Graduate Employability in Africa: Reimagining Rural-Based Entrepreneurial University Paradigm

Abstract

Millions of young Africans earn a variety of qualifications annually, yet the majority return without prospects for employment. This challenge has become a catalyst for inequality, poverty, crime involvement, and international migration. Empirical discourse points to education—such as a pedagogy that is chiefly theory-oriented rather than aligned with a knowledge economy, mismatched skills, and irrelevant qualifications—as constraints that contribute to the unemployment of the continent’s vibrant young graduates. Amidst this surging issue, the call for transformation in higher learning has never been clearer. Focusing on rural landscapes, this case study analysed the contextual employability potential of graduates pursuing an entrepreneurial university trajectory in Africa, illustrating why the paradigm should be implemented. The findings, based on qualitative data collected using a semi-structured questionnaire through one-on-one and remote approaches from stakeholders in universities across five African countries, highlight three dimensions central to this pathway. These include (1) curriculum alignment to advance cutting-edge qualifications and skill development that resonate with industrial demand and local economic priorities; (2) stakeholder embeddings in which universities strive to partner with local organisations and established alumni to provide mentorship, job leads, and referrals; and (3) innovation hubs that offer a variety of entrepreneurial support, real-world experience, and Indigenous entrepreneurship practices, leading to unique new ventures and employment opportunities. Implementing this strategy will enable rural-based universities in Africa to innovate in promoting graduate employability, socioeconomic advancements, and sustainable development, ultimately shaping a brighter future for the continent. Further studies could test the assumptions for broader application using statistical analysis.

1. Introduction

Africa boasts the world’s largest population of young individuals, with approximately 60% of its population under 25, a youthful demographic projected to reach 2.5 billion by 2050 [1]. This vibrant demographic, eager to pursue higher education and effect positive changes across the continent, confronts a sobering reality: surging unemployment rates that leave graduates struggling to secure meaningful employment [2,3,4,5]. The current graduate unemployment challenge across many African nations reflects broader economic issues and the disconnect between educational outcomes and labour market needs. Somalia, for instance, is an African country battling one of the highest unemployment rates, a staggering 67–54% for those between the ages of 15 and 64 [6]. Graduate unemployment, increasing in parallel with the national unemployment rates [7,8,9], presents a serious concern. Compared to the thousands of students who graduate each year from the country’s higher learning institutions, the number of those who obtain meaningful employment with their qualifications remains insignificant.

In Kenya, the Danish Trade Union Development Agency [10] observed a 20% youth unemployment rate, a figure higher than that of the neighbouring countries Tanzania and Uganda, at 15%. Kenya graduates face a related predicament, with the majority remaining unemployed amidst a rising youth unemployment rate, a challenge Njeru attributed to university education failures and mismatched skills development [11]. As in other countries, graduate unemployment poses a socioeconomic crisis in Nigeria, one of Africa’s leading economies, and has become a cause for concern. According to Taiwo and Aluko, the overall unemployment rate in the country rose to 43.3% in 2023, with youth unemployment at 42.5% [12]. This situation is deemed unacceptable and signifies a worsening crisis driven by systemic inefficiencies. The graduate unemployment situation is no better, as the trajectory persists in subsequent years despite several interventions [13]—a reflection of the country’s economic struggles and insufficient job creation mechanisms for a rapidly growing young population. Similarly, in Zimbabwe, high levels of graduate unemployment persist, driven by instability and a lack of investment in sectors that could absorb skilled labour [14]. This challenge has emerged as a major policy concern in recent decades, triggering discourse on targeted investments in youth education and agriculture in the country.

South Africa’s young graduates bear one of the greatest burdens of unemployment, at 11.8% [15], even though the country is vaunted as Africa’s largest economy. Graduate unemployment in the country doubled over the last sixteen years (2008–2023) [16] and continued to rise in the subsequent years [17], prominently amongst the black community—a challenge attributed to the racial divide in education and the labour market disparity [18], inadequate economic formation, and investment misalignment [19]. This concerning trend reflects the country’s current national unemployment trajectory. According to Statistics South Africa, the national unemployment rate rose from 32.9% in the first quarter to 33.5% in the second quarter of 2024, and youth unemployment remained persistently high, at 45.5%.

The troubling graduate unemployment trends and statistics in Africa illustrate that, despite achieving higher education, many young individuals on the continent find it difficult to secure meaningful employment—a challenge contributing significantly to a range of socioeconomic issues, including rising inequality, escalating poverty, international migration, brain drain, and surging crime. Consequently, the alarming youth unemployment demographic, which includes graduates, demonstrates the critical need to address these issues, as they represent a valuable segment of the underutilised, vibrant workforce.

The Research Objective

In light of prevailing challenges, this research examines strategies for improving graduate employability, drawing insights and perspectives from rural-based entrepreneurial-oriented universities.

With the pressing graduate unemployment crisis and its implications for Africa, the urgency for a transformative approach to higher education has never been more apparent. The recent empirical discourse emphasises the need to transition from conventional learning environments—frequently critiqued for their emphasis on theoretical knowledge and urban career paths—to entrepreneurial institutions strategically positioned to drive community engagement and practical skills development [20,21,22]. While many view higher education as the primary route to success, the reality is that Africa’s job market is struggling to absorb graduates, and unemployment remains high on the continent. In other words, a shift from traditional to entrepreneurial-oriented institutions of higher learning could unlock a new era of self-reliance, job creation, and economic resilience. These entrepreneurial-centred institutions serve as vital hubs for innovation, integrating local knowledge and addressing socioeconomic concerns while contributing to sustainable development [23,24]. In line with the foregoing arguments, this empirical study further illustrates the contextual graduate employment benefits of pursuing an entrepreneurial university trajectory in Africa, demonstrating why the paradigm should be embraced.

The subsequent sections present the conceptual framework intersection between the entrepreneurial university and economic imperatives, followed by a graduate employability contextual deterrent in Africa. The latter provides a scoping review of continental issues constraining graduate employment and mitigative strategies, setting a foundation to navigate the current study. Subsequently, the methodology followed to obtain findings is outlined, concluding with a discussion of the results and strategic interventions targeted at bolstering graduate employability in Africa.

2. Conceptual Framework

This research navigates graduate employability within the context of the entrepreneurial university paradigm. An entrepreneurial university model represents a transformative pathway to higher learning, striving to innovate in curriculum and instruction within the very fabric of its institutional structure. This model aspires to shift strategically from traditional higher educational frameworks to a more dynamic, proactive posture poised for contemporary and future challenges [25]. Central to this evolution is the ‘stand-up’ university concept; empowering university community members, specifically faculty and students, to engage in diverse ventures—intellectually, commercially, and collaboratively—for a common benefit. This holistic reimagining of higher education promotes an internal entrepreneurial orientation and culture of innovation where creative problem-solving precedes and teamwork flourishes [26]. This standpoint reflects empirical evidence that the model thrives in competitive environments, focusing on excellence across all its activities—academic performance, research, and fiscal stability—while effectively linking education with practical industry-oriented research [27].

In the northern hemisphere, technology transfer and research commercialisation fundamentally underpin the operational framework of the entrepreneurial university model, playing a crucial role in disseminating knowledge beyond academia [28,29]. This dimension enables renowned higher education institutions, such as Stanford University [30] and Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) [31,32], among several other universities anchored on the model, to innovate and advance critical discoveries of global importance and create multiple revenue-generating streams through technology licensing, royalties, patents, and consulting services for its economy. These institutions are global leaders known for their outstanding research and entrepreneurial advancement, resulting in lucrative, successful ventures—an integral proponent of the framework articulated in contemporary discourse. Against this premise, it can be emphasised that building entrepreneurial-oriented universities that nurture entrepreneurial ecosystems will potentially facilitate the emergence of successful ventures that serve as a cornerstone for employment and development.

Recent studies in the Global South, specifically in Africa, have expanded the entrepreneurial university discourse beyond institutional benefits—technological transfer and knowledge commercialisation—incorporating societal imperatives [20,21,22,24]. For instance, Iwara argued that the fundamental essence of an entrepreneurial university concept lies in its ability to operate at the intersection of knowledge creation and socioeconomic relevance—optimising the commercial potential of its intellectual assets and concurrently contributing positively to societal development [33]. In this context, transitioning from traditional to entrepreneurial-oriented higher education—whether through specialised courses or skill development programmes—positions the model as a catalyst for institutional, personal, and economic growth, capable of nurturing culture and fostering new ideas and ventures that benefit societies. The rural-based entrepreneurial university paradigm advocated in the current study is conceptualised within this specific vantage point.

In African countries where graduate unemployment poses significant socioeconomic challenges [5,34,35] amidst a wealth of untapped natural resources, including fertile land for agriculture, diverse biodiversity, mineral deposits, and renewable energy potential, this rural-based entrepreneurial university paradigm necessitates producing well-equipped graduates with high-level competencies, possessing the entrepreneurial spirit required to harness opportunities, drive innovation, and generate job creation in a rapidly evolving local economy.

2.1. Graduate Employability Deterrents

A growing corpus of literature on employability in Africa has identified striking constraints to graduate unemployment (

Table 1. Graduate unemployment challenges and recommended interventions in Africa.

Author	Country	Topic	Causes	Recommendations
[7]	Somalia	Graduate Unemployment in Somalia: Causes, Socio-Economic Consequences and Possible Solutions	Inadequate graduate developmental skills, poor political governance and corruption.	Emphasise labour market demand-driven skills. Scale up government youth entrepreneurship and agriculture.
[11]	Kenya	Massification and Employability of University Graduates in Kenya	Qualification and skills–labour market mismatch.	Course content alignment with labour market realities.
[14]	Zimbabwe	‘Hustling Out of Unemployment’: Livelihood Responses of Unemployed Young Graduates in the City of Bulawayo, Zimbabwe	A mismatch between aspirations and livelihood pathways. Societal perceptions of occupation.	Promote youth agriculture programmes
[19]	South Africa	From Workplace to Joblessness: The Determinants of Post-Internship Graduate Unemployment in South Africa	Skills–work experience mismatch.	Curriculum reforms—work experience programmes.
[36]	Kenya	Unemployment of the built environment graduates	Lack of practical experience, current curriculum, and dearth of skills.	Embed experimental learnings in the curriculum.
[37]	Botswana	Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) in Botswana	Qualification, quality, and relevance. Labour market competence.	Reforms to bridge discrepancies between skills offered and employer expectations.
[38]	Ghana	The Effect of Graduate Unemployment on Career Development in Ghana	Programme typologies and age-related issues	Curriculum reforms—projects and skills relevant to the current economy and workplace demands.
[39]	Tanzania	Fostering Graduate Employability: Rethinking Tanzania’s University Practices	Skills mismatch and lack of soft skills	Effective university–industry partnerships, reviews to align education with development plans, and strengthening quality assurance systems.
[40]	Tanzania	Higher Education and Prospects of Graduates’ Employability in Tanzania	Lack of essential skills required for the labour market. Labour demand and skills/theoretical qualification mismatch.	Refrain from research and teaching to pursue knowledge for its own sake. Advance qualifications/skills that reflect labour market demands.
[41]	Ethiopia	Graduates’ Unemployment and Associated Factors in Ethiopia: Analysis of Higher Education Graduates’ Perspectives	Relevant graduate skills issues, economic and labour market conditions.	Curriculum reforms to meet employer needs
[42]	Nigeria	Graduate Youth Unemployment: Root To Socio-Economic Problems In Nigeria	Political instability, lack of internal competitiveness, labour market problems, and intuitional weakness in employment planning,	Scale up government support for youth skills development programmes. Prioritise job creation.
[43]	South Africa	Determinants and Prospects of Graduate Unemployment in South Africa	Qualification typologies and graduate–employer skills mismatch	Career guidance and hands-on practical job skills-set.
[44]	Tanzania	Evaluation of Factors Influencing University Graduates’ Unemployment in Developing Country: A Multi-Criteria Decision-Making Perspective	Job–skills mismatch, inadequate career guidance and counselling services, and an ineffective labour market information system.	Policy reforms to enhance job–skills matching, strengthen career guidance services, improve labour market information systems, and promote entrepreneurship.

Source: Author’s consolidation.

). Among several others, inadequate developmental skills resulting from poor curriculum formation [36], redundant qualifications [37], and skill–contemporary industry mismatch [19] featured prominently across the nine selected countries strategically reviewed. Consequently, a wide range of intervention measures has been proposed, including curriculum reforms to incorporate practical skills into theoretical-related programmes [38], the alignment of education with development plans and collaborative partnerships [39], course content alignment with labour market realities [40], and career guidance and hands-on practical job skills, especially in agriculture, where there is a competitive advantage [14]. While acknowledging the inherent merit of the recommendations, it is crucial to advance the strategies from a rigorous empirical viewpoint and a comprehensive continental perspective, incorporating insights from highly experienced experts from higher learning institutions.

Although this insightful scientific evidence on graduate employability in Africa provides valuable pointers, it falls short in offering detailed instructions for actors seeking to implement strategic interventions. Existing literature illustrates the importance of stakeholder collaboration; however, the stakeholders involved, the typology of partnership, and the resultant benefits are unspecified. These gaps are also evident in the discourse around curriculum reform and the quality of education being offered in certain contexts. This trajectory culminated in the current study, which articulates salient insights for navigating graduate employability issues through the distinct lens of the rural-based entrepreneurial university.

Conceptualising this study from the entrepreneurial university perspective stems from its active role in enhancing innovative solutions to emerging socioeconomic issues. Entrepreneurial universities are characterised by their commitment to academic excellence and engaging with the community and industry to drive economic development [23]. They leverage research and knowledge transfer to create new ventures, stimulate collaboration, and address pressing issues such as unemployment, inequality, and local economic sustainability [22]. In conceptualising this model, this paper highlights measures through which higher education institutions can serve as catalysts for change, fostering an ecosystem that supports relevant skill acquisition, creativity, quality education, entrepreneurship, and practical problem-solving in response to Africa’s graduate unemployment issues.

2.2. Rationale

The high population growth in most African urban areas has resulted primarily from youth rural–urban migration [45,46,47,48]; young university graduates are not exempt. This geographical migration is frequently driven by the quest for sound economic opportunities [49] and the desire for a civilised appearance [50]. While there exist advantages of rural-urban youth migration, the influx frequently congests most urban areas, causing housing infrastructure challenges [51], public infrastructure strains [52], crime [53], low economic opportunities, and hardships—a phenomenon Omoniyi and Matthew define as “Abandoning Wealth for Scarcity” [54].

With vast natural resources largely concentrated in rural areas and large hectares of untapped arable land that can foster commercial agricultural development and efficacious local industries, African rural communities possess the potential to generate massive employment for graduates, especially in the agriculture and technology sectors [54]. However, due to a lack of skills, structures, expertise, and technical understanding, most rural communities frequently engage in subsistence farming rather than mechanised agriculture with the potential for commercialisation [55], leading to brain drain. This challenge requires strategic investments and a more equitable spatial distribution of wealth to enable rural areas to attract graduates to their untapped resources. Likewise, there is a need for a shift in skills development and career orientation in higher learning institutions. Building a calibre of graduates who recognise that sound economic opportunities also exist in rural areas will be a game changer for Africa. Achieving this trajectory requires the presence and attention of rural-based entrepreneurial universities on the continent.

3. Methodology

An exploratory qualitative case study research design was followed. Purposive and snowball sampling strategies were employed to select 10 universities from the 5 African regions (

Table 2. Sample demography.

Country	Institution	Location	Position	Gender	Identifier
Cameroon (CN)—Central Africa	University of Ngaoundéré	Ngaoundéré, Adamawa	Lecturer	Female	P1
	University of Tokombéré	Tokombéré, Far North	Lecturer	Male	P2
Kenya (KA)—East Africa	Laikipia University	Nyahururu, Laikipia	Lecturer	Female	P3
			Lecturer	Male	P4
	Southeastern Kenya University	Kitui	Lecturer	Female	P5
Nigeria (NA)—West Africa	University of Agriculture, Makurdi	Makurdi, Benue	Lecturer	Female	P6
	Federal University of Technology, Owerri	Owerri, Imo	Lecturer	Male	P7
	University of Calabar	Calabar, Cross River	Lecturer	Female	P8
			Lecturer	Female	P9
South Africa (SA)—Southern Africa	University of Venda	Thohoyandou, Limpopo	Lecturer	Female	P10
			Postdoc	Female	P11
			Lecturer	Male	P12
	University of Zululand	Empangeni, KwaZulu-Natal	Postdoc	Male	P13
			Lecturer	Female	P14
Sudan (SN)—North Africa	University of White Nile	El Gadrif	Lecturer	Male	P15

Note: P = Participant, CN = Cameroon, KA = Kenya, NA = Nigeria, SA = South Africa, SN = Sudan.

). Purposive sampling is a non-probability technique where research samples are intentionally determined based on specific characteristics relevant to the study’s objectives, aiming to gather in-depth and context-specific information from those most knowledgeable or relevant. This technique was ideal, as the study deals specifically with graduate employability issues from a rural-based entrepreneurial university context, hence aiding the sampling of higher learning institutions connected to rural areas and with a considerable level of entrepreneurial imperative in their framework. These inclusion criteria were met by reviewing university profiles, standards, and programme trends.

Similarly, the purposive sampling technique was crucial for selecting participants (academics) whose scholarship aligned seamlessly with the research goals. Like purposive sampling, snowball sampling, also known as the referral chain method, is a non-probability technique; however, its approach differs. It begins with determining a small group of initial participants, who subsequently identify and recruit more potential eligible participants from their networks, making it useful for accessing hard-to-reach but relevant samples from the population. The technique facilitated an easy sampling research process, given the logistical complexities inherent in consulting, identifying, and recruiting eligible participants across universities; the substantial temporal and resource investment, such as the finances and time required for participant outreach and securing affirmative responses; and the variability in participant engagement levels attributable to inter-country heterogeneity. Through this sampling technique, the enrolment of academics with expertise and interest in issues relating to African development, specifically graduate employability; extensive experience in teaching, mentoring, career guidance, and supervising students; participation in policy briefings; and reforms in the respective sampled countries, was possible and timely.

The sampled universities were located in or near rural areas, predominantly serving a rural population, focusing on providing educational opportunities in a rural context around their host region and addressing local community needs. After community entry, which involved stakeholder consultation, the sampling process followed, alongside the distribution of informed consent and, subsequently, schedules for one-on-one physical and remote meetings to discuss possible strategies necessary for fostering graduate employability in Africa.

The data collection spanned from July 2023 to February 2024, gathering in-depth information on the phenomenon using a semi-structured interview guide. This qualitative data interview structure combines predetermined questions with the flexibility to explore new insights that arise in the data collection process. This allows extensive interrogation, resulting in depth, rigour, and richness in responses while maintaining some level of guidance. Along with basic demographic information, such as academic position, gender, and institutions, all participants who consented were asked to respond to a central question: “What is the most effective way of mitigating graduate employability issues African countries are currently grappling with, and how can universities drive this development?” However, participants’ attempts to answer this crucial question determined the follow-up exploratory questions during the interview. The interview duration varied among stakeholders and data collection approaches. While the interviews conducted remotely lasted between 20 to 30 min, the face-to-face approach took about an hour. This was due to a more relaxed pacing in the face-to-face setting compared to the typically structured and time-bound nature of remote platforms.

The interviews were guided by the saturation principle, where information derived subsequently no longer contributed novel insights to existing data, thus indicating the threshold for sufficient data acquisition. The duration of the interviews varied among stakeholders and data collection approaches. For the face-to-face approach, the interviews lasted for 30 min, while others, conducted digitally, were held for an hour and even more in some cases where internet reception was poor. As illustrated in Table 2, 15 stakeholders (9 females and 6 males) participated in the data collection exercise.

The gathered data were transcribed, captured in a Microsoft (365) Word document, coded, and systematically processed through thematic analysis. Coding qualitative data for thematic analysis entails first familiarising oneself with the data by reading and re-reading the transcripts to become immersed in the content. Secondly, the relevant segments of the captured data were highlighted and preliminarily labelled to reflect their meaning. Thirdly, the labels were reviewed to identify and categorise commonalities. For instance, classifying participants’ narration of industrial demand and local economic priorities under curriculum alignment reflects key ideas on the qualifications that higher learning institutions should produce. This coding framework was consistently applied across the entire dataset, ensuring all relevant data segments were labelled and categorised into various themes. In a nutshell, the coding in the thematic analysis method followed in this study involved breaking down gathered information into manageable segments, assigning labels, and grouping the labels into themes that reflect patterns across the data structure.

During the data collection exercise, analysis, and results presentation, strict confidentiality measures were observed, ensuring that participants’ identities and privacy were protected. Consequently, identifiable details, such as the names and addresses of interviewees, were deliberately omitted. This provided anonymity, ensuring that stakeholders who shared valuable insights freely would not harbour fear of being identified.

4. Result and Discussion of Findings

The results underline the necessity for African rural-based universities to evolve into entrepreneurial-oriented higher learning institutions that leverage three fundamental strategies to enhance graduate employability (

Table 3. Result synthesis.

Theme	Sub-Theme	Strategy	Potential Outcome
Curriculum alignment	Industrial demand	Establish meaningful partnerships with industry stakeholders to regularly obtain insights on emerging trends, skills gaps, and specific qualifications in demand within various sectors. Implement advisory boards comprising industry professionals who can facilitate ongoing dialogue and feedback, ensuring curricula remain relevant and aligned with job market needs. Undertake periodic surveys and market research to assess the evolving landscape of employment opportunities and adapt programmes to prepare students for future career challenges.	Graduates can benefit from practical experience through internships and projects from industries and build valuable networks with professionals and local businesses, making them more attractive in the labour market. Curriculum alignment with local economic needs enhances job prospects, leading to successful careers and higher starting salaries. Students gain relevant skills and knowledge that are in high demand, develop a deeper understanding of the job market, and make better career choices and opportunities.
	Local economic priorities	Engage with local government and economic development agencies to identify key industries and sectors that drive the regional economy so that programmes cater to these priorities. Establish community advisory councils to facilitate interactions between universities and local businesses, allowing the sharing of insights on workforce needs and skill requirements. Inject internships, co-op programmes, and community-based projects into the curriculum to provide students with practical experience while directly addressing the economic challenges and opportunities within the local community.	By aligning academic programmes with the needs of key regional industries and rural community priorities, universities can better prepare graduates for available entrepreneurial opportunities that resonate with societal issues. Internships and co-op programmes offer students hands-on experience, making them more competitive in the job market while simultaneously delving into ventures that address local economic challenges.
Stakeholder embeddings	University–local organisation partnership	Initiate regular networking events, seminars and workshops that bring together faculty, students, and local organisations to foster collaboration and build relationships. Establish joint research projects or community service initiatives to provide a platform for partnerships that address academic objectives and local needs. Build dedicated liaison roles or offices to streamline communication and facilitate ongoing collaboration with local organisations.	Joint projects and community service initiatives can build practical experience and demonstrate graduates’ ability to work collaboratively and address real-world challenges, making them more solution-driven. Liaison roles within the university will align academic offerings with local economic needs, ensuring that graduates are equipped with relevant skills that meet societal demands.
	Alumni engagement	Create engaging platforms like online portals and social media groups to facilitate ongoing interaction between students and alumni. Organize regular alumni events, such as reunions, seminars, workshops, and guest speaker series, to strengthen community ties and encourage continued involvement. Introduce mentorship programmes that connect alumni with current students, fostering collaboration and a sense of loyalty to the university.	A rich alumni network can provide job leads and referrals, connecting graduates with potential employers who value and appreciate their shared educational background. Alumni–student mentorship opportunities can offer guidance and insider knowledge on navigating specific career paths, enhancing graduates’ job readiness.
Innovation hubs	Entrepreneurial support units	Undertake regular assessments and surveys of the specific needs and challenges student entrepreneurs confront to tailor support services and resources. Establish meaningful partnerships with successful local businesses, venture capitalists, and entrepreneurial networks to provide mentorship, funding opportunities, and real-world insights. Create a structured curriculum focusing on essential entrepreneurial skills such as business development, marketing, and financial management.	Through needs assessments, universities can tailor entrepreneurial support units to equip students with contextual skills and resources necessary for efficacious ventures, directly boosting their employability. University–local business collaborations can provide students access to direct mentorship and funding, enabling them to transform their innovative ideas into viable jobs. A structured curriculum targeting essential entrepreneurial skills will prepare graduates for self-employment, positioning them favourably as candidates in an increasingly innovation-driven job market.
	Indigenous entrepreneurship models	Interact with Indigenous communities and leaders to gain insights into their unique cultural values, practices, and entrepreneurial practices, ensuring that all support is culturally relevant and respectful. Incorporate contextual perspectives into the curriculum and programming by featuring Indigenous entrepreneurs as case studies and mentors, highlighting successful models of African Indigenous entrepreneurial philosophies. Scale-up partnerships with Indigenous organisations to create tailored resources, workshops, and funding opportunities that address the specific challenges and strengths within Indigenous entrepreneurship ecosystems.	Indigenous entrepreneurship models can equip graduates with a diverse contextual skill set that boosts their adaptability and appeal in the local economy. Indigenous entrepreneurship models can stimulate interest in essential underutilised Indigenous entrepreneurial practices, thus creating impactful ventures that align with community needs and values. Indigenous entrepreneurship can open new avenues for graduates to amplify, mechanise, and commercialise some of the minute Indigenous entrepreneurial practices, leading to unique employment opportunities.

Source: Author’s illustration based on primary data.

). The first focus is curriculum reform. This strategy will enable higher learning institutions to eliminate redundant/irrelevant programmes from the learning framework. The renewed emphasis should be directed towards cutting-edge disciplines in line with local industry imperatives and rural economies’ key priorities. Stakeholder embedding characterised the second strategy. The institutions can collaborate with local organisations, industries, and alumni to facilitate capacity-building and career opportunities for young graduates. The third strategy is viable innovation hubs with facilities for practical skills acquisition, entrepreneurial support units, and Indigenous entrepreneurship programmes. This will nurture and unlock skills to identify compatible entrepreneurial opportunities.

4.1. Curriculum Alignment

A crucial gap highlighted was labour market readiness. Participants believed that most graduates are misplaced by their qualifications, making absorption into local industries difficult. Many others lack the essential expertise for job placement in local industries or the practical, applicable skills to transform knowledge into a venture in their respective societies. As a result, there is a need for a pedagogical shift.

“Without intending to ridicule or undermine any discipline, recent graduates with qualifications in International Relations or Literature may struggle to find employment in the rural… district job landscape that primarily demands skills in Agriculture, tourism, frontier technology and business. This led to a disconnect between their qualifications and available industry opportunities”.

(SA; P10)

“I have encountered two instances in which young individuals with degrees in Sports Science and History pivoted to pursue careers in Agriculture Extension and Social Work, respectively, having spent several years searching for jobs in their areas of specialisation. So, why waste time and resources pursuing irrelevant qualifications? This phenomenon is common here… While these fields of study may possess broad relevance, in our province, they do not critically address the specific needs of local industries and communities…”.

(SA; P11)

“In addition to this issue, they frequently lack practical applications and offer limited relevance to local economic challenges, making it nearly impossible to establish an efficacious business based on this expertise. This has been a common trend in our institutions of higher learning: thousands of students are enrolled annually, and graduation rates remain high in these programs. My concern is, why do we continue allowing our young individuals to obtain non-employable qualifications?”.

(KA; P3)

From the participants’ excerpts, a shift in the learning paradigm is required to foster graduate employability. Young Africans should be compelled to pursue programmes in disciplines that nurture the requisite skills relevant to industries and local community needs. Rural-based entrepreneurial higher learning institutions, through direct engagement with relevant local industry and community stakeholders, especially in rural areas, can foster this mandate by redesigning academic programmes, targeting cutting-edge disciplines, and focusing on skills that can empower graduates to enhance their economic activities where local economies hold competitive advantages and areas of societal demands.

The African graduate demographic, equipped with relevant skills and knowledge tailored to local contexts, can significantly contribute to economic growth if educational institutions project relevant courses and integrate theoretical learning with hands-on, experiential education. For instance, incorporating agricultural sciences with practical farming experiences will enable students to understand the complexities of agriculture, which is the backbone of many African economies [14]. By allowing students to engage directly with agricultural practices—such as crop management, resource conservation, and market access—African higher education institutions can equip graduates with the skills necessary not only for local industries but also to innovate in agribusiness, improve food security, and enhance productivity in rural areas.

Curriculum reforms, eliminating outliers while increasing intakes into niche qualifications, could be a game-changer for the continent. “Niche”, in this context, refers to programmes directly aligned with the needs of local industries, tangible applications to local economic challenges, and the creation of innovative ventures. This shift means that higher learning encourages students to channel career prospects into disciplines with enormous potential.

“What happened to science that would help rural communities to scale up and commercialise untapped agricultural resources? Frankly, unless our higher learning institutions and young graduates in Africa begin to embrace rural development and agriculture—both of which play a significant role in the continent’s economic growth—there will be little progress in addressing graduate employability issues in the continent… Practically, it is impossible to offer what we don’t have”.

(CN; P1)

“… it begins with moving away from less impact qualifications. African countries have contextual developmental problems with a unique economic landscape. This should inform knowledge development in their universities. Such alignment will help students acquire relevant qualifications, skills and knowledge directly applicable to the workforce and society, making them more competitive in the job market” (SN; P15). “When curricula are informed by employer needs and reflect real-world challenges and local opportunities, graduates, regardless of discipline, are better prepared to transition seamlessly into their career roles. This alignment helps mitigate the knowledge and skills gap frequently observed in various sectors, where employers struggle to identify talent with the appropriate abilities, expertise and training, ultimately leading to higher employment rates among graduates in the continent”.

(NA; P6)

Aligning academic programmes with industrial needs and local economic priorities extends beyond just graduate employability. It is essential for job positioning.

“When an institution understands local industry trends and builds graduate expertise around its niche and interests, a stronger partnership between educational institutions and businesses is bound to occur. To be more specific, graduating cohorts well-endowed with relevant expertise in the local industries can lead to enhanced placements like internship opportunities, traineeships and mentorship initiatives, which provide individuals with practical experiences that enrich their learning outcomes. This frequently leads to skill retention and gainful employment. Such initiative promotes innovation within the curriculum, allowing it to adapt quickly to emerging trends and shifts in consumer behaviour. Also, this responsiveness benefits graduates and strengthens the institution’s relationship with local industries, enhancing its reputation and attractiveness to prospective students and industry partners, creating a virtuous cycle of educational excellence and economic growth”.

(NA; P9)

The graduate employability challenge in Africa is not a unique or new phenomenon. The deficiency stems from a failure to address the problem. The current findings align with Ferns, Dawson, and Howitt, whose observation suggests addressing the disconnect between university curricula, industry expectations, and insufficient opportunities for practical, work-integrated learning [56]. In parallel, Billett further points to a misalignment between educational outcomes and the skills demands, making the knowledge economy critical [57]. To Mgaiwa, this issue requires stronger partnerships between higher education institutions and industry stakeholders to inform curriculum development that targets real-world experiences [39]. This is where a well-functioning entrepreneurial university can have a substantial impact, working to innovate the curriculum as an integral fabric of its institutional framework.

Africa’s rural landscape has a thriving informal economy, but there is a need to move beyond survivalist businesses towards scalable, sustainable enterprises, especially in the agricultural sector. Nurturing entrepreneurship skills, particularly agribusiness and manufacturing, among young graduates can drive innovation, support local economies, and reduce dependency on formal employment [7,14,22]. In this context, the significance of the entrepreneurial university model cannot be overemphasised. These typologies of higher education institutions prioritise knowledge-building that integrates theoretical frameworks with contemporary practical applications [4,5,12], designing curricula in niche disciplines relevant to local economic needs, equipping students with entrepreneurial competencies, problem-solving skills, and adaptability to economic conditions [34]. As evidenced in the existing literature, entrepreneurial-oriented education significantly increases graduates’ confidence and willingness to pursue self-employment opportunities [58] and the capability of creating jobs through innovative ventures [59]. Similarly, when educational outcomes align with local economic priorities, graduates may be more inclined to explore opportunities in their communities.

4.2. Stakeholder Embedding

A successful entrepreneurial university does not operate in isolation but actively engages with key stakeholders, including local businesses, policymakers, grassroots community leaders, industry experts, and alumni. Participants emphasised that:

“Leveraging strong alumni networks can be a powerful strategy for graduate employability. Successful alumni across disciplines serve as mentors, industry contacts, and potential employers for current students in their respective fields. In other words, establishing platforms and programs that connect students or encourage alumni to return to campus to share their experiences and insights can inspire and motivate current students while providing valuable networking opportunities. For instance, my current job resulted from my alumni network, specifically through a referral from a senior colleague in my country. The opportunity presented itself while finalising my PhD. Similarly, I helped connect four of our master’s degree graduates with doctoral scholarships here in the country, which later offered them opportunities for summer in Europe. Two of them are gainfully employed there…”.

(SA; P12)

“A healthy engagement with alumni can immensely benefit an institution in several ways. Beyond the potential for financial donations to support student capacity development, many alumni hold key positions as Directors, CEOs, and Managers in major corporations, which enables them to employ hundreds, if not thousands, of individuals. This influential group of alumni can provide invaluable insights into the skills and competencies that institutions instil in their graduates to ensure they are well-prepared for the workforce. They can absorb a certain percentage annually from the institution’s graduate cohorts”.

(SA; P12)

Alumni tracking has been resourceful in determining graduate employability [60,61]; however, their role in instituting capacity development and job opportunities for young graduates is frequently omitted in the literature. Participants’ views in this context demonstrated that interactions with viable alumni could bridge the gap between academia and industry, ensuring the curriculum remains relevant and aligned with market demands. In the same direction, established alumni can actively facilitate connections between institutions, qualified graduates, and employment opportunities within their professional networks. It requires an entrepreneurial posture for a university institution to innovate in building a network of established alumni while ensuring backward integration to benefit young graduates.

A meaningful interaction between higher learning institutions and local entrepreneurship development agencies promises graduate employability. Through this collaboration, institutions can organise periodic career fairs, networking events, and talent hunt programmes that connect students with successful entrepreneurs in diverse disciplines and potential sponsors, further enhancing their visibility in the job market [43,62]. In addition, such platforms provide avenues for innovative students to showcase their skills, competencies, and innovations while building relationships that may lead to employment opportunities or attract seed funding from business development stakeholders.

“I believe if African institutions of higher learning take the entrepreneurial dimension, it will push graduate employability. First, recognise and work with resourceful stakeholders—provide a collaborative ecosystem in which academia, industry, and community organisations work together to bridge the gap between education and employment. Imagine a situation where students are motivated to venture into creative innovation in their respective disciplines, encouraged to pitch ideas and subsequently funded to start a venture. Believe me, graduate unemployment would be a thing of the past”.

(CN; P2)

African universities should train African students to be thinkers and not just specialists. The traditional framework—where university students earn qualifications and enter the workforce—does not accommodate every graduate. Many young graduates face a saturated job market, while industries demand skills extending beyond the theoretical knowledge frequently obtained in formal education setups. In contrast to job hunting, entrepreneurship in higher learning in this context provides an alternative path, allowing young African graduates to create employment opportunities. Participants’ opinions are reflected in the following narrative:

“…stakeholder involvement can facilitate the establishment of incubators and innovation hubs within university settings, where students interact with businesses and entrepreneurs to bring their ideas to fruition. Also, by establishing partnerships with local ventures and organisations, institutions of higher learning can host entrepreneurship competitions, talent hunt events, and networking workshops that connect students with potential mentors, employers and investors. This dynamic interaction encourages students to develop entrepreneurial initiatives in their disciplines, build professional networks in the earliest stage of their careers, and gain insights into real-world challenges. In this case, graduates emerge with academic qualifications, rich experiences and connections that significantly enhance their employability in a competitive job market”.

(KA; P5)

The participants’ position on stakeholder embedding conforms with Okolie et al. and Aliu and Aigbavboa, who attributed graduates’ job market preparedness shortfalls and employability issues to fragmented curricula and insufficient collaboration with industry stakeholders [58,61]. Integrating generic skills training into the core curriculum, improving faculty training, and fostering partnerships with stakeholders such as industries, successful businesses, and entrepreneurship agencies are critical in ensuring that the nature of qualifications and the resultant entrepreneurial initiatives graduates acquire are relevant and sustainable.

4.3. Innovation Hubs

Equipping young people with entrepreneurial skills, orientation, and a business mindset has the ability to unlock a new era of self-reliance, job creation, and economic resilience for African graduates. Navigating this trajectory requires functional innovation hubs strategically positioned to drive the knowledge economy, experiential learning across disciplines, career support, and seed funding for exceptional ideas. The participants noted that:

“Compulsory general entrepreneurship courses such as business development, financial literacy, project management and leadership are important, but innovation hubs where the taught skills can be demonstrated are even more pivotal. Hubs allows students, even those in the social science disciplines, to envision, model ideas, and develop prototypes that could manifest into successful ventures. Law students, for instance, should be nurtured through innovation hubs to figure out how to set up a lucrative law firm before graduating. Similarly, a social work graduate can set up a private entity in rural communities that thrives and employs dozens of his/her counterparts. It begins with unlocking their potential at the early career growth stage, and entrepreneurship hubs are resourceful in navigating this path. African institutions should begin to unlock this pathway”.

(NA; P8)

The above innovation hub standpoint was further observed by another participant, who stressed that:

“Young Africans are talented and innovative; however, the current education landscape has conditioned the majority into believing that entrepreneurial undertakings are limited to specific disciplines or qualifications. Self-employment through entrepreneurship should be a rewarding career path for young graduates. This orientation should be promoted in higher learning through experiential learning… The societal perception that higher qualifications are required to be employed successfully must change. Higher learning institutions should provide support hubs where students access mentorship, funding, and networking opportunities to turn ideas into viable ventures”.

(SA; P13)

Innovation or entrepreneurship hubs are collaborative spaces that build creativity by providing access to resources such as skills development, mentorship, networking opportunities, and funding [63]. These hubs typically bring together individuals from various backgrounds to work on interdisciplinary projects, encouraging them to interact and share diverse perspectives and skills [64]. Engaging in real-world issues and practical applications, individuals gain hands-on experience that enhances their entrepreneurial capabilities and understanding of business ventures, ultimately positioning them at the edge of setting up an efficacious enterprise after graduating [65]. Access to expert guidance and connections with industry leaders within the institutions’ innovation hubs empowers students to ideate, refine their business models, and launch ventures conforming to their unique areas of specialisation, ultimately equipping them as effective innovators and business leaders in their respective fields. These skills are what participants advocated to help Africa decrease its dependence on imported items that could be produced locally.

“I read a shocking piece recently published on Business Inside Africa. The latest trade data from the MIT shows that Kenya imported second-hand clothes and textiles, which I classify as rags, worth $298 million, approximately Sh38.5 billion, in 2023. The shock did not end there. Ghana is ranked the second largest, with imports valued at Sh30.4 billion, South Africa at Sh29.4 billion, Uganda at Sh27.2 billion, and Nigeria at Sh27 billion. Aside from the economic and psychological implications, I least imagined that African leading economies with vast agricultural resources and vibrant youth population, who should be global leaders in textile, import rags for their citizens. Most of these rags were removed from deceased bodies in Western countries and disposed of through trade into Africa…”.

(KA; P4)

“While universities globally strive to build skills in tech, Africa is still graduating thousands in disciplines like theology, who should sit at home jobless, reading religious materials to scam others. We must decolonise the education system and front reforms for radical transformation. I believe change is possible through our institutions of higher learning, which should assume a posture that unlocks critical thinking amongst young graduates and young people in rural areas. Build well-equipped innovation hubs that nurture skills in textile and manufacturing, there is a huge market there”.

(KA; P4)

In the same argument, another participant explains:

“African countries possess abundant natural resources that surpass the imaginings of any other nation across continents, making the world envious of the continent’s wealth. Besides, it experiences fewer disasters compared to others. With such potential, the continent is poised to thrive and transform into a paradise that individuals worldwide aspire to inhabit, instead of the opposite. Regardless, Africa’s young graduates struggle to migrate to countries that rely on the continent’s resources for survival—places frequently plagued by natural disasters such as earthquakes, tsunamis and volcanoes —where they seek menial jobs instead of opportunities that reflect their qualifications and capabilities. The typology of education, which makes African graduates job seekers, contributes significantly to this dilemma… (NA; P9). “…cultivate a higher education system that equips students for the technology workforce. Higher learning institutions should establish innovation hubs dedicated to entrepreneurship, knowledge economy and experiential learning, focusing on developing technologies for their abundant natural resource utilisation. Research across disciplines in these institutions —including social, management, natural and agricultural sciences—should be directed toward creating tangible outputs with potential for commercialisation”.

(SA; P11)

Indigenous business knowledge systems hold valuable insights into sustainable rural entrepreneurship, and integrating these practices into entrepreneurship hub frameworks enhances the relevance of entrepreneurial education to societal needs. Traditional agricultural techniques, indigenous technologies, local craft industries, and communal trade systems provide a foundation for developing context-specific business models that speak to the unique issues of Africa. Participants’ opinions illustrate that a rural-based entrepreneurial higher learning institution promoting a learning culture and research that documents, preserves, and enhances Indigenous business knowledge ensures that rural entrepreneurship is not solely dependent on external economic paradigms but also leverages locally developed expertise. This, in essence, builds globally competitive talents and, at the same time, produces graduates with competence that conforms to grassroots realities. As participants noted:

“A rethinking of innovation hubs in higher learning that focuses on African business philosophies is crucial. These models are deeply rooted in the unique socio-economic contexts of African communities, providing relevant frameworks that resonate with the needs and aspirations of the stakeholders involved and, thus, can foster sustainable economic development and cultural preservation. The Igbo Traditional Business School (I-TBS) in Nigeria and the Kikuyu Business Community in Kenya, among several other models, have been instrumental in African-owned business success on the continent and diaspora”.

(NA; P7)

“…the Khoisan community leverages its rich knowledge of traditional medicines and healing systems while engaging in other lucrative economic activities like hunting and rooibos tea cultivation for sustainability. Similarly, the Ogiek Indigenous community of Kenya is an expert in natural fibre extraction, textile, garment crafting, leather production and colouring. The Batwa Indigenous community in Uganda is renowned for beekeeping and high-quality honey production. Integrating these Indigenous knowledge systems and local success stories of the models into their hubs’ framework, higher learning institutions can empower students to create businesses that harness local resources, address community issues, and harness culturally relevant strategies, ultimately spurring innovation and prosperity within their regions. This dimension enhances the relevance and effectiveness of entrepreneurial education typologies, strengthens community ties, promotes self-reliance, and contributes to the resilience of local economies amidst global competition”.

(SA; P14)

While innovation hubs, in their generic terms, are vital in nurturing an entrepreneurial atmosphere, participants critique their alignment with Africa’s economic status quo. A robust entrepreneurship hub grounded in Indigenous business methodologies and orientations can significantly enhance students’ understanding of the context-specific local business landscape. Similarly, factoring traditional knowledge systems and local business customs into the framework, higher learning institutions will equip students with a more nuanced comprehension of the socioeconomic realities they will encounter, as opposed to irrelevant alien methodologies [65]. This culturally relevant skills development empowers aspiring graduate entrepreneurs to recognise and navigate the problems unique to their communities and leverage their cultural heritage in creating innovative business solutions that resonate with local markets.

5. Conclusions

Today’s fast-changing economic environment and the pressing graduate unemployment challenges in Africa make a transformative approach to higher education more apparent. This study argues that reimagining entrepreneurial universities is fundamental for unlocking the continent’s local resources, fostering innovation, and promoting graduate employability, especially in rural terrains. Central to the narrative of entrepreneurial universities are three fundamental constructs. The first is curriculum alignment, advancing cutting-edge qualifications and skills development that resonate with industrial demand and local economic priorities, leading to successful careers. The second is stakeholder embedding, where universities strive to partner with local organisations and established alumni to provide mentorship, job leads, and referrals, connecting graduates with opportunities. The third is the formation of innovation hubs that provide contextual entrepreneurial support, real-world experience, and Indigenous entrepreneurship practices, leading to unique employment opportunities. These concerted efforts and strategic focus areas exhibit the potential for positioning rural-based universities in Africa to effectively promote niche educational programmes, graduate employability, and socioeconomic advancements, ultimately shaping a brighter future for the continent.

6. Recommendations

These research findings provide insights into issues around graduate employability in Africa. The conclusions, based on empirical analysis, suggest that transitioning higher learning education from conventional models to an entrepreneurial-oriented paradigm promises a solution. African higher learning institutions should embark on curriculum reforms—specifically, eliminating redundant programmes while advancing cutting-edge qualifications; embedding stakeholders such as industries, local entrepreneurs, and alumni in the institutional framework to position graduates; and promoting entrepreneurship orientation through innovation hubs to scale up graduate self-employment culture. This study is theoretical and foundational; it relies solely on qualitative data from 15 knowledge holders. A statistical analysis involving random sampling on a wider scale to test the assumptions will delineate the efficacy of each factor, allowing for targeted interventions, generalisability, and broader application.

7. Limitations

While acknowledging the value of diverse qualitative methodologies, one-on-one physical interviews frequently represent a particularly effective approach for collecting nuanced and in-depth qualitative data. This efficacy stems from the capacity for direct, unmediated interaction between interviewer and participant, fostering a richer rapport that can facilitate the exploration of complex perspectives and sensitive topics. The physical presence allows for observing non-verbal cues, enhancing the researcher’s ability to interpret responses and probe for deeper understanding. Due to financial implications and logistical complexities, some academics participated in the interview for data collection remotely, undermining the insights that would have been accessible through a physical interview. Despite reaching the predetermined data saturation point for the study, the absence of certain academics recruited earlier with relevant expertise, who regrettably declined involvement due to distance and language-related barriers, represents a discernible gap that would have undoubtedly enhanced variation and contributed to a more comprehensive understanding of the phenomenon investigated. Due to financial constraints, only qualitative data were obtained, establishing theoretical foundations. To enhance practical applicability, it would be advantageous to advance the study using statistical tools that entail implementing a hierarchical ordering of the emergent factors, thereby outlining their relative salience and guiding targeted proactive interventions.