teacher well-being.

2. Literature Review

2.1. Diversity in Teaching Practices in the United States and China

To better explain the cultural differences underlying teaching practices in China and the United States, this section draws on established cultural theories and empirical studies. Hofstede’s cultural dimensions theory provides a foundational framework: Chinese culture tends to emphasize collectivism, high power distance, and uncertainty avoidance, while American culture promotes individualism, low power distance, and a higher tolerance for ambiguity—differences that shape how authority, autonomy, and classroom interaction are perceived and enacted [46]. Educational sociology further helps explain how these cultural values are transmitted in classroom settings. For example, Chinese education often centers on standardized knowledge delivery and exam-oriented outcomes, while U.S. classrooms encourage open dialogue, creativity, and pluralistic perspectives, reflecting differing mechanisms of cultural capital and stratification [47]. In addition, historical and identity-based analyses show that cultural patterns—such as reverence for order and collective harmony in China versus emphasis on individual voice and critical thinking in the U.S.—continue to influence educational structures and teacher–student relationships in both contexts [48].

Existing studies indicate that the integration of various strategies to accommodate diverse student needs is of great importance in todays’ teaching [49,50,51]. In the United States, research emphasizes the importance of multicultural education, differentiated instruction, and cultural competence across various levels and types of education [52,53], with findings suggesting that these approaches contribute to higher job satisfaction and working performance among teachers and the improvement of performance of students by fostering inclusive environments and effectively engaging a wide range of learners [54,55,56]. Similarly, in China, the emerging focus on bilingual education, inclusive classroom practices, and teacher training in diversity and inclusion enable educators to better serve the needs of their diverse student populations [57,58,59].

Moreover, in both countries, there is a growing recognition of the role that teacher attitudes and beliefs play in the implementation of diversity practices. For instance, research indicates that teachers who hold positive attitudes towards diversity are more likely to adopt inclusive teaching methods and create supportive learning environments [60,61,62,63]. However, despite the progress made, there are challenges and limitations to the implementation of diversity in teaching practices in both the United States and China. Issues such as lack of administrative/institutional/teaching resources and support, curricular problems, student resistance, language barriers, and institutional barriers can hinder the effectiveness of diversity teachings [64,65,66,67]. Future research should explore these challenges in greater depth and seek to identify effective strategies for overcoming them, thereby enhancing the job satisfaction and professional development of teachers in both countries.

2.2. Job Satisfaction, Teachers’ Job Satisfaction, and Its Importance

Job satisfaction, a multifaceted and extensively investigated concept within the realms of psychology, sociology, and organizational behavior, encapsulates an individual’s overall emotional and cognitive response to their job, shaped by a complex interplay of various factors such as the physical and emotional working conditions, the quality of interpersonal relationships within the workplace, and the perceived fairness and adequacy of the rewards associated with the job. This concept of job satisfaction emerged as a significant area of interest in the early 20th century, particularly with the groundbreaking contributions of pioneering researchers like Elton Mayo, whose influential Hawthorne studies probed the intricate relationship between job satisfaction and productivity, ultimately revealing the profound impact that worker contentment could have on organizational success and efficiency [68]. The theoretical frameworks that have since evolved, such as Herzberg’s two-factor theory, which delineates the distinct factors that lead to job satisfaction and dissatisfaction, and Locke’s goal-setting theory, which emphasizes the role of clear and challenging goals in enhancing job satisfaction, have significantly deepened our understanding of the motivational drivers behind job satisfaction, distinguishing between intrinsic motivators, such as personal fulfillment and sense of achievement, and extrinsic motivators, such as salary and recognition [69].

Teacher job satisfaction, specifically, plays a critical role in educational settings. It affects not only teachers’ mental well-being and motivation but also the quality of education students receive [70,71,72,73]. This, in turn, translates into better teaching practices, stronger student–teacher relationships, and improved academic achievement among students [74,75]. Satisfied teachers are more likely to be dedicated to their work, leading to better student outcomes and overall school performance [76,77,78,79]. Studies also emphasize that teacher satisfaction directly correlates with student success and the general school climate [80,81,82].

2.3. Factors Influencing Teachers’ Job Satisfaction

Some studies have confirmed that some personal characteristics of teachers contribute to their job satisfaction. For instance, the teacher’s gender, age, educational level, marriage status, and self-efficacy are significant factors influencing their job satisfaction [83,84,85,86]. Additionally, some working characteristics such as the nature of teachers’ work and communication at work, salary, working conditions and professional development, interpersonal relations, and chance for promotion have also been found as predictors of teachers’ job satisfaction [87,88,89,90,91,92,93,94]. Moreover, some mental and emotional statuses, like motivation, occupational stress, and psychological well-being, are also important factors influencing teachers’ job satisfaction [95,96,97].

Furthermore, teachers’ job satisfaction is influenced by a multitude of macro-level factors. For instance, the conditions of the school at which teachers are employed, such as school climate and culture, leadership styles and practices among school leaders, and school infrastructure, have been found to be highly correlated with teacher job satisfaction [98,99,100,101,102,103,104]. Additionally, institutional or national policies related to teachers and education are predictive factors of teacher job satisfaction [105,106]. Furthermore, some other social factors, such as attitude toward the teaching profession, social support, and social prestige of the teaching profession, significantly impact teacher job satisfaction [107,108,109].

3. Theoretical Framework

3.1. Job Demands–Resources Model and Job Satisfaction in Teachers’ Workplace Experiences

The Job Demands–Resources (JD–R) model distinguishes between job demands (aspects of the job that require sustained effort and incur physiological or psychological costs) and job resources (aspects that help achieve work goals, reduce job demands, and stimulate growth and development) [110]. In the teaching context, this framework offers a multidimensional explanation of job satisfaction by accounting for both stressors and motivators within the work environment.

In the context of teachers’ workplace experiences, the JD–R model provides a tailored explanation of teacher job satisfaction by accounting for teaching-specific demands and resources within their work environment. In the current study, this framework classifies job characteristics into domains as follows:

(1) Job demands

Job demands encompass the physical, psychological, social, or organizational aspects that require sustained effort [111]. In multicultural teaching settings, demands may include:

Cultural management challenges: navigating diverse student backgrounds and expectations can increase emotional labor and planning complexity [112].

(2) Job resources

Job resources refer to physical, social, or organizational aspects of the job that: (a) reduce job demands and associated costs, (b) are functional in achieving work goals, and (c) promote personal growth and development [110]. A corresponding job resource is:

Teacher–Student relationships: positive interactions with students serve as critical social resources that buffer job demands and directly enhance job satisfaction through emotional and instructional support [113,114].

3.2. Experiences Hypothesized Effects Based on the JD–R Model

In this study, we propose three effects based on the JD–R model:

Direct effect: diversity practices directly enhance teachers’ control over their work environment (e.g., reducing discrimination pressure), thereby improving job satisfaction, with stronger effects being observed in the U.S. context.

Mediation effect: teacher–student relationships, as job demand, mediate between diversity practices and job satisfaction by compensating for resource deficits (e.g., Chinese teachers leveraging harmonious relationships), consistent with the JD–R gain cycle.

Heterogeneity analysis: the buffering effect of resources varies across teacher groups. For example, female or senior teachers—who may face higher work demands—experience stronger protective effects of resources on job satisfaction due to the JD–R resource–demand interplay.

4. The Present Study

4.1. Research Gaps

Although many studies have examined factors influencing teacher job satisfaction, most have emphasized general working conditions such as salary, workload, and leadership style [29,44]. However, limited research has explored how perceived diversity practices function as job resources that shape teachers’ psychological experiences at work. When diversity is addressed, attention typically centers on student outcomes or institutional policies, rather than on how these practices are interpreted by teachers and integrated into their own work experiences. This reveals an important theoretical gap: the existing literature overlooks the potential of inclusive school practices to serve as supportive resources that enhance teachers’ sense of psychological safety, professional recognition, and capacity to cope with job demands—key mechanisms outlined in the Job Demands–Resources (JD–R) framework.

The existing literature also lacks clarity on how the effects of diversity practices vary among different groups of teachers. Studies suggest that demographic and professional characteristics—such as gender, age, and teaching experience—play a role in shaping how teachers perceive and respond to their work environment [22,24,37]. However, few empirical studies have systematically examined whether the impact of diversity practices on teacher satisfaction is moderated by these background characteristics. Moreover, cross-cultural comparative research in this area is scarce, despite substantial differences between collectivist systems like China and individualistic systems like the United States [32,46]. This gap limits our understanding of how the cultural context interacts with individual characteristics in shaping teachers’ professional well-being.

While teacher–student relationships are widely recognized as a critical component of positive teaching experiences, their mediating role in the link between diversity practices and teacher job satisfaction remains theoretically underdeveloped and empirically understudied. Prior research has demonstrated that supportive relationships with students can reduce emotional exhaustion and foster a sense of belonging [40,112], functioning as key social resources within the workplace. However, few studies have situated these relationships within a broader theoretical model—such as the Job Demands–Resources (JD–R) framework—to explain how inclusive practices at the institutional level translate into improved psychological outcomes for teachers. Furthermore, little is known about whether the strength or function of this mediating pathway varies across cultural contexts that differ in their emphasis on relational versus individualistic values [41,45]. This lack of theoretical integration highlights a critical gap in the literature on diversity, teacher motivation, and long-term professional well-being.

4.2. Hypotheses

Building on the Job Demands–Resources (JD–R) framework, this study posits that perceived diversity practices in schools serve as key job resources that directly enhance teachers’ job satisfaction. Diversity practices—such as fair treatment, inclusive policies, and recognition of diverse contributions—help create psychologically safe and equitable work environments. These practices reduce the impact of job demands while simultaneously promoting motivation and professional engagement [115,116,117]. By fostering a supportive organizational climate, schools enable teachers to feel valued, secure, and empowered in their roles. Prior studies have demonstrated that inclusive school environments are positively associated with teacher satisfaction [29,44] and that these associations hold even after controlling for factors such as teaching experience and educational background [88,93]. Therefore, this study hypothesizes that diversity practices will have a direct, positive effect on teacher job satisfaction across cultural contexts.

The effect of diversity practices, however, may vary across teacher subgroups. Female teachers, particularly those who experience greater cultural dissonance or emotional labor in diverse classrooms, may derive stronger psychological benefits from inclusive school environments [22,24]. The teachers’ age may also moderate this relationship, as more experienced educators often report higher satisfaction in supportive and inclusive contexts [33,37]. In the United States, older teachers may benefit from greater autonomy and recognition, while in China, mid-career teachers—often responsible for maintaining classroom cohesion—may respond more favorably to relational forms of diversity support. These cultural dynamics, grounded in Hofstede’s theory of collectivism versus individualism [46], suggest that the effects of diversity practices will be context-dependent.

Finally, teacher–student relationships are expected to mediate the relationship between diversity practices and teacher job satisfaction. Within the Job Demands–Resources (JD–R) framework, positive teacher–student interactions function as vital social resources that buffer emotional strain and promote well-being. Prior studies have shown that such relationships reduce burnout and foster a sense of connection and professional fulfillment [40,112,118]. In diverse classrooms, supportive relationships can amplify the benefits of inclusive school practices by reinforcing psychological safety and interpersonal trust [41,42]. Accordingly, this study hypothesizes that diversity practices enhance teacher–student relationships, which in turn lead to greater job satisfaction. This mediating effect is expected to be more salient in China, where relational harmony and collective belonging are emphasized in the educational context [32,45], compared with the United States, where individual recognition and autonomy may hold greater importance.

4.3. Research Question

Based on the current research background and identified theoretical gaps, this study applies the Job Demands–Resources (JD–R) framework to investigate how perceived diversity practices—viewed as a form of job demand—affect middle school teachers’ job satisfaction (see Figure 1). In diverse school environments, navigating and responding to institutional diversity expectations (e.g., implementing inclusive practices, adapting to multicultural classrooms) can place additional psychological and relational demands on teachers. However, the JD–R model posits that job resources can buffer the negative effects of such demands and foster motivation. In this context, teacher–student relationships function as a key social resource, potentially mediating the relationship between diversity-related demands and job satisfaction by promoting emotional support and relational fulfillment. This study also explores cross-cultural variation in this mechanism, recognizing that the role of relational resources may be more salient in collectivist contexts. Accordingly, we propose a demand–resource–outcome pathway in which diversity practices, as job demands, influence job satisfaction through the mobilization of teacher–student relationships as buffering resources. The following three research questions are proposed to guide the empirical analysis:

RQ1: How do diversity practices, considering control variables such as education level and experience, influence middle school teachers’ job satisfaction?

RQ2: How do diversity practices affect middle school teachers’ job satisfaction across different subgroups (e.g., gender, age)?

RQ3: How do teacher–student relationships mediate the relationship between diversity practices and middle school teachers’ job satisfaction?

For each research question, this research conducts a comparative analysis between the United States and China to highlight potential cultural differences in these relationships.

5. Methods

5.1. Data

This study utilized data from the most recent Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS) conducted by the OECD [119]. The present analyses are based on country-level data from the United States and China, which consist of 6536 middle school teachers from 198 participating middle schools. The characteristics of the participants are shown in

Table 1. Characteristics of the participants.

Characteristics	Declaration	The United States		China
		N	Percentage	N	Percentage
Gender	Male	837	32.77%	1035	26.03%
	Female	1717	67.23%	2941	73.97%
Age	Under 25	88	3.49%	119	2.99%
	25–29	281	11.13%	534	13.43%
	30–39	699	27.69%	1316	33.11%
	40–49	790	31.30%	1418	35.67%
	50–59	493	19.53%	566	16.29%
	60 and above	173	6.85%	22	3.00%
Highest level of formal education completed	ISCED 2011 Level 3	2	0.08%	0	0.00%
	ISCED 2011 Level 5	5	0.20%	35	0.88%
	ISCED 2011 Level 6	972	38.10%	3413	86.12%
	ISCED 2011 Level 7	1524	59.74%	514	12.97%
	ISCED 2011 Level 8	48	1.88%	1	0.03%
Employment status	Permanent employment (an on-going contract with no fixed end-point before the age of retirement)	1664	65.98%	1190	30.07%
	Fixed-term contract for a period of more than 1 school year	272	10.79%	2716	68.62%
	Fixed-term contract for a period of 1 school year or less	586	23.24%	52	1.31%
Teaching as the first choice as a career	Yes	1465	58.04%	3417	86.48%
	No	1059	41.96%	534	13.52%
Characteristics	Declaration	Mean	SD	Mean	SD
Work experience	Experiences as a teacher at this school	8.10	7.48	12.01	7.81
	Experiences as a teacher in total	13.99	9.41	16.80	9.65
	Experiences in other education roles, not as a teacher	3.25	6.22	0.39	2.39
	Experiences in other non-education roles	6.52	7.62	0.36	1.91

.

The descriptive statistics presented in Table 1 reveal several notable differences between the teacher samples from the United States and China. Regarding gender distribution, the sample from China showed a higher proportion of female teachers (73.97%) compared with the United States (67.23%). Similarly, teachers in China were generally older, with a larger percentage falling into the 30–49 age brackets (68.78% in China vs. 58.82% in the US) and a smaller percentage being 60 and above (3.00% in China vs. 6.85% in the US). The distribution of highest formal education levels completed also differed significantly, with a much higher proportion of teachers in China holding ISCED Level 6 (bachelor’s equivalent, 86.12%) compared with the US, whereas a larger proportion of US teachers held ISCED Levels 7 and 8 (Master’s and doctoral equivalents, 61.62% combined).

Differences were also observed in employment status: a significantly higher percentage of teachers in China held fixed-term contracts (68.62%) compared with the US (10.79%), while permanent employment was much more common in the US (65.98% vs. 30.07% in China). Furthermore, teachers in China were considerably more likely to have chosen teaching as their first career choice (86.48%) than their US counterparts (58.04%). Regarding experience, teachers in China reported significantly longer durations in total teaching experience (M = 16.80 years, SD = 9.65) and experience at their current school (M = 12.01 years, SD = 7.81) compared with US teachers (total teaching experience: M = 13.99 years, SD = 9.41; current school experience: M = 8.10 years, SD = 7.48). Additionally, US teachers reported substantially more experience in other education roles (M = 3.25 years, SD = 6.22) and other non-education roles (M = 6.52 years, SD = 7.62) compared with their Chinese counterparts (other education roles: M = 0.39 years, SD = 2.39; other non-education roles: M = 0.36 years, SD = 1.91).

To support subsequent analyses,

Table 2. Pearson correlation coefficient table.

	DPs	T–S Rs	JS
DPs	–
T–S R	0.164 ***	–
JS	0.162 ***	0.385 ***	–

Note: DPs = Diversity practices; T–S Rs = teacher–student relationships; JS = job satisfaction. *** p < 0.001.

presents the Pearson correlation coefficients among key study variables, including perceived diversity practices, teacher–student relationships, and job satisfaction.

5.2. Variables

5.2.1. Dependent Variable: Teachers’ Job Satisfaction

TALIS 2018 measured teachers’ job satisfaction through the Job Satisfaction Scale measured from three dimensions: job satisfaction with work environment, job satisfaction with profession, and satisfaction with target class autonomy, with the question being “We would like to know how you generally feel about your job. How strongly do you agree or disagree with the following statements?” and “How strongly do you agree or disagree that you have control over the following areas of your planning and teaching in this <target class>?” including 13 items. The items and options are shown in

Table 3. List of survey items and corresponding constructs.

Dependent Variable	Items	Options
Job satisfaction	* I would like to change to another school if that were possible	1 = Strongly disagree 2 = Disagree 3 = Agree 4 = Strongly agree
	I enjoy working at this school
	I would recommend this school as a good place to work
	All in all, I am satisfied with my job
	The advantages of being a teacher clearly outweigh the disadvantages
	If I could decide again, I would still choose to work as a teacher
	* I regret that I decided to become a teacher
	* I wonder whether it would have been better to choose another profession
	Determining course content
	Selecting teaching methods
	Assessing students’ learning
	Disciplining students
	Determining the amount of homework to be assigned
Independent variable	Items	Options
Diversity practices	Supporting activities or organisations that encourage students’ expression of diverse ethnic and cultural identities (e.g., artistic groups)	1 = Yes 2 = No
	Organising multicultural events (e.g., cultural diversity day)
	Teaching students how to deal with ethnic and cultural discrimination
	Adopting teaching and learning practices that integrate global issues throughout the curriculum
Control variables	Items
Highest level of formal education	1 = Below ISCED 2011 Level 3 2 = ISCED 2011 Level 3 3 = ISCED 2011 Level 4 4 = ISCED 2011 Level 5 5 = ISCED 2011 Level 6 6 = ISCED 2011 Level 7 7 = ISCED 2011 Level 8
Teaching as the first choice as a career	1 = Yes 2 = No
Employment status	1 = Permanent employment (an on-going contract with no fixed end-point before the age of retirement) 2 = Fixed-term contract for a period of more than 1 school year 3 = Fixed-term contract for a period of 1 school year or less
Number of enrolled students	1 = Under 250 2 = 250–499 3 = 500–749 4 = 750–999 5 = 1000 and above
Percentage of students with special needs	1 = None 2 = 1–10% 3 = 11–30% 4 = 31% to 60% 5 = More than 60%
Percentage of the school’s students from socio-economically disadvantaged backgrounds	1 = None 2 = 1–10% 3 = 11–30% 4 = 31% to 60% 5 = More than 60%
Control variables	Mean	SD
Total hours spent on tasks related to job at school	45.90	15.41
Mediating variable	Items	Options
Teaching–Student relations	Teachers and students usually get on well with each other	1 = Strongly disagree 2 = Disagree 3 = Agree 4 = Strongly agree
	Most teachers believe that the students’ well-being is important
	Most teachers are interested in what students have to say
	If a student needs extra assistance, the school provides it

Note: * Items were reverse-coded.

. This study conducted a factor analysis on the Job Satisfaction Scale. The scale’s internal consistency was evaluated using Cronbach’s alpha, a statistical measure ranging from 0 to 1 that assesses the reliability among multiple items within a scale or test (Cronbach’s α = 0.846), where values above 0.7 are generally considered indicative of high reliability [120]. The suitability of the data for factor analysis was assessed by the Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy, which evaluates the degree of partial correlations among variables. The KMO statistic ranges from 0 to 1, with values closer to 1 indicating stronger partial correlations and thus more reliable factor analysis results. A KMO value above 0.7 is typically regarded as acceptable for factor analysis [121,122]. In this study, the KMO value was 0.869 (p < 0.001), indicating good suitability. The factor scores extracted from this analysis were then used as the dependent variable in subsequent modeling.

5.2.2. Independent Variable: Diversity Practices

Diversity practices were measured using the “Diversity Practices” Scale derived from the 2018 Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS 2018). This scale includes four dichotomous items designed to capture the extent to which teachers implement diversity-related strategies in their instructional practice and classroom culture. As shown in Table 3, the items assess whether teachers (1) support activities or organizations that encourage students’ expression of diverse ethnic and cultural identities (e.g., artistic groups), (2) organize multicultural events (e.g., cultural diversity days), (3) teach students how to address ethnic and cultural discrimination, and (4) adopt teaching and learning practices that integrate global issues throughout the curriculum. Each item was measured using a binary coding scheme, with “1 = Yes” indicating the presence of the practice and “2 = No” indicating its absence.

For analytical purposes, we reverse-coded the responses so that higher scores reflect greater implementation of diversity practices (i.e., 1 = no, recoded to 0; 2 = yes, recoded to 1). A composite index was then constructed by summing the binary responses across all four items, resulting in a scale ranging from 0 to 4. Higher scores on this index indicate a broader implementation of diversity-oriented teaching strategies and institutional commitments. Cronbach’s alpha was also computed to assess internal consistency and ensure the reliability of the composite measure. To ensure overall measurement validity and comparability across the model, the dependent variable (teacher job satisfaction) was based on the TALIS 2018 Job Satisfaction Scale, which underwent exploratory factor analysis (KMO = 0.734, p < 0.001; Cronbach’s α = 0.739). Factor scores from this analysis were used as the outcome variable in the main statistical models.

5.2.3. Control Variables

The control variables of this study include the teacher’s highest level of formal education, teaching as a first-choice career, employment status, total hours spent on job-related tasks at school, the number of enrolled students at the school, count of special needs students, and the percentage of students from socio-economically disadvantaged homes. The specific items and options of control variables are presented in Table 3.

5.2.4. Mediating Variable: Teaching–Student Relations

Some studies have confirmed that positive teacher–student relationships significantly influence teacher job satisfaction. Therefore, this study incorporated teaching–student relations as a mediating variable. TALIS 2018 measured teaching–student relations through the Teaching–Student Relations Scale, with the question being “How strongly do you agree or disagree with the following statements about what happens in this school?” The item and options are shown in Table 3. This study conducted a factor analysis on the Teaching–Student Relations Scale (Cronbach’s α = 0.876, KMO = 0.832, p < 0.001) and used the factor scores as a mediating variable in the model.

5.3. Analytical Strategy

To ensure the validity and robustness of findings, this study employed a multi-method quantitative analysis approach, including regression modeling, Shapley value decomposition, and structural equation modeling (SEM). These techniques allow for a layered examination of the role of diversity practices in shaping middle school teachers’ job satisfaction across two national contexts. The analyses were performed using STATA 17 and AMOS 24.

5.3.1. Regression Analysis

To examine the relationship between diversity practices and teachers’ job satisfaction, we constructed a multiple linear regression model. The dependent variable is teachers’ job satisfaction (JS), while the key independent variable is diversity practices (DPs). Several covariates were also included to control for relevant background characteristics: the highest level of formal education (HE), whether teaching was the first career choice (TC), teachers’ employment status (TES), total hours spent on school-related tasks (THs), number of enrolled students (NES), number of students with special needs (SNS), and the percentage of students from socio-economically disadvantaged homes (SED). The regression model is expressed as:

$$JS={\beta }_0+{\beta }_1·DP+{\beta }_2·HE+{\beta }_3·TC+{\beta }_4·TES+{\beta }_5·TH+{\beta }_6·NES+{\beta }_7·SNS+{\beta }_8·SED+\mathsf{\epsilon }$$

Here, β₀ represents the intercept, β₁–β₈ are the regression coefficients, and ε is the random error term. This model aims to isolate the net association between diversity practices and job satisfaction while accounting for other contextual variables that may influence the outcome. The regression results serve as the foundation for further decomposition and modeling analysis.

5.3.2. Shapley Value Decomposition

To further investigate the relative contribution of each explanatory variable to the variance in teachers’ job satisfaction, the study employed Shapley value decomposition, a technique grounded in cooperative game theory [123]. This method partitions the R² from the regression model across all predictors, yielding an interpretable measure of each variable’s unique and marginal contribution to the explained variance.

This approach is particularly useful in education research where multiple interrelated predictors are examined simultaneously. In the present study, Shapley values were used to determine how much of the variance in job satisfaction can be attributed to diversity practices relative to other predictors. The decomposition was also conducted separately for the United States and China to explore cross-cultural differences in the relative importance of these factors.

5.3.3. Heterogeneity Analysis

To examine whether the effects of diversity practices on middle school teachers’ job satisfaction differ across demographic subgroups, this study conducted a heterogeneity analysis using subgroup regression. Specifically, we divided the sample by gender (male vs. female) and age (under 30, 30–49, and 50 and above) in both the United States and China. For each subgroup, we estimated separate ordinary least squares (OLS) regression models. This subgroup (split-sample) regression approach enables the identification of variations in the strength and significance of predictor variables—particularly diversity practices—across different teacher demographics. By comparing coefficients across models, we assessed whether the relationship between school-level diversity practices and teacher job satisfaction varies systematically by gender and age. This method provides a more granular understanding of how diversity initiatives interact with individual characteristics in shaping professional well-being.

5.3.4. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM)

To test the hypothesized mediation effect of teacher–student relationships, this study constructed a structural equation model (SEM) using AMOS 24 (see Figure 2). This study assessed model fit through the comparative fit index (CFI), normed fit index (NFI), Tucker–Lewis index (TLI), and root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA). Indices such as CFI, NFI, and TLI, which are closer to 1, indicate a superior fit of the model, with 0.9 being regarded as the acceptable threshold for model adequacy, and an RMSEA value of less than 0.08 is considered indicative of a satisfactory model fit [124]. The SEM model of this study yielded NFI, CFI, TLI, and RMSEA values of 0.962, 0.964, 0.942, and 0.052, suggesting that the SEM models adequately represent the intrinsic relationships within the data.

6. Results

6.1. Results of the Regression Model

The results of the regression model (see

Table 4. Results of the regression model.

Dependent Variable: Teachers’ Job Satisfaction	The United States				China
	β	S.E.	t	p	β	S.E.	t	p
Diversity practices	0.263	0.027	9.89	<0.001	0.135	0.032	4.29	<0.001
Highest level of formal education	−0.256	0.105	−2.45	0.015	0.073	0.159	0.46	0.646
Teaching as the first choice as a career	−0.450	0.110	−4.08	<0.001	−1.599	0.168	−9.53	<0.001
Employment status	0.036	0.066	0.55	0.581	−0.163	0.136	−1.20	0.231
Total hours spent on tasks related to job at school	0.103	0.092	1.12	0.264	0.058	0.126	0.46	0.647
Number of enrolled students at the school	−0.004	0.004	−1.18	0.236	−0.007	0.005	−1.30	0.193
Count of special needs students	−0.235	0.159	−1.48	0.139	−0.451	0.114	−3.94	<0.001
The percentage of students from socio-economically disadvantaged homes	−0.171	0.048	−3.52	<0.001	−0.202	0.070	−2.89	0.004
Constant	11.587	0.854	13.57	<0.001	14.469	1.152	12.56	<0.001
N	1784				896
R2	0.080				0.173

) indicate that diversity practices have a positive impact on middle school teachers’ job satisfaction both in the United States (β = 0.263, p < 0.001) and China (β = 0.135, p < 0.001), suggesting that diversity practices can enhance middle school teachers’ job satisfaction. Additionally, for middle school teachers in the United States, age has a positive effect on their job satisfaction (p < 0.05), and the highest level of formal education, the first choice of being a teacher, and the percentage of students from socio-economically disadvantaged homes have negative effects on their job satisfaction (p < 0.05); for middle school teachers in China, age, the first choice of being a teacher, count of special needs students, and the percentage of students from socio-economically disadvantaged homes have negative effects on their job satisfaction (p < 0.05).

6.2. Results of the Shapley Value Decomposition

The results of the Shapley value decomposition (see

Table 5. Results of the Shapley value decomposition.

Factor	The United States		China
	Shapley Value	Percent	Shapley Value	Percent
Diversity practices	0.054	67.13%	0.024	13.84%
Highest level of formal education	0.002	2.68%	0.002	0.91%
Teaching as the first choice as a career	0.009	10.93%	0.095	54.85%
Employment status	0.000	0.41%	0.001	0.63%
Total hours spent on tasks related to job at school	0.001	0.74%	0.001	0.54%
Number of enrolled students at the school	0.001	1.45%	0.001	0.56%
Count of special needs students	0.001	1.71%	0.019	10.75%
The percentage of students from socio-economically disadvantaged homes	0.009	11.17%	0.013	7.61%

) indicate that diversity practices emerge as a significant determinant of middle school teachers’ job satisfaction, albeit with notable differences between the United States and China. In the United States, diversity practices contribute the most to middle teachers’ job satisfaction, accounting for 67.13% of the total variance explained by the model. In China, the contribution of diversity practices to job satisfaction is substantially lower, representing only 13.84% of the total variance. This discrepancy suggests that diversity practices are more important for improving middle school teachers’ job satisfaction in the United States than they are in China.

6.3. Results of Heterogeneity Analysis

6.3.1. Gender

Table 6. Results of the heterogeneity analysis: sender.

Dependent Variable: Teachers’ Job Satisfaction	The United States								China
	Male Middle School Teachers				Female Middle School Teachers				Male Middle School Teachers				Female Middle School Teachers
	β	S.E.	t	p	β	S.E.	t	p	β	S.E.	t	p	β	S.E.	t	p
Diversity practices	0.295	0.045	6.56	<0.001	0.241	0.033	7.22	<0.001	0.129	0.067	1.94	0.054	0.136	0.036	3.80	<0.001
Highest level of formal education	−0.352	0.183	−1.92	0.055	−0.206	0.128	−1.61	0.107	−0.091	0.417	−0.22	0.828	0.166	0.170	0.97	0.330
Teaching as the first choice as a career	−0.273	0.184	−1.49	0.137	−0.560	0.139	−4.02	<0.001	−1.496	0.323	−4.62	<0.001	−1.683	0.196	−8.58	<0.001
Employment status	0.039	0.114	0.35	0.730	0.037	0.082	0.46	0.646	−0.790	0.304	−2.60	0.010	0.023	0.151	0.15	0.881
Total hours spent on tasks related to job at school	0.005	0.139	0.04	0.971	0.183	0.124	1.48	0.140	0.259	0.234	1.10	0.270	−0.004	0.151	−0.02	0.981
Number of enrolled students at the school	−0.008	0.006	−1.25	0.213	−0.002	0.005	−0.50	0.620	−0.007	0.013	−0.54	0.591	−0.007	0.006	−1.22	0.224
Count of special needs students	−0.245	0.243	−1.01	0.315	−0.252	0.210	−1.20	0.230	−0.570	0.245	−2.33	0.021	−0.383	0.129	−2.97	0.003
The percentage of students from socio-economically disadvantaged homes	−0.142	0.083	−1.71	0.088	−0.186	0.060	−3.11	0.002	−0.310	0.152	−2.04	0.043	−0.167	0.078	−2.14	0.032
Constant	11.880	1.433	8.29	<0.001	11.410	1.075	10.61	<0.001	17.161	2.508	6.84	<0.001	13.469	1.309	10.29	<0.001
N	606				1176				241				655
R2	0.089				0.077				0.218				0.173

presents the results of regression comparing male and female middle school teachers in the United States and China. In the United States, diversity practices have a positive effect on male middle school teachers’ job satisfaction (β = 0.295, p < 0.001) and female middle school teachers’ job satisfaction (β = 0.241, p < 0.001). In China, diversity practices have a positive effect on female middle school teachers’ job satisfaction (β = 0.136, p < 0.001); for male middle school teachers, diversity practices have a positive effect on their job satisfaction, albeit this effect is not statistically significant (β = 0.129, p = 0.054).

6.3.2. Age

Table 7. Results of the heterogeneity analysis: age.

Age	Dependent Variable: Teachers’ Job Satisfaction	The United States				China
		β	S.E.	t	p	β	S.E.	t	p
Under 30	Diversity practices	0.255	0.025	10.34	<0.001	0.187	0.029	6.39	<0.001
	Highest level of formal education	−0.252	0.095	−2.64	0.008	0.211	0.135	1.56	0.118
	Teaching as the first choice as a career	−0.488	0.103	−4.74	<0.001	−1.204	0.146	−8.27	<0.001
	Employment status	0.014	0.062	0.22	0.825	−0.082	0.093	−0.88	0.380
	Total hours spent on tasks related to job at school	0.082	0.087	0.94	0.348	0.243	0.116	2.09	0.037
	Number of enrolled students at the school	−0.199	0.106	−1.87	0.061	−0.209	0.139	−1.50	0.133
	Count of special needs students	−0.312	0.136	−2.30	0.021	−0.382	0.114	−3.36	<0.001
	The percentage of students from socio-economically disadvantaged homes	−0.178	0.044	−4.03	<0.001	−0.161	0.056	−2.87	0.004
	Constant	12.903	0.837	15.41	<0.001	11.457	1.024	11.19	<0.001
	N	1983				1146
	R2	0.082				0.133
30–49	Diversity practices	0.240	0.021	11.18	<0.001	0.229	0.022	10.54	<0.001
	Highest level of formal education	−0.031	0.082	−0.38	0.706	−0.058	0.082	−0.70	0.484
	Teaching as the first choice as a career	−0.558	0.092	−6.07	<0.001	−0.628	0.094	−6.70	<0.001
	Employment status	0.021	0.057	0.37	0.715	0.085	0.061	1.39	0.165
	Total hours spent on tasks related to job at school	0.082	0.077	1.07	0.284	0.072	0.078	0.92	0.359
	Number of enrolled students at the school	−0.272	0.094	−2.90	0.004	−0.255	0.094	−2.71	0.007
	Count of special needs students	−0.295	0.106	−2.79	0.005	−0.330	0.102	−3.22	<0.001
	The percentage of students from socio-economically disadvantaged homes	−0.130	0.039	−3.36	<0.001	−0.126	0.039	−3.19	<0.001
	Constant	11.866	0.700	16.95	<0.001	12.182	0.707	17.24	<0.001
	N	2527				2430
	R2	0.078				0.081
50 and above	Diversity practices	0.264	0.026	10.07	<0.001	0.133	0.032	4.18	<0.001
	Highest level of formal education	−0.223	0.103	−2.17	0.030	0.199	0.157	1.27	0.205
	Teaching as the first choice as a career	−0.418	0.109	−3.85	<0.001	−1.647	0.169	−9.77	<0.001
	Employment status	0.007	0.065	0.12	0.908	0.037	0.126	0.29	0.771
	Total hours spent on tasks related to job at school	0.070	0.091	0.77	0.441	0.100	0.126	0.79	0.428
	Number of enrolled students at the school	−0.227	0.113	−2.00	0.045	−0.171	0.154	−1.11	0.265
	Count of special needs students	−0.252	0.157	−1.60	0.109	−0.462	0.115	−4.02	<0.001
	The percentage of students from socio-economically disadvantaged homes	−0.169	0.048	−3.54	<0.001	−0.200	0.070	−2.84	0.005
	Constant	12.533	0.906	13.84	<0.001	12.961	1.159	11.18	<0.001
	N	1807				896
	R2	0.077				0.159

presents the regression results comparing the job satisfaction of middle school teachers across different age groups in the United States and China. In the United States, diversity practices exert the strongest positive impact on teachers’ job satisfaction aged 50 and above (β = 0.264, p < 0.001), followed by those under 30 years old (β = 0.255, p < 0.001), with the smallest positive effect being observed for the 30–49 age group (β = 0.240, p < 0.001). In China, the most significant positive impact of diversity practices on teachers’ job satisfaction is found among the 30–49 age group (β = 0.229, p < 0.001), followed by teachers under 30 (β = 0.187, p < 0.001), with the weakest positive effect for teachers aged 50 and above (β = 0.133, p < 0.001).

6.4. Results of the Robustness Test

To further examine the robustness of the effect of diversity practices on middle school teachers’ job satisfaction, this study employed a robustness test. Initially, this study removed some control variables, including the number of enrolled students at the school, count of special needs students, and the percentage of students from socio-economically disadvantaged homes. Secondly, this study replaced the dependent variables with the logarithm of the aggregate scores derived from teachers’ responses to the items on the Job Satisfaction Scale. The results (see

Table 8. Results of the robustness test.

Dependent Variable: Teachers’ Job Satisfaction	The United States				China
Robustness Test 1: Remove Some Control Variables	β	S.E.	t	p	β	S.E.	t	p
Diversity practices	0.257	0.024	10.62	<0.001	0.142	0.029	4.97	<0.001
Age	0.099	0.043	2.32	0.020	−0.259	0.059	−4.41	<0.001
Highest level of formal education	−0.211	0.095	−2.22	0.026	0.137	0.148	0.93	0.352
Teaching as the first choice as a career	−0.439	0.101	−4.36	<0.001	−1.666	0.152	−10.93	<0.001
Employment status	0.059	0.060	0.97	0.331	−0.137	0.124	−1.10	0.269
Total hours spent on tasks related to job at school	0.003	0.003	0.91	0.365	−0.003	0.004	−0.94	0.349
Constant	10.472	0.643	16.27	<0.001	13.124	0.931	14.10	<0.001
N	2185				1084
R²	0.063				0.149
Robustness test 2: Replace the dependent variable	β	S.E.	t	p	β	S.E.	t	p
Diversity practices	0.015	0.002	9.13	<0.001	0.008	0.002	3.77	<0.001
Age	0.008	0.003	2.78	0.005	−0.018	0.004	−4.28	<0.001
Highest level of formal education	−0.007	0.007	−1.05	0.295	−0.000	0.011	−0.02	0.986
Teaching as the first choice as a career	−0.027	0.007	−3.84	<0.001	−0.087	0.011	−7.84	<0.001
Employment status	0.004	0.004	1.00	0.317	−0.001	0.009	−0.13	0.895
Total hours spent on tasks related to job at school	0.007	0.006	1.17	0.242	0.012	0.008	1.42	0.157
Number of enrolled students at the school	−0.009	0.007	−1.27	0.203	−0.002	0.010	−0.17	0.865
Count of special needs students	−0.024	0.010	−2.41	0.016	−0.037	0.008	−4.83	<0.001
The percentage of students from socio-economically disadvantaged homes	−0.014	0.003	−4.53	<0.001	−0.013	0.005	−2.79	0.005
Constant	3.701	0.059	63.17	<0.001	3.826	0.083	46.19	<0.001
N	1756				892
R²	0.082				0.161

) suggest that after removing some control variables and replacing the dependent variable, the effect of diversity practices on middle school teachers’ job satisfaction in the United States and China remains significantly positive (p < 0.001), and the effect is stronger for middle school teachers in the United States compared with China, indicating the robustness of these findings.

6.5. Results of the SEM

The results of the SEM (see

Table 9. Results of the SEM.

The United States
Causal Relationship			β	S.E.	C.R.	p
Job Satisfaction	<---	Diversity Practices	0.517	0.079	6.559	***
Teacher–Student Relationships	<---	Diversity Practices	0.188	0.036	5.163	***
Job Satisfaction	<---	Teacher–Student Relationships	0.666	0.084	7.908	***
China
Causal Relationship			β	S.E.	C.R.	p
Job Satisfaction	<---	Diversity Practices	0.241	0.083	2.909	***
Teacher–Student Relationships	<---	Diversity Practices	0.385	0.056	6.821	***
Job Satisfaction	<---	Teacher–Student Relationships	0.711	0.052	13.612	***

*** p < 0.001.

) indicate that the indirect effects of diversity practices on teachers’ job satisfaction through teacher–student relations in the United States and China are 0.125 (0.188 × 0.666) and 0.274 (0.385 × 0.711), respectively (p < 0.001). The direct effect of diversity practices on teachers’ job satisfaction in the United States and China are 0.517 and 0.241, respectively (p < 0.001). The findings from the SEM analysis suggest that the teacher–student relations play a partial mediating role in the pathway through which diversity practices influence teachers’ job satisfaction. Moreover, the mediating effect of the teacher–student relations is more pronounced in Chinese middle schools compared with their counterparts in the United States.

7. Discussion

The discussion addressing RQ1: This study shows that diversity practices positively influence middle school teachers’ job satisfaction in both the United States and China, with a stronger effect in the United States. These results align with prior studies highlighting the importance of diversity management in improving job satisfaction. Ordu [29] found that schools with strong diversity policies provided more inclusive and supportive environments, leading to greater job satisfaction. Similarly, Freeman [30] noted that beginning teachers in diverse United States schools experienced both challenges and increased satisfaction when properly supported. The difference in impact between the United States and China may be attributed to cultural frameworks. In the United States, where individualism and multicultural education are emphasized, diversity practices are designed to recognize and celebrate the identities of teachers and students [33]. In contrast, China’s focus on collectivism and national unity may limit the influence of diversity practices [32], as schools prioritize ethnic integration over individual cultural identities.

The stronger effect in the United States can be explained by the country’s focus on multicultural education, fostering inclusive environments that meet diverse needs [49]. These policies allow teachers to engage with students from various backgrounds, leading to greater job satisfaction. In China, where the emphasis is on unity, teachers may not feel the same level of support for diversity initiatives, which may reduce the impact on their job satisfaction. This indicates that diversity practices, while beneficial in both countries, need to be adapted to fit each nation’s educational and cultural context.

The discussion addressing RQ2: Diversity practices have varying effects on teacher job satisfaction based on gender and age. In the United States, female teachers reported higher satisfaction with diversity practices, aligning previous findings that female teachers in diverse environments develop strong connections with students, enhancing their satisfaction [22]. Male teachers, however, showed smaller gains in satisfaction, likely due to differing expectations regarding their roles in the classroom. In China, female teachers also benefit more from diversity practices, though to a lesser extent. This may be tied to cultural norms that view teaching as a profession suited to women, particularly in nurturing roles, which diversity practices reinforce [58]. Male teachers, in both countries, may feel less impacted by these practices as Chinese schools emphasize collective unity over individual diversity [35].

Regarding age, older teachers in the United States benefited more from diversity practices than younger teachers, possibly due to their greater experience managing diverse classrooms [30]. Younger teachers may struggle more with the demands of diversity, leading to lower satisfaction. In China, the positive effects of diversity practices are more prominent among middle-aged teachers (aged 30–49), who often occupy more stable roles and are more experienced in handling diverse classrooms. Younger Chinese teachers, similar to their counterparts in the United States, may find it harder to navigate diversity, particularly in a system that does not prioritize multiculturalism to the same extent as the United States [35].

The discussion addressing RQ3: Teacher–Student relationships significantly mediate the effect of diversity practices on job satisfaction in both the United States and China, though the effect is more pronounced in China. Previous research supports the idea that strong teacher–student relationships improve teacher well-being and job satisfaction [40,43]. In both contexts, diversity practices that promote culturally responsive teaching help teachers build stronger relationships with students, enhancing job satisfaction. However, in China, where collective harmony and social cohesion are emphasized [34], the teacher–student relationship is central to the educational experience. Chinese teachers often take on a more parental role, and diversity practices that strengthen these relationships contribute significantly to both teacher and student well-being [58].

In the United States, teacher–student relationships still play an important role but are less central due to the individualistic nature of the educational system, where teacher autonomy and self-efficacy are often prioritized. This could explain the weaker mediating effect compared with China, where relational dynamics are more deeply embedded in the school culture [30]. In both countries, fostering strong teacher–student relationships is essential for maximizing the positive impact of diversity practices on teacher satisfaction.

8. Implication

8.1. Theoretical Implications

This study provides important theoretical contributions by applying the Job Demands–Resources (JD–R) framework to explain how perceived diversity practices—conceptualized as job demands—impact teacher job satisfaction through the mobilization of job resources. The findings confirm that when teachers perceive institutional expectations related to diversity as demanding, positive teacher–student relationships can serve as compensatory social resources that help buffer emotional strain and restore professional motivation. This demand–resource–outcome pathway offers a theoretical refinement of the JD–R model by illustrating how contextualized demands (e.g., diversity-related expectations) interact with relational resources (e.g., teacher–student relationships) to shape psychological outcomes. Moreover, the study extends diversity research in education by highlighting that the influence of inclusive school environments is not unidirectional but depends on how such demands are interpreted and mediated through social dynamics in the classroom [125,126,127]. In doing so, this research advances a nuanced theoretical account of how workplace inclusion efforts affect teacher well-being and motivation, particularly across different cultural contexts [128,129].

8.2. Practical Implications

8.2.1. Adapting Diversity Practices

To effectively enhance teacher job satisfaction and foster retention, diversity practices must be adapted to align with the specific cultural values of each country. In the United States, continuing to focus on multiculturalism and inclusivity through cultural competency training and on support for diverse classrooms can improve teacher satisfaction and promote the sustainable retention of educators [130,131]. In China, diversity initiatives could balance ethnic integration with national unity by encouraging recognition of ethnic differences within a collectivist framework, supporting the long-term sustainability of teachers’ careers [132]. Providing more support in under-resourced areas within both countries is crucial. Increased funding, teaching aids, and professional development can help teachers manage diverse classrooms effectively, improving job satisfaction and educational outcomes in challenging environments, ultimately fostering long-term sustainability and retention of high-quality educators.

One promising approach to enhancing and supporting these diversity practices, particularly in under-resourced areas, is the integration of technology. Automated feedback tools could significantly improve teachers’ instructional strategies by enhancing their uptake of student ideas [133]. Such tools provide consistent, objective, and personalized feedback, which could complement traditional evaluation systems and support effective diversity initiatives. Integrating these technologies into professional development frameworks allows schools to provide teachers with real-time, actionable feedback, thus fostering an environment where diversity practices are continuously refined and optimized [134]. This approach could be particularly beneficial in under-resourced areas where teachers may not have immediate access to comprehensive support.

8.2.2. Differentiated Support by Teacher Demographics

To enhance the effectiveness of diversity practices, schools should provide differentiated support based on teacher demographics, particularly gender and age. In the United States, fostering inclusive environments that continue to support female teachers is essential, while male teachers may benefit from targeted mentorship and engagement strategies to strengthen their capacity to navigate diversity-related issues [135]. In China, adapting diversity practices to create more inclusive environments for both male and female teachers can promote gender equity and contribute to the sustainability of the teaching workforce.

Age-based strategies are equally important. Younger teachers in both the United States and China often require professional development to improve their handling of diversity-related challenges. Programs focused on building emotional intelligence (EI)—especially in areas such as attention and repair—may enhance their generativity and reduce self-doubt. Meanwhile, older teachers, who generally report greater satisfaction with diversity practices and are likely to possess higher EI, can play a pivotal role in mentoring younger colleagues, thereby facilitating sustainable knowledge transfer and professional continuity within schools [136,137].

8.2.3. Enhancing Teacher–Student Relationships

Strengthening teacher–student relationships is key to maximizing the impact of diversity practices. In China, teachers can be trained to foster relationships that support diversity within a collectivist approach [138]. In the United States, teachers should be encouraged to deepen their connections with students, using diversity practices as a tool to enhance classroom dynamics and supporting sustained teacher well-being and retention [139].

9. Limitations and Future Directions

9.1. Lack of a Ground-Level Implementation Context

This study offers a broad, cross-national overview of the relationship between diversity practices and teacher job satisfaction. However, it does not capture how such practices are implemented and experienced at the school or district level. Future research could address this limitation by conducting in-depth case studies in specific educational contexts. Such studies could uncover practical challenges, highlight effective implementation strategies, and generate actionable insights for tailoring diversity initiatives to local needs.

9.2. Exclusion of Sexual Identity Variables

While the study includes a range of demographic controls, it does not account for sexual identity. Given that authentic self-expression and freedom from discrimination based on sexual orientation are vital components of job satisfaction—particularly for LGBTQ+ teachers [140]—this omission represents a key limitation. Future research should incorporate sexual identity as a central variable to better understand how diversity practices affect all educators. Comparative investigations in contexts such as the United States and China could provide nuanced insights into the unique needs and challenges faced by queer teachers.

9.3. Theoretical Scope and Unmeasured Mediating Variables

This study primarily draws on the Job Demands–Resources (JD–R) framework to interpret how perceived diversity practices, as job demands, influence teacher job satisfaction through the buffering and motivational functions of job resources such as teacher–student relationships. While the JD–R model provides a flexible and robust structure for analyzing workplace dynamics, job satisfaction is shaped by a broader range of individual and contextual factors. Other potential mediating variables—such as emotional well-being, perceived institutional support, or workload stress—were not included in the current analysis. These factors may operate as additional resources or demands within the JD–R framework, influencing the effectiveness of diversity-related interventions. Future research should consider extending the theoretical model to incorporate these dimensions in order to enrich our understanding of the complex mechanisms underlying teacher motivation and satisfaction in diverse educational settings.