Analysis of Zero-Waste City Policy in China: Based on Three-Dimensional Framework

Abstract

This paper proposes the PDDS model and constructs a three-dimensional analysis framework of policy objectives–policy tools–value chain in order to provide an in-depth analysis of 224 waste-free city policy texts released by China from 2019 to 2024. This study finds that China’s waste-free city policy objectives are macro-oriented, with specific objectives and milestones accounting for a relatively low proportion. Furthermore, there is a structural imbalance in policy tools, with environmental tools dominating and supply- and demand-based tools lagging behind. Additionally, support for each link in the value chain is uneven, with emphasis on the waste generation and disposal link, but the collection and regulation link is weak. In the three-dimensional analysis, China’s waste-free city policy exhibits a pattern of “overall goal leadership + environment-oriented policy tools + green industrial upgrading”. This study proposes a number of refinements to the policy objectives, improvements to the structure of policy instruments, enhanced synergies among the various segments of the value chain, and an increase in the aggregation effect of the policy objectives, instruments, and the evaluation chain. These changes are intended to promote the optimisation of waste-free city policies and the sustainable development of the environment in China and other countries.

1. Introduction

The rapid advancement of globalisation and urbanisation has resulted in the emergence of significant challenges pertaining to environmental pollution and municipal waste management, which require urgent attention in countries across the globe. In February 2024, the United Nations released the Global Waste Management Outlook 202. The fourth report indicates that the generation of municipal solid waste is anticipated to increase significantly, from 2.3 billion tonnes in 2023 to 3.8 billion tonnes in 2050. This is accompanied by a notable rise in direct management costs. This equates to an estimated 3.8 billion tonnes by 2050, with a notable increase in direct management costs. In light of these developments, waste management is increasingly acknowledged as a pivotal element in advancing a circular economy [1]. In July 2024, the CPC Central Committee and the State Council published the Opinions on Accelerating the Comprehensive Green Transformation of Economic and Social Development, which explicitly identifies green transformation and waste-free cities as the fundamental elements for achieving high-quality development. Indeed, in recent years, the Chinese government has implemented a series of related policies with the objective of accelerating the construction of waste-free cities.

As a pioneering concept in urban management, the foundation of a waste-free city is the near-elimination of solid waste discharge through a multifaceted approach encompassing source reduction, resource recycling, and secure end-of-pipe disposal. This concept has not only attracted attention within the domestic sphere but has also prompted extensive research and discussion at the international level. Scholars at home and abroad have analysed the theoretical interaction framework of stakeholders from the ISB model [2] (Infrastructure, Service, and Behaviour) and the social business model [3] around the zero-waste city policy. It has been established that green communities [4] and cooperation between enterprises and the government [5] are the methods of implementation for government departments to promote the policy of a waste-free city. Furthermore, some scholars have dissected the technical level of how to reduce carbon emissions, thereby promoting the construction of waste-free cities [6].

In the United States, the implementation of waste-free city policies has primarily focused on repurposing abandoned or derelict sites for new uses, reconceptualising urban spaces, and transforming them into productive and sustainable areas [7]. Furthermore, the necessity for an integrated and contextualised approach to waste reduction and sustainability has been emphasised in policy practice in San Francisco [8] and New York [9]. In contrast, the European Union is engaged in research on waste-free cities within the context of climate protection [10]. In comparison to other countries, China displays a greater inclination towards the utilisation of cleaner energy sources in order to reduce solid waste emissions. Additionally, the country’s policy approach is characterised by a government-led and business-participation model.

The framework for analysing policies for waste-free cities has been gradually refined through years of research and exploration by scholars at home and abroad. From the initial utilisation of modelling frameworks to assess the impacts of technology choices and policies on urban sustainability [11]; to the enhancement of environmental policy analysis frameworks in the United States, Europe, and Mumbai [12,13]; to the incorporation of waste-free cities into the circular economy and the innovation of policy analysis frameworks in recent years. In recent years, there has been a notable increase in the inclusion of waste-free cities in the circular economy and the innovation of policy analysis frameworks [14]. In China, scholars have employed an integrated approach to analyse the framework of zero-waste city policies from a variety of perspectives, including waste management, renewable energy development, and social media regulation [15,16,17,18]. Among these studies, Ma (2023) proposes a framework for categorising urban waste policies by analysing 16 zero-waste cities in China [19], while Zhou provides a comprehensive test of the benefits of waste-free city policies through an in-depth study of 281 prefecture-level cities in China [20]. These studies reinforce the significance of waste as a potential resource in urban development and management [21]. They also indicate that urban waste policies can be founded upon varying ‘R’ principles (e.g., “3Rs”—Reduce, Reuse, Recycle) and subsequently devised and implemented [22].

A review of the literature reveals that although some studies have employed a quantitative analysis to examine the effectiveness of China’s waste-free city policy, there are still limitations to this approach. Firstly, the majority of these studies are based on a macro-level evaluation of the benefits of specific industries, which fails to provide a comprehensive picture of the shortcomings of China’s waste-free city policy. Furthermore, the content of the policy text requires further investigation. Furthermore, the emphasis on the policy tool perspective is somewhat limited, and few studies have developed a comprehensive analytical framework for the systematic examination of China’s waste-free city policy. This lack of a unified analytical framework hinders the accurate identification of the policy system’s characteristics and the combination of its constituent elements. On this basis, this paper attempts to use content analysis to construct a three-dimensional analytical framework of ‘policy objectives–policy tools–value chain’. Furthermore, it proposes the “PDDS” analytical model (Prevent, Disposal, Discovery, Service), which innovatively explores the important features of the current implementation status of China’s waste-free city policy. This study makes a significant contribution to the understanding of the effectiveness of the implementation of waste-free cities. Furthermore, it provides insights that can inform the efforts of other countries and cities, thereby contributing to the achievement of the SDG on a global scale.

2. Analysis Framework

2.1. The “PDDS” Framework for Waste-Free Urban Policies

This paper proposes an analytical framework based on the concept of waste-free city management. This framework comprises four stages: prevention, early detection, disposal, and service (Figure 1). The framework also incorporates three dimensions: policy objectives, policy tools, and the value chain. Together, these elements form a three-dimensional analytical model.

(a)

Prevention can be defined as the process of reducing the occurrence of solid waste generation and environmental pollution by enhancing the design and construction of systems at the highest level. For instance, the optimisation of industrial structure, the promotion of green production, and the implementation of green supply chain construction are strategies that can be employed to reduce solid waste generation. This encompasses the comprehensive implementation of green mining practices to minimise the generation, storage, and disposal of mining solid waste, as well as the advancement of green design and green supply chain construction to promote the reduction and recycling of solid waste.

(b)

Discovery refers to the establishment and enhancement of a robust solid waste statistics and monitoring system to facilitate the timely identification of issues and deficiencies in solid waste management. By way of illustration, the intelligent information management platform enables the entire life cycle of solid waste to be monitored and supervised in an intelligent manner. This necessitates the establishment of a robust solid waste statistics system; the unification of the scope, quality, and methodology of industrial solid waste data statistics; and the enhancement of statistical techniques for agricultural waste and construction waste.

(c)

The term disposal is used to describe the process of collecting, utilising, and disposing of solid waste in a manner that is both resourceful and harmless, thereby addressing the issue at the earliest possible stage. To illustrate, the introduction of a system for the categorisation of domestic waste and the encouragement of the productive reuse of solid waste encompasses the enhancement of risk prevention and control capabilities, the reinforcement of the comprehensive safety control of hazardous waste, and the establishment of a robust defence against hazardous waste at the source.

(d)

Service refers to the establishment of a regular solid waste management and service mechanism and the enhancement of comprehensive solid waste management. This entails the establishment of an indicator system for the construction of ‘waste-free cities’, which will assume a pioneering role, as well as the optimisation of the institutional mechanism for solid waste management and the reinforcement of sectoral division of labour.

In accordance with the PDDS framework, this paper puts forth the following research hypotheses, formulated with reference to each component.

The prevention hypothesis is as follows: the strengthening of the setting and implementation of preventive measures within the policy objectives will effectively reduce the amount of waste generated, thereby alleviating the pressure on the subsequent treatment chain and promoting the overall optimisation of the value chain.

The discovery hypothesis posits that by enhancing the monitoring and discovery apparatus, issues in the waste management process can be identified expeditiously, thereby furnishing a scientific foundation for policy adjustment.

The processing assumption is as follows: The implementation of enhanced processing chain efficiency and technological innovation will directly result in improved efficiency and effectiveness of waste treatment, a reduction in treatment costs, and the promotion of closed-loop development of the value chain.

It is assumed that the service will be provided in an adequate manner. By enhancing the quality of service, such as through the provision of convenient guidance on waste classification and recycling services, public participation can be facilitated, and social acceptance and satisfaction with waste management can be increased. The optimisation of the service chain will facilitate a more precise alignment between policy objectives and public demand, enhance the effectiveness of policy instruments, and promote the synergy and integration of the various links in the value chain.

2.2. Selection of Analysis Dimension

Policy documents represent a principal avenue for articulating the government’s planned course of action [23]. In the analysis of policy documents, academics typically adopt two classic perspectives: that of policy purpose and that of means of implementation. The former concerns textual analysis of the stated goal while the latter addresses the question of how the stated goal is to be achieved. This study adheres to the conventional approach of utilising these two dimensions as the analytical framework.

Policy objectives can be defined as the anticipated outcomes and intentions that policymakers expect to achieve through the implementation of a given policy. It serves not only to direct policymakers in the selection of suitable implementation strategies but also to establish a standard for subsequent evaluations of policy effectiveness [24]. Policy implementation instruments are the methods employed by policymakers to attain specific goals. This perspective facilitates comprehension of the function of waste-free cities policies in urban development. In order to select the most appropriate means of implementation, it is first necessary to categorise them in a clear and systematic manner. The theory of categorising policy instruments has matured since the 1980s. At the present time, scholars have diversified the classification of policy implementation tools based on different classification criteria. The two most widely used classifications are as follows. Firstly, the policy implementation means are classified according to their role, with environmental, supply, and demand instruments identified [25]. Secondly, the degree of government involvement in the provision of public goods and services is used to classify the policy implementation means, with voluntary, mandatory, and mixed instruments identified [26]. This paper employs a policy implementation perspective to analyse the means of policy implementation.

According to Cao, the value chain analysis proposed by Michael Porter (2018) posits that the value added to the internal and external value of the enterprise originates from the basic and supporting activities [27]. Since then, the value chain theory has been widely promoted and developed. The term ‘value chain’ is typically used to describe the construction of a dynamic feedback mechanism centred on key aspects such as core technologies or services, creative solutions, basic research, product development, industrialisation, and market expansion in order to meet demand. The introduction of this dimension serves two principal functions. Primarily, it introduces a new dimension to the dual mechanism of policy objectives and policy instruments from the internal development process, thereby compensating for the singularity of the two. Secondly, by conducting a systematic analysis of the developmental trajectory of the waste-free cities policy, it facilitates a more nuanced understanding of its stage-by-stage characteristics. In conclusion, the policy of creating waste-free cities is not merely a matter of selecting and matching policy instruments; it also entails considering the assessment chain from a variety of perspectives. In light of the aforementioned research and practice, this study has ultimately selected the three dimensions of policy objectives, policy instruments, and assessment chain as the analytical framework.

2.3. Construction of Analytical Framework

2.3.1. Policy Objective

Policy objectives are defined as the intended effects and purposes that policymakers seek to achieve through the implementation of policies. In the context of the waste-free cities policy, the policy objectives primarily encompass the reduction in solid waste generation, the enhancement of resource recycling rates, and the mitigation of environmental pollution risks. These objectives serve not only to inform the selection of policy instruments but also to provide benchmarks for subsequent policy evaluation. In light of the theory of sustainable development and the theory of the circular economy, and in alignment with China’s current policy of building waste-free cities, these objectives can be classified into three distinct categories. The overarching objective is to facilitate the development of environmentally sustainable practices and lifestyles within urban areas, with the ultimate goal of reducing the generation of solid waste at the source and enhancing the utilisation of resources. This approach contributes to the broader vision of a beautiful China and global sustainable development. Secondly, the specific objectives are to reduce the generation of solid waste; increase the rate of resource utilisation; strengthen the recycling, utilisation, and disposal of solid waste; increase the rate of resource utilisation; achieve harmless disposal; build an integrated management system and technology system; and lead the construction of an international network of ‘Waste-Free Cities’. Thirdly, the milestones include the following: by 2025, the intensity of solid waste generation in ‘waste-free cities’ will be reduced at a relatively fast pace; the level of comprehensive utilisation will be significantly raised; the capacity for harmless disposal will be effectively guaranteed; the synergistic effect of pollution reduction and carbon reduction will be brought into full play; the construction of ‘waste-free cities’ will achieve full coverage; and the solid waste management system will be improved. The construction of ‘waste-free cities’ will achieve comprehensive coverage, and the solid waste management system and management capacity will be markedly enhanced.

2.3.2. Policy Instrument

Policy instruments are the means by which policymakers pursue and achieve specific policy goals. In the context of waste-free city policies, policy tools can be classified into three principal categories: environmental, supply-related, and demand-related. Environmental policy tools provide institutional safeguards for the construction of waste-free cities through the enactment of laws, regulations, standards, and norms. Supply-type policy tools promote the development of waste-free-city-related industries through the allocation of capital investment, the advancement of technology research and development, and the construction of infrastructure. Demand-type policy tools guide all parties in society to actively participate in the construction of waste-free cities through the implementation of market incentives, public participation, and other means.

From the perspective of policy tool dimensions, Zegveld’s classification of policy tools demonstrates both intradimensional convergent validity and interdimensional distinctions, offering strong relevance and content guidance. This paper employs this classification concept to categorise the policy tools for waste-free city building in China into environmental, supply, and demand dimensions. Environmental policy tools may be defined as the government’s efforts to create an external environment conducive to the construction of waste-free cities, achieved through the implementation of regulatory measures, the establishment of standards, the provision of supervision, and the enforcement of regulations. In terms of supply-oriented policy tools, the government’s efforts to facilitate the construction of waste-free cities are manifested in the provision of financial, technological, and human resources support. Demand-oriented policy tools are those through which the government raises public awareness and participation in solid waste management. Such tools may include government procurement, market access, and public participation policies.

2.3.3. Value Chains

The value chain represents the process of creating value from waste-free city policies, encompassing the full spectrum of policy formulation, implementation, and evaluation. China has extended this concept to encompass the entirety of the municipal solid waste management process, including the various stages of waste generation, collection, transport, treatment, and resource utilisation, as well as the involvement of key stakeholders such as the government, enterprises, and the public. The links are interrelated and interact with each other, collectively forming a comprehensive waste-free city policy system. A value chain analysis allows the transformation of policy objectives during the implementation process and the effect of policy tools in each link of the value chain to be clearly observed.

From the perspective of the value chain dimension, in conjunction with the characteristics of China’s waste-free city policy, the value chain dimension of the policy analysis is divided into three parts: composition, relevant stakeholders, and optimisation and upgrading. The initial section is designated “composition”, which encompasses four key elements: raw material input and waste generation, waste collection and transportation, waste treatment and resource utilization, and final disposal and regulatory measures. The second phase of the waste-free city development process is the involvement of stakeholders, who play a multifaceted role in the initiative, including government entities, private enterprises, and the general public. The third sector of waste-free city building is optimisation and upgrading. This section builds upon the preceding two sections, creating further synergies.

In summary, reasonably clear policy objectives are a prerequisite for policy building and provide guidance for the science of policy instruments and the effective operation of the value chain. Policy tools are the bridge between policy objectives and outcomes. They are the means to transform policy intentions into policy actions, providing a guarantee for the successful realisation of policy objectives and the improvement in performance efficiency and quality. The value chain reflects the value realisation of waste-free city construction, contains the effective effects of policy objectives and policy instruments at each stage of the assessment chain, and is the key to ensuring the positive flow of the assessment chain. The above dimensions and coupling relationships become an important window for identifying the content characteristics of waste-free city construction.

Therefore, this paper constructs a three-dimensional analysis framework of a waste-free city policy with policy objectives as the x-axis, policy instruments as the y-axis, and value chain as the z-axis, as shown in Figure 2. The policy system of waste-free city construction can be regarded as a policy space composed of policy objectives, policy tools, and value chain. It contains different points, lines, surfaces and subjects, which represent different policy implications. Point refers to the smallest unit of a certain dimension, which is expressed as a dot, such as the target of basic needs in a policy objective setting. Lines refer to some policy settings that involve only one dimension as rows. A surface is a cross-section consisting of axes, including two-dimensional dimensions. The body is a cubic polyhedron including three persons. Based on this, the analytical framework provides the basis for the uni-, two- and three-dimensional analyses of waste-free city building policies in this paper.

2.4. Materials and Methods

Content analytics is a structured approach to textual inquiry that aims to guarantee the reproducibility of findings and the precision of inferences in textual content analysis by quantifying textual information and its evolving trends [28]. The analytical method initially emerged within the fields of journalism and communication studies. The status of content analysis as a research methodology in the field was formalised by the American scholar Berelson in 1952, as evidenced by his work published in that year. Subsequently, the content analysis method has been employed extensively across a range of disciplines, including information science, sociology, and human management.

The principal advantage of the content analysis method is that it can be employed to process large ephemeral datasets in a consistent manner, to analyse the facts in a more objective way, and thus to distil conclusions [29]. Given the suitability of this approach in relation to the ideas presented in this study, content analysis is employed in this paper. The initial stage of conducting a content analysis of policy texts is the rational selection of the texts in question, which represents a fundamental aspect of the analytical process. The term “waste-free city policies” encompasses a vast array of legislation, regulations, and policy documents developed in China. In this study, national policy documents that are closely related to China’s waste-free city policy are selected for analysis. These include policy decisions, plans, notices, measures, project guidelines, guidance, and other forms of text.

In 2018, the General Office of the State Council of China first proposed the concept of “waste-free cities”, which aims to promote green development and lifestyles. Two batches of pilot cities were subsequently announced in 2019 and 2022. Accordingly, this study concentrates on the present effective waste-free city policies of the central government and pilot cities from 2019 to 2024. To ensure the veracity and relevance of the data, the obtained policy texts were subjected to manual identification, screening, and filtering. This paper employs a systematic methodology to identify pertinent policy information on the central government of the People’s Republic of China and the Beida Faber website. The keywords used are “no-waste city policy” and “no-waste city construction”, with the search period spanning 2019 to 2024. Policies issued in 2024 were included in the text identification scope. Subsequently, multi-dimensional screening criteria were devised, comprising policy level, issuing organisation, policy field, and nature. The criteria were then subjected to a process of formulation, resulting in the creation of screening rules. Subsequently, the screening criteria and keywords are employed to conduct a preliminary screening and keyword matching on the policy document database, with the policy documents initially classified as directly relevant, indirectly relevant, or irrelevant. Subsequently, the identified policy texts are subjected to a series of rigorous processes, including detailed reading, secondary screening, cross-validation, and data cleaning. This ensures that the texts align with the research objectives and possess a high degree of relevance, accuracy, and reliability. This process provides a robust foundation for subsequent in-depth analyses. Ultimately, 224 policy texts were identified that were aligned with the objectives of this study.

The most significant search strategies were as follows:

(a)

The research was conducted on official platforms, including the website of the Central Government of the People’s Republic of China and the website of Beida FaBao.

(b)

The search expression comprised keywords such as ‘waste-free city policy’ and ‘waste-free city construction’.

(c)

The period under consideration is that of the policies in question, which were issued between 2019 and 2024. Given that the inaugural document was released on 29 December 2018, which is temporally proximate to 2019, this paper incorporates it within the 2019 category for analytical purposes.

The text of the waste-free cities policy was then subjected to coding in accordance with the analytical framework that had been constructed. In order to guarantee the scientific validity and reliability of the study, the following specific requirements must be met:

• Coding training. Prior to undertaking the coding process, it is essential that each coder has a comprehensive understanding of the specific connotations and operational processes associated with the unit they are responsible for.
• Multi-person coding. The authors of this paper act as coders, separately coding the content of the strategy text. If the codes are found to be consistent, they are deemed acceptable; if there are discrepancies, the research team will endeavour to reach a consensus through collective discussion. Should any discrepancies remain, a minimum of two experts in pertinent fields will be consulted until a unified and agreed-upon classification is reached.
• The resulting coding is presented below. In accordance with the principles of unified coding and non-disaggregation, the coding result is presented in the form of a ‘policy number-paragraph number’, such as ‘1-1-1’, which represents the first article of the first paragraph of the first policy text. This ultimately constitutes the content analysis unit of the waste-free cities policy in China. The final stage of the process was the formation of the coding list of content analysis units of waste-free city policies in China, as presented in

  Table 1. Text coding example of waste-free city policy in China.

  Num	Name	Content Analysis	Code	Time
  1	Notice by the General Office of the State Council of Issuing the Work Plan for the Pilot Program of “Zero-Waste City” Building	Through the pilot construction of a “waste free city”, a construction model can be copied and promoted	1-1-1	29 December 2018
  52	Notice of the Office of the People’s Government of Sanya on issuing the Implementation Plan for the Construction of “Waste-free City” of Sanya (2021–2025)	Improve the recycling system for renewable resources, promote the construction of a solid waste information supervision platform, and so on	52-3-1	29 December 2021
  …	…	…	…	…
  224	Notice of Shantou Municipal People’s Government Office on printing and distributing the Implementation Plan for the Construction of Shantou “Waste Free City”	Focus on the “goose-rice” breeding cycle model and the multi-utilization model of pig breeding waste, and explore the interaction potential between solid waste and production links in the breeding industry	4-6-2	13 September 2024

  .

3. Results

3.1. Overall Analysis of Zero-Waste City Policy

Figure 3 illustrates that between 2019 and 2024, the overall number of waste-free city policies in China demonstrates cyclical fluctuations, indicating that the Chinese government is still in the process of exploring the construction of waste-free cities. It can be observed that there are two peaks in quantity, occurring in 2020 and 2022, respectively. The quantity in 2023 exhibits a slight decrease yet remains higher than the peak observed in 2020. The reasons for this are as follows: firstly, the initial cohort of 16 waste-free city pilot locations were designated at the outset of 2019, resulting in the implementation of policies concentrated in 2020. Secondly, the second cohort of waste-free city pilot locations were introduced in 2022, with the initial cohort of pilot locations continuing to introduce relevant policies. In the context of specific cities, the prevalence of frequent policy changes may prove detrimental to the stability and predictability of policy, as well as to the effective management of expectations. It is therefore recommended that regions developing waste-free city policies pay greater attention to the continuity and stability of the policies in question and avoid frequent changes in the short term in order to ensure effective implementation and public trust.

3.2. Dimensional Analysis

3.2.1. Single-Dimensional Analysis

A critical examination of the policy objectives. As can be observed from

Table 2. Overall distribution of policy objectives.

Frame	Type	Number (%)
Policy objective	Overall objective	395 (68.82)
	Specific goal	107 (18.64)
	Stage goal	72 (12.54)

, the waste-free city policy comprises a series of objectives, including overall, specific, and phased objectives. This indicates that the fundamental framework of China’s waste-free city construction policy was initially established. However, when considering the relative proportions of the different objectives, a notable discrepancy emerges. The overall objective is allocated the highest proportion, while the specific and staged objectives are assigned relatively lower proportions. The data indicate that the strongest support for the policy is for the overall goal. Documents have been issued at the central, provincial, and municipal government levels in China with the objective of focusing on the process of urban green development. In recent years, as the concept of ecological civilisation has gained global attention, China’s policy objectives have been oriented towards reducing the generation of solid waste, increasing the recycling of resources, and reducing the risk of environmental pollution. Of these, the reduction in solid waste generation, as the overarching goal of the construction of a waste-free city, has been the focus of significant attention from policymakers. Concurrently, as environmental awareness and technological advancement have progressed, the enhancement of the resource recycling rate and the reduction in environmental pollution have emerged as pivotal objectives within the context of waste-free city policy. It is necessary to further refine and clarify the specific objectives and milestones for the construction of waste-free cities in China. In the case of other regions, it is essential to provide greater clarity regarding the specific objectives and assessment indicators for each stage of the formulation of policies for waste-free cities. This will ensure the effective implementation of the policies and the sustainability of the results.

A critical examination of the policy instruments at hand. As evidenced in

Table 3. Overall distribution of policy tools.

Frame	Type	Number (%)	Total (%)
Environment	Legal regulation	971 (51.79%)	971 (51.79%)
Supply	Fund	11 (0.59%)	709 (37.81%)
	Technology	8 (0.43%)
	Human resources	690 (36.80%)
Demand	Public participation	195 (10.4%)	195 (10.4%)

, the government’s preference for the three policy tools in the policy of building waste-free cities varies. The environmental policy tools occupy a dominant position. The government provides a robust institutional foundation for the construction of waste-free cities through the formulation of pertinent legislation, the establishment of standards and norms, and the implementation of other measures. Concurrently, supply-based policy tools have also been extensively employed, with the government facilitating the advancement of waste-free city-related industries through capital investment, technological research and development, and human capital development. Nevertheless, the implementation of demand-based policy tools remains relatively limited, and the efficacy of mechanisms such as public participation requires further enhancement. (1) Environmental policy tools primarily comprise policies explicitly targeting the construction of waste-free cities or regulations pertaining to them, accounting for a significant portion of the total, amounting to 971 policies, representing 51.79% of the total. (2) Supply policy tools. The cultivation of talent is the most highly valued, accounting for 690, or 36.80%, while capital investment and technology development are relatively minor considerations. (3) Advocate for the implementation of policy instruments. In accordance with the prevailing concept of pluralistic co-governance in China, this paper focuses on the aspect of public participation and reveals that its proportion is relatively limited. From the above analyses, it can be seen that in terms of environmental policy tools, the Chinese government evinces a pronounced rule of law mindset, providing an institutional basis for the development of waste-free cities through legislation and improving the degree of rule of law through regulatory tools. However, at the same time, there is a relative lack of financial support and technological innovation in the area of supply-oriented policy tools, and the Chinese government must accelerate the research and development process of green technologies. In the area of demand-oriented policy tools, public participation in society is relatively weak, which is not conducive to the formation of a pattern of participation in social governance by multiple actors.

A value chain analysis was conducted. As evidenced in

Table 4. Overall distribution of value chains.

Frame	Type	Number (%)	Total (%)
Constitute	Waste generation	8 (4.90%)	53 (32.52%)
	Waste collection	5 (3.06%)
	Waste disposal	28 (17.18)
	Waste supervision	12 (7.36%)
Stakeholder	Government	73 (44.79%)	103 (64.19%)
	Enterprise	30 (18.40%)
Industrial upgrading	Green transformation	7 (4.29%)	7 (4.29%)

, China’s waste-free city policy considers three key aspects: composition, relevant stakeholders, and industrial upgrading. While there are variations in the level of support across different segments, this also demonstrates the overall robustness of the green industry value chain in the context of waste-free city development. In the policy formulation segment, the government places significant emphasis on the overarching design of waste-free city construction, issuing a series of forward-thinking and guiding policy documents. Nevertheless, in the process of implementing and evaluating policies, it is often challenging to achieve the desired outcomes due to the involvement of numerous interested parties and the complexity of coordination. It is therefore essential to reinforce the supervision of policy implementation and evaluation in order to guarantee the effective achievement of the policy objectives.

3.2.2. Two-Dimensional Analysis

The following section will examine the relationship between policy objectives and policy instruments. The results of the data in

Table 5. Distribution of two-dimensional analysis between policy objectives and policy tools.

Policy Tools	Policy Objectives
	Overall Objective	Specific Goal	Stage Goal
Legal regulation (E)	246	43	17
Fund (S)	32	22	15
Technology (S)	67	8	3
Human resources (S)	132	86	9
Public participation (D)	40	69	21

demonstrate that, in terms of the promotion of policy objectives, environmental policy instruments are employed with a high frequency, supply-oriented policy instruments with a medium frequency, and demand-oriented policy instruments with a relatively lower frequency. In accordance with the preceding analysis, the overall objectives are as follows: (1) All three policy orientations—environmental, supply-oriented, and demand-oriented—contribute to the realisation of the overall goal. However, the environmental-based tools are the most frequently employed, with a total of 246 instances. (2) Specific objectives. The attainment of specific policy objectives is predominantly driven by supply-oriented and demand-oriented instruments. Aspects such as talent cultivation and public participation constituted a relatively large proportion. (3) Milestone objectives are primarily concerned with the enactment of legislation, the allocation of financial resources, and the engagement of the public. There is a temporary deficit in scientific and technological resources and in the cultivation of talent. In general, the current policy tools for the construction of waste-free cities in China place greater emphasis on the establishment of both general and specific goals, which can effectively guarantee the construction of waste-free cities and facilitate the gradual addition of milestones.

The objective of the policy in question and the value chain.

Table 6. Distribution of two-dimensional analysis between policy objectives and value chains.

Value Chain	Policy Objectives
	Overall Objective	Specific Goal	Stage Goal
Waste generation	12	3	0
Waste collection	3	1	0
Waste disposal	3	1	0
Waste supervision	2	1	1
Government	21	15	11
Enterprise	12	11	5
Green transformation	64	43	12

illustrates the distribution of policy objectives across the value chain. While overall objectives are addressed in all links of the value chain, specific objectives and milestones are represented with lesser frequency in certain links. This indicates that China’s waste-free city policy has comprehensive coverage at the macro-level yet still requires reinforcement at the specific implementation and evaluation stages. In formulating waste-free city policies in other regions, it is essential to give due consideration to the refinement and implementation of policy objectives at the various links in the value chain. It is essential to ensure that the policy does not merely provide macro-level guidance but also addresses the specifics of implementation and evaluation. This will facilitate the operationalisation and efficacy of the policy, thereby advancing the overarching objective of waste-free city construction.

The concept of policy instruments and their relationship with value chains is a key area of interest within the field of economic and business studies.

Table 7. Distribution of two-dimensional analysis between policy tools and value chains.

Value Chain	Policy Tools
	Legal Regulation	Fund	Technology	Human Resources	Public Participation
Waste generation	20	6	36	1	2
Waste collection	8	2	3	0	1
Waste disposal	11	3	0	3	1
Waste supervision	17	8	12	0	3
Government	47	20	18	8	12
Enterprise	3	5	4	0	0
Green transformation	30	12	8	0	0

presents an analysis of the nexus between value chains and policy instruments. The findings indicate that environmentally oriented policy instruments are the most prevalent, followed by supply policy instruments and demand policy instruments. With the exception of waste generation, the other aspects of the value chain are the most frequent users of environmental tools. In contrast, the proportion of the value chain that comprises supply- and demand-oriented tools is relatively small in comparison to the proportion that is environmentally oriented. The data are entirely consistent with the Chinese government’s emphasis on legislation and regulation, as well as its focus on the impact of different pilot policies on waste management, emissions, and disposal. However, the level of policy support at the enterprise level is relatively limited.

3.2.3. Three-Dimensional Analysis

As evidenced in

Table 8. Distribution of three-dimensional analysis among policy objectives, policy tools, and value chains.

Policy Objective	Policy Tools	Value Chain
		Waste Generation	Waste Collection	Waste Disposal	Waste Supervision	Government	Enterprise	Green Transformation
Overall objective	Legal regulation (E)	20	5	12	7	9	6	23
	Fund (S)	10	2	0	0	3	2	4
Specific goal	Technology (S)	11	4	0	0	0	0	0
	Human resources (S)	8	4	0	2	1	0	14
Stage goal	Public participation (D)	0	0	1	5	2	0	0

, the value chains are all concerned with the overarching policy objectives, followed by the specific objectives and finally the milestones. In terms of policy instruments, the focus is on those that are environmentally oriented. (1) The number of environmental policy instruments pertaining to waste generation is 20 or 40.81 per cent, while the number of supply-oriented instruments is 29 or 59.18 per cent. (2) Waste collection, disposal, regulation, and stakeholders are primarily concerned with environmental policies, with relatively few supply- and demand-oriented instruments. (3) The green transformation of the industry is primarily focused on environmental policies, with a notable shift towards greater attention to supply-type policies. Talent development is identified as a key area for improvement. The data analysis indicates that China’s waste-free city policy is a model comprising four key elements: a goal-led approach, environmental policy tools, waste collection, and green transformation.

4. Conclusions and Suggestions

4.1. Conclusions

This study employs a three-dimensional analytical framework based on the ‘PDDS’ model to examine China’s waste-free city construction policies from 2019 to 2024. The following conclusions are thus drawn.

Firstly, it can be observed that the distribution of policy objectives is not uniform. Of the 574 identified policy objectives, 68.82 per cent are classified as macro-objectives, indicating a pronounced emphasis on comprehensive guidance. In contrast, specific and phased objectives account for only 18.64% and 12.54%, respectively. This indicates that, although the overarching direction is evident, the necessity for more detailed and phased Implementation Plans is apparent.

Secondly, there is a structural imbalance in the policy instruments employed. The government’s policy toolkit is dominated by environmental instruments, namely laws and regulations, which account for 51.79% of all policy tools. This underscores the government’s emphasis on establishing a regulatory framework. The relative under representation of supply-side and demand-side tools is notable, with financial, technological and human resources accounting for 37.81 per cent and public participation accounting for only 10.4 percent. This imbalance indicates the necessity for more robust incentives and greater public participation in waste management.

Furthermore, the level of support provided along the value chain varies. China’s waste-free cities policy encompasses all seven value chain segments. However, the level of support varies considerably, with a greater emphasis on waste generation regulation (4.90%) and waste disposal (17.18%) and less attention paid to waste collection (3.06%) and waste regulation (7.36%). This results in implementation and monitoring gaps.

In conclusion, a three-dimensional analysis demonstrates that the Chinese model is centred on macro-goals, driven by environmental policy instruments, and focused on green industry transformation.

4.2. Suggestions

The findings of this study have the potential to inform and enhance the implementation of ecological environmental protection and waste-free city policies on a global scale.

Firstly, government departments should undertake a process of refinement with regard to their policy objectives. It is essential to strike a balance between macro-guidance and concrete implementation. In order to guarantee the operability and sustainability of the policy, it is essential to define specific objectives and milestones for the short, medium, and long term while maintaining overall goal leadership. For instance, annual targets for the reduction in solid waste and indicators of improvement in resource utilisation should be established in order to provide clear guidance for the implementation of policy.

Secondly, improvements should be made to the structural layout of the policy tools. It is recommended that the government implement a strategy of strengthening both the supply side and the demand side of the market through the use of a diversified range of policy instruments. In order to form a diversified policy support system, it is necessary to strengthen environmental policy tools by increasing supply-side policies, such as financial input, technological innovation, and human resource training, while expanding the application of demand-side policy tools, such as public participation. For instance, the establishment of a dedicated fund to subsidise the advancement of waste-free technologies and the implementation of public awareness campaigns and incentive schemes to enhance the involvement of all stakeholders.

It is once more recommended that synergies across the value chain be utilised. It is essential to guarantee the efficacy of policies throughout the entire chain of waste generation, collection, transport, treatment, resource utilisation, and regulation. In particular, it is necessary to reinforce the provision of support for the links between waste collection and supervision, establish a robust system for the collection and monitoring of waste statistics, and enhance the efficacy of the supervisory process. Concurrently, the upstream and downstream segments of the industrial chain should be developed in a synergistic manner to establish a closed-loop management system and enhance the level of resource recycling.

Ultimately, efforts should be made to enhance the coherence between policy objectives, policy instruments, and evaluation frameworks. This entails a focus on optimising the weaker links in each combination model. It is essential to enhance the malleability of policy instruments in accordance with the specified policy objectives. It is essential to proactively assume an indirect role in providing financial support and fostering scientific and technological innovation while also increasing the number of professionals engaged in the development of waste-free cities. Policy tools must be selected and applied in a scientifically and rationally justified manner, taking into account the specific characteristics of the industrial chains associated with the transition to a waste-free city.

4.3. Research Limitations and Future Research Directions

This study employs a systematic quantitative analysis of 224 policy documents on waste-free city construction in order to reveal the external characteristics of China’s waste-free city construction in terms of policy objectives, policy tools, and value chains. Given that China’s waste-free city construction commenced relatively recently, this study is constrained by temporal limitations in terms of the texts that can be included in the analysis. Furthermore, this study only encompasses data at the official level in China, and thus does not include in-depth interviews with Chinese civil society or consider policy texts from other countries. It would be beneficial for future researchers to expand the number of texts collected over time and to include policy texts on waste-free cities in other countries and regions for comparative analysis.