4-Years into the Pandemic Impacts: A Holistic Reflection and Educational Lessons Learnt in the Tourism and Agriculture Sectors

Abstract

With the continual mutations of new variants in recent years, COVID-19 has adapted to coexist with humanity for decades to come. However, our understanding of the extent and longevity of the pandemic remains vague. Although the immediate repercussions of the pandemic on various sectors of the global economy still linger and could even last longer than was anticipated, four years into the pandemic provides an opportune time to examine key trends in research and strategies crucial to combating the effect in the long term. To that end, this study critically provides timely reflections on COVID-19’s impact on the tourism and agriculture industries highlighting their interdependence. It further examines key advancements, challenges, and prospects that have come to light during the pandemic era while reflecting on pre-, during-, and post-pandemic developments. Specifically, the review delves into the various dimensions and facets of these impacts, exploring how the pandemic affects the changing landscape in tourism and agriculture in the post-pandemic era, as well as the efficacy of the coping strategies. We proposed key novel strategies for ensuring the robustness of tourism and agriculture industries, integrating lessons from past crises into short-term, medium-term, and long-term solutions. It is worth noticing that the research outcomes align with the Sustainable Development Goals on sustainable production and consumption. The proposed strategies provide a solid foundation to fortify other industries in the face of subsequent crises of a similar kind. This review concludes by offering insightful perspectives on potential areas of investigation and recommendations during emergency crises.

1. Introduction

1.1. Background of the Study

Viral pandemics have been prevalent and severely impactful on worldwide populations since the turn of the 21st century [1].

Table 1. Major pandemics and their origin. Source: Casadevall (2024) [2].

Year	Pandemics	Dissemination
165–190	Antonine Plague	Europe, Middle East
550 AD	Plague of Justinian”—bubonic plague	Europe and West Asia
590 AD	“Roman plague” bubonic plague	Italy, France, Spain Byzantine Empire
700 AD	plague (unspecified infection) *	British Isles, West Asia, Middle East
736 AD	smallpox	East Asia
993–996 AD	plague (unspecified infection) *	Continental Europe, British Isles
1031–1033 AD	plague (unspecified infection) * typhus	Europe, Middle East
1193–1196 AD	plague fever (unspecified infection—pulmonary plague?)	Europe
1221–1224 AD	plague (unspecified infection)	Europe
1311–1318 AD	plague (unspecified infection) * “acute fever” (in the British Isles, unspecified infection)	Central Europe, West Europe
1346–1390 AD	“Black Death” pandemic bubonic plague, pulmonary plague (1367 in Germany) several waves	Europe, Asia
1485–1551 AD	Sweating sickness (unspecified infection, possibly hantavirus)	The British Isles and continental Europe
1520–1576 AD	smallpox „ cocoliztli (possibly salmonella?)	Mexico and Central America
1596 AD	Cocoliztli (possibly salmonella?)	East Europe, India, Asia
1629–1631 AD	bubonic plague	Russia, Middle East
1816–1824 AD	cholera	Europe, Asia
1846 AD	cholera	Russia, Europe
1889–1890 AD	influenza	Europe, America
1916–1920 AD	“Spanish flu”—influenza	Worldwide
1918–1922 AD	Typhus	East Europe
1957–1958 AD	“Asian flu”—influenza	Worldwide
1968–1970 AD	“Hong Kong flu”—influenza	Worldwide
2003	Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS-CoV)	Worldwide
2012	Middle East Respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV)	Worldwide

depicts hitherto key pandemics and their origin.

Nevertheless, COVID-19 has demonstrated an unprecedented rate of transmission and resulted in a staggering number of fatalities [1]. As a consequence of their development, coronaviruses, which originated in bats, are now more hazardous to humans than they were previously anticipated to be, despite their origins in birds and mammals [3]. A substantial amount of about 79.6% genetic sequence resemblance exists between SARS-CoV-2 and the SARS-CoV outbreak that occurred in 2003, according to research [4]. Furthermore, the genetic makeup of SARS-CoV-2 is nearly 96% comparable to that of the bat coronavirus, which offers valuable insights into the origins of COVID-19.

Considering the significant worldwide repercussions and elevated pathogenesis of HCoV outbreaks over the last two decades, this subject has garnered considerable attention. Subsequently, scholars are conducting exhaustive investigations into the mechanistic operation of the virus. Following the declaration of the COVID-19 outbreak as a worldwide pandemic by the World Health Organization on 11 March 2020, the situation has become more dire globally. The World Health Organization reported that as of 4 January 2021, the total number of cases had surpassed 83 million across 222 countries [5]. Notably, certain countries experienced swift daily escalations in the number of cases. Meanwhile, as of 26 May 2020, about 84,543 COVID-19 infections had been reported in China. By 3 November 2020, the total number of confirmed cases worldwide had exceeded 46 million, with about 1.2 million deaths [5].

Studies on the effects of COVID-19 can generally be classified into two basic categories. The most popular one underscores the subjective elements of the global outbreak, outlining the most significant lessons regarding management that policymakers could employ to be more resilient to subsequent crises of a similar kind. Meanwhile, the other group employs more analytical techniques and specifically uses theoretical frameworks to quantify and shed light on the impact that the pandemic has on the entire economy. As the percentage of people experiencing symptoms of COVID-19 keeps growing, economic stability is being threatened by the viral pandemic [6].

Despite the world economy showing signs of recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic, the immediate repercussions of the global pandemic on economic growth are severe. The uncertainties and rising prevalence of this infectious disease pose significant challenges, putting a strain on medical facilities and the worldwide economy while also inducing psychological stress and physical well-being for individuals globally [7,8].

Interestingly, the COVID-19 pandemic was anticipated to be controlled and eliminated swiftly, giving up attention to resilience and recuperation. Nevertheless, its continuous persistence has resulted in new infections and deaths. Four years into the pandemic, over 774 million confirmed cases and over 7 million deaths had been recorded as of 4 February 2024 [5,9]. More importantly, with the emergence of new strains such as Delta and Omicron, this number is predicted to rise even higher. It is anticipated that the consequences of the pandemic will persist and linger for a longer period, especially in countries with limited access to healthcare, and low vaccination rates. Although vaccinations are pivotal in the fight against the pandemic, it remains unclear the emergence of new variants in the future and the potency of the vaccines. Hitherto, a considerable number of COVID-19-related studies have been carried out, with a scant number of studies performed in the tourism and agriculture sectors. Meanwhile, these studies seem to have a narrow focus, primarily on publications from 2020 to 2021. Additionally, during this time frame, less information existed regarding COVID-19, its eventual time, and the degree of severity. Up till now, new variants are evolving, unresolved challenges to contain the virus are persisting, whilst concerns regarding worldwide vaccine access and distribution networks are making headlines.

In light of the aforementioned, four years would constitute an ideal time for a comprehensive review. It would also serve as a fitting moment to reflect on the field, evaluate major discoveries, and highlight key areas that require further investigation. There has been limited time for researchers to extensively reflect on tourism, agriculture, and COVID-19 knowledge. Rodriguez et al. [10] examined the effects of COVID-19 on enterprises from the managerial viewpoint. Their results indicated a substantial deficiency, especially in empirical research, necessary to advance the understanding of the pandemic’s impact on organizations as well as their management practices. Sousa et al. [11] suggested integrating novel technologies into the tourism industry to address the issues presented by COVID-19. They discovered that the utilization of associated technologies is affected by variables such as financial capacity, corporate strategies, and previous exposure to the use of virtual reality. Sharma et al. [12] emphasized the shortcomings of the tourism sector, which is strongly dependent on mobility and direct interactions, rendering it particularly susceptible to pandemic-related challenges. Zopiatis et al. [13] underscored the significance of prioritizing human resources management, economic practices, and promotional strategies in the post-pandemic context. Raki et al. [14] challenged the majority of current research for its speculative and advocacy-oriented nature, thus recommending more rigorous valuation studies to assess the pandemic’s lasting impacts.

Reflection has the beneficial effect of driving researchers to deliberate and assess their research work. It remains unclear that some of the predictions put forth at the infancy stages of the crisis failed to materialize, thus diminishing their relevance for both researchers and industry experts. In addition, research focusing on specific post-pandemic situations was untimely since the crisis was unending with new mutations. Hence, establishing the relevance of timely reviews in this research terrain remains crucial and would successfully address the shortcomings of earlier reviews while advancing our awareness of novel crisis management strategies.

While previous works have provided scientific contributions in the aftermath of COVID-19 and emerging research seeks remedies for the post-pandemic era, our study provides essential insights for interrelated industries. It outlines applicable sustainable growth strategies not solely for the tourism sector but also for the agriculture sector. More importantly, we intend to fortify these sectors’ ability to cope with future crises. Finally, this study seeks to fill in the gaps in our understanding and provide a solid foundation for other sectors ensuring they are more responsive to dynamic conditions for sustainable growth [9,15].

1.2. Problem Statement

The existing research study emphasizes how the COVID-19 pandemic significantly affected worldwide financial markets. Travel bans, shutdowns of borders, and shifting consumer habits virtually brought the tourism sector to a standstill, resulting in massive revenue losses, joblessness, etc. Food availability, as well as sustainability, were severely endangered when the agriculture sector despite its vital role in society faced problems like workforce shortages, supply chain interruptions, and changes in consumer preferences. Although there is an extensive amount of information available regarding the immediate impacts of the pandemic, there is a dearth of thorough research on long-term reflections regarding how these industries have evolved during the last four years. Lessons learned, resilience, and the incorporation of technology, as well as the partnership of stakeholders, are among the significant but as-yet-unexplored areas. Additionally, the interaction among these two industries has received little attention and is still not fully understood in light of recuperation and crisis management. A better comprehension of the effects of the pandemic and an assessment of the efficacy of coping mechanisms are necessary to fill these gaps. As a means to ensure that recovery initiatives comply with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), it is prudent to conduct in-depth research of the current situation to identify potential challenges, progress, and prospects. This review will be utilized to develop workable plans to address subsequent crises of a similar kind.

1.3. Significance of the Study

The research work holds significant value not only for recovered countries but also for numerous other countries that continue to endure economic repercussions caused by the pandemic. It is imperative to recognize that the research problem of this study would be addressed for all stakeholders involved in the sustained viability of the tourism and agriculture industries, including stakeholders in the market, governments, non-governmental organizations, local communities, and technologists. Given the appropriateness of the remedies, the tourism and agriculture sectors would have the potential to usher in an entirely new economic system that prioritizes social welfare, climate change, community engagement, and sustainable businesses. Additionally, the research will bolster advances in technology while seeking a long-term plan to promote equitable growth in the post-pandemic age. This research has contributed to shedding light on both the positive and negative impacts of the pandemic on the tourism and agriculture industries. The research conducted offers key novel methods to enhance the robustness of these industries in the post-pandemic age, recognizing the likelihood of future crises of similar kinds. The adoption of hybrid tourism models, hyper-localization, smart infrastructure, augmented network systems, continuity automation, and other innovative strategies are a few examples. Adding to the existing body of literature, the current research has contributed to analyzing the most recent advances in research on tourism and agriculture sustainability that have emerged during COVID-19.

1.4. Research Questions

The research questions were systematically formulated to address significant shortcomings in comprehending the nuanced effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on the tourism and agriculture industries. Each question addresses particular aspects of the underlying research problem, enabling a thorough assessment of the pandemic’s impacts and recovery strategies. The research questions are outlined below:

(a)

What were the major economic consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic on the tourism and agriculture sectors over the past four years?

(i)

This question originates from the desire to assess and understand the economic effect of the pandemic. Tourism and agriculture, as essential components of the world’s economy, necessitate an in-depth grasp of financial disturbances to analyze their long-term repercussions. The four-year timeline provides for a thorough examination of trends, variations, and long-term impacts, providing a solid foundation for the study.

(b)

What were the most effective adaptation techniques demonstrated, and how did each industry cope with the challenges posed by the pandemic?

(ii)

The unexpected advent of the pandemic spurred companies to creativity and adaptability. This question seeks to recognize and analyze various coping techniques, providing significant insights that can inform best practices for handling future crises, especially among sectors exposed to external challenges.

(c)

How successful were the policy initiatives that were set forth to assist in the revival of both industries?

(iii)

The basis for this question is the need to carry out a detailed assessment of the successful implementation of strategies while offering evidence-based insights to guide the formulation of future policy frameworks.

(d)

To what extent has interdisciplinary research into tourism and agriculture managed to bridge significant knowledge gaps?

(iv)

Tourism and agriculture are highly interrelated, with agriculture often providing support to tourism through food supply chains. This question originates from the realization that holistic approaches are indispensable for handling nuanced challenges involving multiple sectors. Examining the scope of these studies offers perspective on advances made in addressing knowledge gaps while recognizing prospects for further investigations.

(e)

What valuable long-term lessons concerning crisis management would be acquired to strengthen resiliency in the tourism and agriculture industries in the wake of a future pandemic?

(v)

Crises usually highlight inadequacies and the potential for transformation. This question seeks to discover long-term pandemic lessons, particularly focusing on resiliency and preparation techniques. It is associated with the overarching goal of providing valuable guidance for effectively dealing with future global crises.

1.5. Methodology

To reveal and analyze all the studies reported in the agriculture and tourism sectors before, during, and after the pandemic, a systematic literature review is carried out. This method has acquired prominence for its capacity to limit biases while evaluating a wide range of preferences, subjects, and conditions. A systematic literature review guarantees the correctness of findings by employing an exhaustive, transparent, and reliable approach backed by robust analysis as confirmed by several authors notably; Lame [16], Torres Carrion et al. [17], and Xiao and Watson [18]. In this work, analytical grids, charts, etc. are utilized to efficiently organize appropriate information tapped from selected papers. This study followed the guidelines according to the PRISMA framework for systematic reviews. To guarantee dependability and uniformity, this framework incorporates essential underlying concepts into a systematic and standardized approach as recommended by Shamseer et al. [19], and Liberati et al. [20].

1.5.1. Search Strategy

Scientific papers detailing the effects of COVID-19 on agriculture and tourism industries, as well as its consequences for the future of food production and tourism operations, are discovered through a thorough search in notable repositories such as Scopus and the Web of Science Core Collection (WoS). We broadened our choice of keywords and developed a comprehensive search query utilizing Boolean operators, truncation, wildcard entries, and phrase searches within the databases. The Boolean operator “AND” was employed to guarantee the inclusion of all three phrases in the search, while “OR” was utilized to encompass all variations associated with the “Pandemic. “A truncation mark “_” was utilized to ensure that words of the same source were included, while a question mark “?” was employed to incorporate both singular and plural forms. The search string included: (“COVID-19”, OR “coronavirus” OR “SARS-CoV2”) AND (“tourism” OR “tourism industry” OR “consumption patterns” OR “international tourism”) AND (“tourist behaviors” OR “non-tourism sectors” OR “tourist-related industries” OR “non-tourism industries”) AND (“domestic inbound tourism” OR “inbound tourism” OR “travel restrictions” OR “movement restrictions”) AND (“technological advancement” OR “governments’ response” OR “response package” OR “interventions”), “policy implications” AND “agriculture”, “agri-food AND “food security”, “food insecurity”, AND “consumer consumption”, “food security” AND “resilience”, “agricultural food production”, AND “Agri-food system”, “agriculture management”, AND “technological advancement”, prevention and control measures”, AND “supply chain” to ensure a comprehensive exploration of the topic. Considering the specified search criteria, we scanned through the available databases and recorded the outcomes.

1.5.2. Selection Process

Research aims, methods, major results, and conclusions were selected from the listed works. Furthermore, we examined the findings from a Google search for papers. Using this technique, we successfully managed to obtain relevant academic publications that were up to speed with the research’s requirements. The search performed on SCOPUS and the Web of Science database revealed 362 articles. Meanwhile, 205 articles were assessed based on abstract, title, and keywords in conformity with the defined objective of the research after removing duplicates. A total of 42 articles were left out, whilst 163 articles were found to be appropriate. Additionally, 5 articles were excluded due to the full-text language, and 45 records were found to be out of context after the full-text assessment. Consequently, the original database was reduced to 113 articles. The final review focused solely on research that met the selection criterion. Meanwhile, Figure 1 depicts the detailed PRISMA flow diagram of the literature search.

1.5.3. Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

To qualify for inclusion, a scientific paper had to be published in English between 2019 and 2024, have the search terms as keywords, be a peer-reviewed scientific research work, and have the search terms as the major topic. On the contrary, scientific papers published before 2019, articles not written in English, conference papers, articles not peer-reviewed, articles not principally addressing the search terms, and articles that did not contain the search phrases were all excluded.

Table 2. Inclusion and exclusion criteria.

Condition	Inclusion	Exclusion
Literature type	Research articles	Conference papers, book chapter,
Country	Worldwide
Language preference	English	Other languages
Year	2019–2024	2018 and earlier
Review Type	Peer-reviewed	Non-Peer reviewed
Relevancy	Tourism, and agriculture industries	Other industries

shows the inclusion and exclusion criteria employed in this work. The final evaluation focused solely on research that met the requirements for quality standards.

1.5.4. Models Reviewed

Several models and frameworks were examined to present a detailed and coherent analysis.

The vulnerability concept model (VCM) was chosen due to its capacity to systematically analyze exposure, adaptive capacity, and multi-dimensional threats. It asserts that being susceptible to disasters and other psychological, social, and financial factors renders one vulnerable. To better comprehend sectoral risks, pinpoint essential risks, manage remediation efforts, and integrate sustainability into operations, this approach presents a solid framework that confirms the works of Turner et al. [21].

The resilience model (RM) was used to assess how the agriculture and tourism industries adapt to disturbances, with an emphasis on adaptability, restoration, and sustainability. Recovery is viewed as an ongoing procedure, and the impact of prior challenges on outcomes is acknowledged. Integrating sustainability into sectoral strategy, assessing risks, and formulating policies are all facilitated by this model [22].

The adaptability to disaster model (ADM) examines the mechanisms through which systems modify and recuperate in response to emergencies. The assumption is that adaptation occurs as a dynamic process with unique characteristics and relationships between different sectors. The model perceives crises as potential catalysts for imaginative thinking, highlighting the value of adaptability and sustainable practices which agrees with the works of Tariq and Fernando [23]. It contributes to the formulation of adapting policies, stimulates creativity, and enhances social responsibility.

The decision-making model (DMM) offers a systematic approach for informed and evidence-driven reactions to crises, exemplified by the challenges posed during COVID-19. The framework presupposes rational decision-making, engagement from multiple stakeholders, and a cyclical methodology, nevertheless considers the inherent uncertainties and constraints on resources [24]. The model enables cooperation among stakeholders, promotes scenario development, and supports the implementation of novel approaches to successfully integrate short-term recovery initiatives with long-term sustainable growth.

The computational general equilibrium (CGE) model was employed to examine and measure the economic effects of crises. The model, grounded in the principles of logical thinking, intersectoral relationships, and the recovery of balance following disturbances, provides valuable insight into the efficacy of policies, equitable distribution of resources, as well as approaches to foster resilience [25].

The social accounting matrix (SAM) model provides a comprehensive framework for analyzing the impacts of shocks across interrelated sectors. The model, by presuming fixed linear interactions, enables efficient utilization in areas such as evaluation of policies, revenue distribution analysis, and the development of feasible recovery plans [26].

The stimulus organism response (SOR) model was applied to examine the dynamics of behavior and decision-making in crises involving consumers, corporations, and other stakeholders. According to this theory, reactions are shaped by psychological conditions that are influenced by external stimuli. By using this model, policymakers as well as companies are better able to develop flexible plans for long-term recovery [27].

The perceived risk model (PRM) analyzes how people and organizations respond to hazards in crises. The model provides insight into analyzing consumer behavior, strengthening risk awareness, and promoting policy design due to its ability to emphasize the effect of individual traits and subjective perspectives on risks [28].

1.6. The Interdependence Between Tourism and Agriculture

The research study highlights the essential link between tourism and agriculture, stressing their mutual relationship in boosting the local economy, safeguarding cultural heritage, and advancing long-term viability. Their linkage is especially evident in their economic synergy, mutual risk factors in times of crisis, and shared strategies for recuperation and adaptability.

The tourism sector fosters a major market for agricultural goods, with food being a key component of the tourist experience. Hotels, restaurants, and local markets rely primarily on agricultural supply chains, particularly in the realm of culinary tourism, where the essence of local cuisine and beverages plays a crucial role [29]. Furthermore, agriculture enhances numerous vacation spots, with features such as vineyards, coffee farmland, and terraced fields acting as significant in cultural and tourist experiences. Festivals commemorating harvests or customary cuisine emphasize the connection between agricultural productivity and the attraction of tourism.

The pandemic revealed common weaknesses in both the tourism and agriculture sectors. The enforcement of lockdowns and travel bans significantly interrupted agriculture supply lines, resulting in a restricted supply of agricultural goods to industries in the tourism sector. Concurrently, the reduction in tourism demand had immediate consequences on agriculturalists, as hotels and restaurants decreased their purchasing tasks. Both industries endured significant shortages of workforce as a result of travel bans on migrant workers, which worsened manufacturing and operational issues. The financial challenges faced by the tourism sector triggered a chain reaction, leading to decreased revenue from agriculture and contributing to the economic crisis.

The concept of sustainability acts as a harmonious component for both sectors. Eco-tourism enhances sustainable farming practices, leading to the conservation of natural resources while decreasing adverse environmental effects. Joint initiatives, like procuring local agricultural goods for tourism businesses bolster the local communities. Supporting local populations involved in agriculture and tourism strengthens sustainable growth by creating robust and interrelated economic systems [30].

Tourism and agriculture have stronger ties due to cultural aspects and behavioral similarities existing between them. The grapevines and ancient agriculture communities are exemplary agricultural heritage sites that effectively integrate cultural tourism alongside agricultural historical events, thus granting tourists a deeper appreciation of Indigenous customs. Tourism and farming traditions can be enhanced through immersive experiences such as cooking lessons and fruit-picking trips [29]. The mutual dependency on one another underscores the necessity for cooperation between the tourism and agriculture industries. Even though the pandemic showcased how vulnerable they were to one another, it also demonstrated how they might collaborate during the recuperation period.

The decision to prioritize the tourism and agriculture sectors in this study stems from their economic significance, mutual reliance, and similar challenges encountered during the pandemic. Both industries function as essential components for the economy globally. The significance of tourism in contributing to GDP, creating jobs, and producing foreign exchange cannot be overemphasized, whereas agriculture is crucial to sustaining food security and bolstering rural economies [30]. Collectively, they form an essential part of both local and international economic frameworks, especially in areas that rely significantly on these sectors. Their importance highlights the necessity for a thorough study of their effects during the pandemic and the recovery plans.

2. Thematic Discussion

This section organizes reviews by groups of previous-to-recent studies separately, with an explicit focus on tourism and agriculture. The paper is presented in two main sections. First, the focus of the research entails a literature review that defines the multidimensional overview of the COVID-19 pandemic in the tourism sector. It also addresses previous literature concerning five aspects of the tourism sector: the main implications of the crisis on tourism; tourist behavior and consumption patterns; tourism industry trends; technological innovations in the tourism industry; and governments’ response to COVID-19. Second, an overview of COVID-19 in the agriculture sector is presented. Besides, studies on the main implications of the crisis for food and livestock production, agriculture production disrupted by prevention and control measures, the future of agri-food systems and food security in the post-pandemic, and opportunities arising due to COVID-19 in the agri-food supply chain are extensively discussed. The last section concludes by outlining government responses and a policy framework to deal with the challenges emerging from COVID-19 for the agriculture sector.

2.1. Overview of Tourism Industry

The COVID-19 pandemic has had a severe and widespread detrimental effect on the worldwide economy. Among various sectors, the tourism industry has been hit the hardest by the global economic downturn given its dependence on human mobility [31]. Although the immediate repercussions of the pandemic on international tourism are apparent in industrial statistics, the influence of the pandemic on tourist behaviors and consumer psychology tends to be imperceptible and needs proper consideration [31]. Figure 2 highlights the transformation in sectoral outputs in the wake of COVID-19 globally [32].

The production loss is significantly higher in the tourist-related industries than in the non-tourism industries from Figure 2. Loss of production ranges from 8% to 54% in the tourism industry under the no-control scenario, compared to less than 10% in non-tourism sectors. Meanwhile, the hospitality, food service, retail, transportation (rail, air, and sea), and entertainment industries all saw an output drop of 19% to 54%. According to the United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), the global pandemic has resulted in a decline of an estimated 8.5 million to 1.1 billion worldwide tourists [33]. This translates to a dip in export earnings ranging from US$910 million to US$1.2 trillion and a decrease in employment by 100–120 million jobs [33]. Before the pandemic, China held the position as the primary destination for international tourism globally, both regarding the number of visitors and their purchasing power. In 2018, 149.7 million Chinese tourists departed the country, expending an amount of $120 billion, as reported by the China Tourism Academy [32]. In 2018, more than 5.54 billion Chinese citizens traveled within the country, contributing to 5.13 trillion RMB in revenue [34]. Before the COVID-19 pandemic, Chinese tourists participated at massive scales and made significant contributions to the global tourism industry, both domestically and abroad. Given the unprecedented magnitude of the COVID-19 pandemic and its potential to redefine human existence in a significant way, the influence of the virus on tourism is an emerging and unexplored problem. As a result, there are relatively few existing references in the literature to help grasp this matter.

2.1.1. Consequences of the Pandemic on Tourism Industry

Yang et al. [35] developed the COVID-19 tourism index model to illustrate the ramifications of the pandemic on the tourism industry, as well as on the hotel and aviation sectors. In addition, secondary online data was utilized by scholars to track the effects of COVID-19 on the worldwide tourism sector. Polyzos, Samitas, and Spyridou [36] employed LSTM artificial neural network techniques to study the tourism trends. According to the findings, it is projected that the tourism market will require a period between 6 and 12 months to bounce back to the levels observed before the pandemic. Similarly, Fotiadis, Polyzos, and Huan [37] used LSTM and generalized additive model in their investigations. Their findings pointed to a potential 30.8% to 76.3% loss in international tourist arrivals, with the drop projected to continue until June 2021. One interesting observation is that the effects of the pandemic on nations and their recovery tendencies depict a varying trend. This is because worldwide tourism encompasses either source market countries or destination countries, each of which has its distinct characteristics and customs.

The effects of COVID-19 on the travel industry were investigated by Ugur and Akbiyik [38] using text-mining methods. They observed that pandemics and other worldwide crises have a disproportionate impact on the tourism industry, and they further proposed that insurance policies tailored to the sector could be crucial to its revival. To evaluate the global effect of COVID-19 on tourism, Skare et al. [39] utilized a panel structural vector auto-regression model with data collected from 185 countries ranging from 1995 to 2019. They predicted that between 164.506 and 514.080 million businesses could be lost and the value of tourism to GDP could drop by US$4.1 to 12.8 trillion due to the pandemic. They recommended a combination of private and public initiatives to strengthen the tourism industry’s capacity and ensure its long-term viability. Jaipuria et al. [40] utilized neural networks with artificial intelligence to predict a significant decline in the number of international visitors and the amount of foreign currency earned by the country.

The fiscal effect of COVID-19 was assessed by the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development using the GTAP approach [41]. Hypotheses about incoming tourism expenditure were also considered in their analysis. It was found that nations that heavily rely on tourism could anticipate a decrease of approximately 10% in their Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and around 15% in the number of unskilled workers employed. Besides, under moderate circumstances, there is a possibility of a 29% decrease in labor, while in extreme situations, the decrease could be as high as 44%. The research urges policymakers to safeguard individuals and sustain a robust tourism sector. Wang et al. [32] revealed a decrease of 41.8% and 85.79% for domestic tourism in prevention and control and no control scenarios, respectively, as depicted in Figure 3.

Similarly, inbound tourism also showed a drop of 87.96% and 86.66% for the two extremes. This primarily emanates from the worldwide travel restrictions imposed in response to the unrestrained COVID-19 cases in other countries. Reducing the detrimental effect on domestic and inbound tourism is another goal of the proactive strategy. To predict the monetary and ecological impact of COVID-19, as well as potential lockdowns and stimulus programs, Shan et al. [42] employed a worldwide adaptive multiregional input-output modeling approach for their studies. According to their research, COVID-19 anticipates a 3.9% to 5.6% drop in worldwide pollution from economic activities during the next five years (2020–2024).

Foo et al. [43] argued that the Malaysian tourist industry might withstand the adverse conditions with the help of government intervention. Gossling et al. [44] assessed the effects of COVID-19 on past pandemics, and other worldwide catastrophes. Tourist arrivals and other parts of the tourism industry were also studied concerning the effects of the pandemic measures. According to their findings, counter-pandemic strategies are most effective when applied to the tourism industry. They concluded that tourism is a major contributor to pandemics after considering both the direct and indirect effects of tourism. In addition, they observed that tourism has facilitated the widespread of the virus, while the industrialized food production practices catering to visitors have been the cause of multiple pandemics. They contended that these impacts have similarities to the global climate issue. Consequently, they determined that the existing tourist growth paradigm is not viable in the long term, and the COVID-19 pandemic might potentially trigger a transformation in the tourism industry.

Consistent with the hypothesis put forward by Gossling et al. [44], Hall et al. [45] opined that tourism is a contributor to pandemics. Sigala [46] contends that the COVID-19 pandemic presents the potential for the tourism sector and tourism research to undergo significant changes. Possible factors were considered to be internet-based services and digital tourism. The findings also cast uncertainty on the usefulness of government initiatives aimed at reviving the economy. Williams [47] employed a 2019 Eurobarometer survey and a probit model to evaluate the influence of COVID-19 on individuals employed in the tourism sector who are engaged in informal economic activities. He discovered that 0.6% of European citizens had engaged in unreported employment within the tourism sector. Integrating quantitative survey results with qualitative interview transcripts, Huang et al. [48] adopt a hybrid research strategy to investigate how COVID-19 affected the vacation choices of Chinese citizens. The findings demonstrate that Chinese people’s desire to tour distant locations and countries with high infection levels was considerably curtailed due to COVID-19. Furthermore, Chinese citizens have toned down their affection for all means of travel and now primarily desire smaller excursions within a shorter distance.

The efficacy of the CGE modeling approach to investigate the consequences of the Chinese government’s reaction towards COVID-19 is emphasized by Wang et al. [32]. The findings revealed that in the absence of a pandemic management strategy, China’s real GDP would fall by 11%, employment would drop by 15%, and domestic and international tourism would collapse by around 88%. The Chinese government’s preventative and management program effectively minimized the effect of COVID-19, yielding a 4.2% decrease in real GDP, a 6.6% rise in the jobless rate, and a 41.8% decline in domestic tourism demand. In the absence of regulatory measures, the tourism sectors, including restaurants, accommodations, entertainment, etc. are facing significant challenges. Zhang et al. [49] investigated the factors that drive rural tourism in China during the COVID-19 pandemic. They discovered that the justifications for rural tourism throughout the pandemic comprised both distinct and single factors. Adopting a data triangulation approach, Wang et al. [50] quantified the monetary effect of the pandemic on China’s tourist attractions subsector. Findings from the evaluation showed that A-grade Chinese tourist sites would have suffered losses of as much as 140 billion RMB because of COVID-19, resulting in as much as 65% of that total occurring in the first quarter of 2020.

2.1.2. Behavioral Attitude of Tourists and Consumption Patterns

The spread of COVID-19 has driven many to reevaluate their lifestyles and ways of life. Following the enforcement of movement restrictions, outdoor recreation like biking and walking were widely desired choices [51]. According to Ivanova et al. [52], destinations that offered peace and relaxation were more likely to attract potential visitors. Several studies have highlighted the importance of visiting natural areas instead of densely populated locations [48]. Ramos et al. [53] pointed out that predicting the severity of crowding is a key strategy for reducing the impact of the pandemic and boosting the general satisfaction of tourists at a particular location. Before the pandemic, the security and safety of places were endangered by terrorist acts, wars, and catastrophic events, which influenced visitors’ views and decisions, according to G€ossling et al. [44]. According to Pairo-Castineira et al. [54], the COVID-19 pandemic had far-reaching consequences that touched every facet of human existence. Wen et al. [55] found that countries with ineffective healthcare systems and unpredictable case reports were more likely to have travelers abandon their travel arrangements. As a result, the demand for travel insurance has significantly risen throughout the COVID-19 era [38]. Nevertheless, travelers are unwilling to incur additional costs for the enforcement of procedures at tourist sites, as they perceive it as entirely their responsibility [56]. Consequently, there is no significant correlation between a stronger desire to travel and a greater readiness to pay for important safety measures [56].

2.1.3. Trends in the Tourism Sector

The restriction of borders has necessitated a reliance on domestic travel, which has been crucial in preserving the tourism economy. According to Arbulu et al. [57], the decline in overseas tourism brought some relief and a strategic opportunity for national tourist organizations. Individuals gave higher priority to local excursions due to their greater desire to trust familiar places near their residences. Li et al. [58] observed that having a shorter travel time increases the likelihood of returning home in the event of an unforeseen occurrence. G€ossling et al. [44] elucidated that COVID-19 will lead to an increase in independent and self-directed travel, while the popularity of organized tour packages and gatherings will decrease.

According to a research study carried out by Ivanova et al. [52], affordable planes and long-distance buses will remain the most commonly patronized transportation options for low-income travelers. This indicates a stable market of consumers who will keep relying on arranged group travel packages and affordable plane tickets. It is important to recognize that in the post-COVID-19 era, a plethora of novel products and services emerged. Wen et al. [55] opined that the utilization of bookings and scheduled trips to minimize wait times and maximize efficiency in crowd management was widespread. According to Anh and Huy [59], presenting incentives and rewards could be an effective strategy for boosting tourism. To attract more visitors, the tourism industry should digitize its processes and integrate them with operational strategies [59]. Ivanova et al. [52] propose that tour operators should consider the financial constraints faced by prospective tourists. Consequently, they should demonstrate astuteness in tailoring their package deals to align with the anticipated demand.

2.1.4. Technological Advancement in the Tourism Industry

Researchers Akhtar et al. [60] found that adopting novel social networking channels to boost exposure was more effective than using more conventional methods in attracting visitors. In a separate investigation carried out by Cheung et al. [61], it was shown that destination marketing organizations (DMOs) who heavily utilized social media platforms observed additional advantages concerning product promotion and meeting the demands of tourists through informative content and innovative solutions. As stated by Inam et al. [62], the application of cutting-edge technology empowers tourism enterprises to enhance the efficiency of their operations.

According to Hall et al. [63], technological advancements have significantly enhanced the tourist industry’s adaptability. Technological advancements can be accelerated by catastrophic events. People have received tremendous assistance from IT specialists during COVID-19. Big Data analytics predicted the widespread dissemination of COVID-19, robots have replaced humans, and people are utilizing their phones to keep tabs on their networks. Expenses, funding, and adaptability could all be enhanced with the use of robots, computerization, and AI. People can stay socially distant because of this since technology enables them to communicate without interacting physically [63]. Consequently, technological solutions can be employed to address issues unique to pandemics, such as scanning passengers, identifying COVID-19 cases and their contact information, providing remote learning for learners, and so on [63]. People tend to be more open to connecting, inclined to adjust their perspectives towards technological advances, and have more trust in technology, according to many reports. In recent times, people have begun to disregard concerns about confidentiality to attain a more substantial technological edge [62]. By leveraging the strategic use of information technology assets for both immediate and future targets, Gretzel et al. [64] have established out the “six revolutionary virtual tourism research principles” that will ultimately bring significant reforms in the virtual tourism industry.

The aforementioned findings share resemblances and acknowledge technology as a key component in fostering adaptation and resiliency within the tourism industry. However, Hall et al. [63] indicate that there has been a rise in public trust in technology, as people are placing higher priority on technological benefits rather than privacy concerns. Nonetheless, these findings could not be applicable in all contexts, as privacy issues continue to become a hotspot subject of discussion among other scholars. While Gretzel et al. [64] advocate for major changes in virtual tourism research, other investigations fall short of thoroughly exploring the foreseeable consequences associated with the complete integration of virtual tourism into established tourism models. Akhtar et al. [60] and Cheung et al. [61] concentrated on the commercial benefits of technology, while Inam et al. [62] and Hall et al. [63] highlight enhancements in operations.

2.1.5. Governments’ Response to COVID-19

Several strategic frameworks have been established to support the global market in planning and addressing crises with the ultimate objective of attaining a rebounding economy [65]. Businesses in many sectors are anticipating a return to normal operations, and the tourism sector is no different. The government has emerged as an important force to reckon with in the economic revival of the tourism industry. Numerous businesses are heavily relying on “government stimulus packages and initiatives” to enhance their profitability. Figure 4 demonstrates the diverse fiscal reactions from different countries based on the data retrieved from the IMF database structure, “Policy Responses to COVID-19” [66]. Some countries stand out because their stimulus package accounts for a disproportionately significant portion of their GDP, whereas others have substantial GDP, albeit a very small proportion of it.

Various observations are recognized in Figure 4. One important factor is frequency, which is shown by the size of the circles in the illustration. The findings indicate that COVID-19 has witnessed a significant impact on many enterprises within the tourism industry. The graph serves to highlight the linkages between the various themes. When disruption occurs, the notion of “tourism” might take a major hit due to its origination at its position in the middle. It is noteworthy to observe that the interdependence of these systems suggests that any of their collapses could have far-reaching consequences. In response to calls for action from the governments of the United Kingdom and Germany, the most famous international tourist organization in the world is committing to reducing costs across all levels [65]. As a consequence, airline companies, tourism companies, and airport networks have been brought back under government control. This current crisis stands out from previous ones in terms of its ability to generate scholarly interest and institutional desire while also having a significant “policy impact,” especially within the travel and hospitality sector [63].

In the analysis of challenges following COVID-19, Tsionas [67] suggests “opening at a reduced capacity” of about 33% as a feasible remedy. He revealed that for such reduced capacity, incentives from governmental agencies would be key. Amidst the COVID-19 crisis, the travel and tourism sector has experienced significant government assistance in its functioning and operations [67]. McCartney et al. [68] argue that Macao’s response to the pandemic can be understood using a “3-wave analogy”. He disclosed that the period of recuperation will prioritize “public-private engagement and collaboration”. A new perspective will come to light in the years to come as a result of the impact of such government action on the tourism industry. It is crucial to acknowledge that assessing the financial impact inflicted on tourism industries by the COVID-19 pandemic can motivate experts in the industry to commit sufficient resources for the recovery of their businesses. Additionally, these standards will afford the broader industry a chance to assess its advancements in terms of business recovery.

Jiang and Ritchie [69] elucidated that it takes a collaborative effort from all parties involved for tourist sites to thrive after an unfortunate event. Management and business owners must comprehend the extent of possible and real losses attached to different forms of disasters and emergencies and commit enough funds to endure their occurrences [69]. According to Ashraf [70], in cases where the extent of harm caused to tourism firms is considered to be severe, government institutions should help in the recuperation process by offering appropriate monetary support. Scholars should engage in novel studies to precisely evaluate both prospective and existing revenue losses, thereby establishing the standards for restoration [70].

Table 3. Government and industry response package for different countries. Source: (Imtyaz et al., 2020) [71].

Country	The Response of the Government and Industry to COVID-19
Colombia	A line of communication has been established with the international tourism agencies in Latin America and tourism organizations to exchange information regarding standards of excellence.
Belgium	The cancellation of a stimulus package could result in the provision of a credit voucher for the same value rather than a refund that is good for at least a year.
Canada	To help alleviate the financial burden on indigenous tourism firms, the Canadian Experiences Fund (CEF) has granted a sum of one million Canadian dollars (CAD).
Estonia	An EUR 25 million “aid package” has been put together to help the tourist industry by the Ministry of Economic Affairs and Communications, Enterprise Estonia, the Kredex Foundation (a public financing institution for Estonian firms), and others.
United States	The government has unveiled an incentive programme for all enterprises worth USD 2 trillion, with tourism being the highest priority.
Spain	The Secretariat of State for Tourism has given loans with the option to postpone the payment of both interest and principal.
Poland	In an effort to get tourists to make optimal use of their predetermined assistance, the Polish Tourism Organization launched the “Poland Don’t Cancel, Postpone” campaign.
United Kingdom	The United Kingdom government and Visit Britain are currently collaborating on a recovery scheme to promote tourism in the United Kingdom following the COVID-19 pandemic.
Singapore	The Singapore Tourism Board (STB) has formed a Tourism recuperation Action Task Force (TRAC) that will assist the sector in formulating and carrying out strategies.
Japan	In order to promote popular tourist spots, improve the travel atmosphere, and attract more international visitors, the Japanese Tourism Agency has allocated USD 2.2 billion to recover the tourism industry.
Republic of Korea	The Korean government has recently implemented measures to boost the tourism industry, including tax cuts, job creation, and monetary support.
South Africa	Small and medium-sized enterprises (SME) in the hotel and tourist industry have access to an assistance grant worth around $11 million in South Africa.
Switzerland	In order to strengthen Switzerland Tourism (ST) in 2020 and 2021, the Swiss Parliament has suggested an additional CHF 40 million in government support.
Italy	In an effort to restore Italy’s tourism status, the government has extended a rescue package to the tourism industry worth 4 billion Euros.
Germany	An informative webpage regarding the consequences of COVID-19 on the tourism business has been created by the Federal Government Centre of Excellence for Tourism to boost the industry.
European union	The European Union (EU) has eased government support regulations, provided financial relief, and bolstered the travel and tourism industry’s liquidity.
Greece	A committee to oversee coronavirus crises has been formed by the Tourist Ministry.
Costa Rica	For organizations facing financial challenges, the Costa Rican Tourism Institute has provided a three-month tax respite on plane ticket sales and money earned per tourist.
Brazil	For small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in the tourist sector, the National Development Bank has provided an operational loan. Additionally, a relief package for airlines has been put together.
Austria	Tourists in Austria can now take advantage of a new coronavirus package spearheaded by the joint efforts of the country’s agriculture, regions, and tourist ministry and the Austrian Bank for tourist Development.

provides a comprehensive summary of government response packages for different countries in the wake of the pandemic [71].

2.2. Overview of Agriculture Industry

Historical occurrences of the pandemics have often been associated with scarcity of food and, in dire situations, widespread famine. During 2016–2018, the Global Food Security Index showed a clear upward trend, as seen in Figure 5. However, from 2019 until 2022, there was a clear downward trend, mostly due to the adverse effects of the COVID-19 pandemic [72].

Notwithstanding extensive attempts on the dynamics of COVID-19, there remains a considerable amount of knowledge that eludes us on the intricacies of COVID-19 and its possible detrimental impact on worldwide food security. Although the COVID-19 pandemic has had far-reaching effects on many other businesses, it has been especially devastating to the agri-food industry [73]. Some of the implications on agriculture have an immediate effect, whereas others have an indirect effect through the downstream and upstream value chain sectors, as exemplified by the transportation disruption and the closure of restaurants. The tremendous disruption of this global pandemic has had an impact on every aspect of the agri-food system, ranging from production, supply chain management, and market dynamics to food security, socioeconomic factors, and several others. In light of the pandemic’s global spread, it is crucial to assess its intricate ramifications on food production, distribution, consumption patterns, and the overall stability of the agri-food supply chain. Therefore, novel and resilient resolutions are required to address the distinctive challenges that have developed. The following section provides an in-depth analysis of the pertinent literature on agricultural production in the wake of COVID-19.

2.2.1. Main Implications of the Crisis for Food and Livestock Production

The effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on the crop sector, particularly on seasonal vegetables and fruits harvested in early 2020, have received a great deal of attention. Amidst the constraints imposed by the global outbreak on transportation between manufacturing and consumption areas as well as the challenges associated with marketing and consuming these goods within the production areas, the key considerations during the pandemic in China were the restoration and damage to the vegetable value chains. Adopting a stratified random sampling technique, Zhou et al. [74] examine the effects of the pandemic on vegetable production, marketing, and the efficacy of mitigation strategies in the provinces of China that produce the most vegetables. Based on the findings, the pandemic had varying effects on crop yield, sale volume, and market prices across different parts of China. In Shandong, the repercussions were comparatively minor, while in Zhejiang they were mild. However, in Hubei, the effects were significant. Additionally, the adverse impacts might be considerably reduced by implementing short-distance transportation and utilizing e-commerce and community home delivery for promoting products. The study provides policy recommendations to address the challenges posed by the pandemic in the agriculture industry. These recommendations focused on establishing novel advertising methods, improving accessibility of information on vegetable demand and supply, and advancing the use of agricultural insurance policies to help farmers deal with price fluctuations and potential sales disruptions.

Gu and Wang [75] investigate the effects of the global pandemic on agricultural production, distribution, and consumption in Shanghai, the largest mega-metropolis in China. They conducted an initial investigation of 46 farm cooperatives in this significant consuming area. This analysis validates the conclusions of Zhou et al. [74] that the pandemic has impacted nearly every aspect of the vegetable supply chain, with the marketing sector experiencing the most significant impact. Furthermore, Gu and Wang [75] demonstrate that the pandemic disproportionately affected the demand side rather than the supply side, mostly as a result of restrictions imposed on people. Additionally, they demonstrate that the disparity between the rate at which farmers sell their products and the rate at which they are sold in retail markets has increased as a result of the escalating costs associated with marketing amidst the pandemic. As anticipated, the rates at which farmers sell their products directly over e-commerce platforms were considerably greater compared to the prices they receive through conventional marketing avenues. This is because farmers incur additional costs related to logistics and marketing when selling through e-commerce.

The potential hazards associated with agribusiness supply change (ASCs) resulting from difficulties following the COVID-19 pandemic were discovered and evaluated by Rohit Sharma [76] through the utilization of Fuzzy Linguistic Quantifier Order Weighted Aggregation (FLQOWA). The research shows that ASC is susceptible to a wide range of risks, including those associated with supply and demand, finance, logistics and infrastructure, management and operations, policy and regulation, biology and the environment, and the scope and complexity of the organization. Several approaches, including the implementation of technology, engagement in the supply chain, and shared responsibility, have been highlighted as viable options for achieving sustainable development in the future. In their investigations, Salisu et al. [77] employed the PRISMA framework to assess the resilience of food security and the agri-food sector in the aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic. The findings indicated that the pandemic had a significant and far-reaching effect on every aspect of the agri-food industry, with a special emphasis on agriculture, food production, and systems. Nevertheless, many strategies were put in place to minimize the impact of the pandemic and maintain the long-term stability of the agri-food industry in the face of analogous future occurrences.

Meanwhile, key ways to improve resilience identified include implementing robust legislative measures, promoting urban agriculture, providing assistance to small-scale farmers, strengthening the global marketplace, fostering technical advances, encouraging partnerships, investing in technological advancement, and promoting the consumption of novel foods. Beckman and Countryman [73] examined the significance of food away from home (FAFH) in the broader economy, as well as the variations in agricultural output and trade following the COVID-19 pandemic. They deploy a simulation model to predict the effects on GDP in their research. As a consequence of incorporating data on real demand and supply and fiscal reactions to COVID-19, the outcomes suggest that the computational equilibrium model approximates GDP fluctuations in comparison to reality with a reasonable degree of accuracy. Moreover, the detrimental effects of COVID-19 on agriculture produced a more significant impact on the international economy compared to the initial contribution of agriculture to the economy during the pandemic. Although agriculture has had some effects, the non-agricultural crises have been more significant. The analysis further revealed that the decline in expenses on food away from home (FAFH) had the most significant impact on the variation in GDP caused by disruptions to agricultural markets.

Michał Wielechowski [78] utilized a qualitative methodology by employing professional assessments to enhance agricultural initiatives designed to alleviate the negative consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic. The investigations resulted in the creation of inventive and effective techniques to reduce the negative effects of crises on the agriculture sector. These technologies seek to address significant difficulties such as limitations in the retailing of agricultural products, lack of available manpower, logistical difficulties, and the increased danger in agricultural activities caused by restrictions. Furthermore, a variety of state-sponsored programs, the Anti-Crisis Agricultural Fund (ACAF), the Integrated Agricultural Platform (IAP), and other suggested remedies show a holistic approach. Michał Wielechowski [79] emphasizes the consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic on food and agricultural practices, with a particular focus on the NENA region. The study investigates these implications in depth, looking at how the pandemic has influenced production supply chain management, market dynamics, food security, and socioeconomic variables, among other areas of agriculture and food systems. They discovered that the COVID-19 pandemic had an adverse impact on accessibility, affordability, utilization, and stability of the four cornerstones of food safety. However, the magnitude of the effects, in addition to the extent of coverage, vary amongst different pillars.

Pu and Zhong [80] examine the influence of COVID-19 on agricultural production, along with the subsequent measures taken by government agencies to mitigate the adverse consequences. The findings indicate that impractical limitations would hinder the export routes of agricultural commodities, impede essential resources for manufacturing, disrupt processes of production, and ultimately weaken operational capability. According to Gu and Wang [75], farm insurance has been demonstrated to have a significant impact on the stabilization of agricultural output and supply for farmers. Consequently, they advocate for enhancements in agriculture insurance plans, particularly those that address market concerns. Adithya Sridhar [81] emphasized the economic and agro-food system ramifications of the COVID-19 pandemic, placing particular emphasis on crucial factors such as the production of food, demand, price escalations, security, and the long-term viability of supply chains.

By applying a clear definition of the US Standardized Occupational Classification System (SOC), Bochtis et al. [82] evaluated the COVID-19 pandemic’s effects on agricultural labor and proposed mitigating measures. The findings indicated that 50% of the agricultural labor force and 54% of the workers’ yearly earnings are exposed to low to severe levels of risk. Furthermore, this global health crisis presented a favorable environment for the collaboration of legislators, agricultural professionals, infectious disease experts, and scholars. To gain a deeper comprehension of the effects of the pandemic on developing family farms, Du et al. [83] investigate the immediate consequences on farm operations as well as the prospective long-term effects on crop production and agricultural insurance. According to their survey findings, the pandemic had a significant impact on the daily activities of farms, specifically in terms of their spring tillage and planting preparations, as well as their procurement of agricultural supplies. The study also concludes that contract farming has both positive and negative aspects. Contract farming typically enables farmers to secure a consistent market and mitigate marketing risks. Nevertheless, breaches of contract frequently transpired as a result of disturbances in or violations of the downstream value chain amidst the pandemic.

The study conducted by Zhuo et al. [74] examines the inclination of farmers to recommence pig production in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic crisis. The research reveals that small-scale farmers exhibited a diminished motivation to restore their pig output compared to their larger-scale competitors. Additionally, the primary challenge faced by pig farmers was a reduction in access to feed. Moreover, the perceived risk associated with keeping pigs played a crucial role in hindering farmers’ ability to restore their production levels throughout the pandemic. Additionally, the dairy business is perhaps the most susceptible market to the pandemic’s effects due to the extremely vulnerable nature of its products and their distribution systems. Qingbin et al. [84] conducts an assessment and comparison of the effects of dairy business in the United States and China. They accomplish so by utilizing secondary data acquired from dairy cooperatives, news outlets, extension agencies, and farm organizations, in addition to a main digital poll of dairy farms in China.

The analysis reveals that the dairy industries in both nations were impacted by the pandemic through similar mechanisms. These include reduced pricing for dairy products at the farm level, disruptions and challenges in transporting milk across the supply chains, unavailability of workers, greater production expenses, and a lack of operational funds. Despite this, the two countries exhibit dissimilarities. China’s dairy farms had substantial disruptions in marketing owing to transit restrictions, while dairy producers in the United States were severely impacted by closures of schools, restaurants, and hotels. Health restrictions imposed by the COVID-19 pandemic have an impact on manufacturing as well as on domestic marketing, foreign trade, and consumer food purchase habits. Amidst the fear regarding the availability of commodities in the market during the global crisis, reports indicate that residents in numerous nations are engaging in the practice of hoarding foodstuffs in their respective places. To examine the underlying factors behind customers’ tendency to stockpile food, Wang et al. [85] carried out a web-based survey targeting consumers in Beijing, Shanghai, and Guangzhou during February 2020, a period when these cities implemented security restrictions. These findings demonstrate that the availability of food and the risk of COVID-19 infection significantly influence the decision to engage in prudent hoarding. Negative emotions and group mentality lead to the phenomenon of panic purchasing. Additional variables that influence food hoarding include level of education, financial status, preference for online purchasing, and gender. The findings of this research carry significant consequences for reform strategies that seek to alleviate panic purchasing and foster market stability amidst the pandemic.

The study conducted by Min et al. [86] examines the effects of the pandemic on individuals’ understanding of food security and their corresponding behaviors. Additionally, the study evaluates how media information plays an essential part in influencing these outcomes. The researchers utilized data from an online poll to examine these relationships. A significant proportion of those surveyed, over 70%, expressed an increased level of focus towards food safety news as an immediate consequence of the pandemic. Meanwhile, the vast majority of participants obtained food safety news promptly, and those who were specifically interested in food security-related news demonstrated a better level of food safety awareness and made greater steps to guarantee food safety. The results of this research contributed to the growing body of evidence suggesting that community health affairs and other similar activities might boost people’s level of security awareness. It also encourages them to take better precautions while purchasing foodstuffs. The major effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on the global economy and worldwide supply chains have sparked grave apprehensions over the unpredictable nature of foreign trade.

To gain a greater awareness of the repercussions of the pandemic on agriculture exports, an investigation was performed by Lin and Zhang [87] of over one hundred agricultural export-related businesses situated in Fujian Province, which ranks as the third most significant agricultural exporting province in China. The findings indicate that approximately 13% of enterprises encountered challenges while carrying out regular export activities amidst the pandemic. Nevertheless, almost one-third of business enterprises perceived the impact to be merely modest, and 12% expressed little or no effect at all. Although exports decreased for the companies examined, the severity to which this decrease was felt varied by company size and commodity. Despite a decline in exports of aquatic, horticultural, and livestock products, cereal, edible oil, and herbal medicines all recorded substantial increases during the pandemic.

2.2.2. Agricultural Production Disrupted by Prevention and Control Measures

Amidst the ongoing outbreak, the government has discovered that certain actions implemented to avert and contain the spread of the virus are adversely affecting agricultural production. There is concern that these issues might compromise the sustainability of the present reliable food supply. The World Trade Organization has projected that international trade in goods will decline by 13–32% in 2020. Figure 6 illustrates the anticipated changes in agricultural trade during and after the COVID-19 pandemic [88]. The graph highlights various recovery measures, including the optimistic scenario (shown by a solid blue line in the shape of a V), the less optimistic scenario (depicted by a dashed blue line in the shape of a U), and the gloomy scenario (as represented by a dotted orange line in the shape of a L). With the growing complexity of international food supply chains, strategic risk reduction techniques are essential for efficient operations management in agricultural supply chains [88].

There is the potential for a significant decrease in production in the upcoming season, which poses a serious risk to national food security. Given the immense magnitude of the worldwide population, this would undoubtedly have a major impact on the global food supply [80]. Following the first outbreak, established offline sales channels were either closed or completely rendered unproductive. The quarantine restrictions had a temporary and dramatic effect on the market for agricultural products. Restrictions imposing limitations on family outdoor consumption and community management reducing purchasing frequency had a noticeable impact. Customers were unable to complete their shopping as anticipated due to the shutdown of traditional urban sales joints. The distribution avenues, however, were disrupted due to logistical constraints.

Restrictions were imposed on the distribution of live poultry and pigs in certain locations due to concerns that they could serve as possible routes for transmitting viruses. Although there has been some easing of the logistical constraints, stringent safety certificates were still necessary for the drivers and trucks operating on the road. The challenges in the outlet channels controlled sales pressure into manufacturing industries, yielding a huge excess of unsellable agricultural goods. The majority of the farm’s pens, coops, ponds, and fields were overcrowded, particularly with goods that expire rapidly for seasonal perishable products. Some of the most important marketplaces for winter fruit and winter vegetable production have issued dire warnings.

From 20 February to 31 March, the Chinese Agricultural Product Marketing Association (CAPMA) gathered data on 3482 surplus agricultural products nationwide, averaging around 85 per day. A total of 53% of the data came from fruits and vegetables, 18% from meat and dairy, 16% from grains and edible oils, and 3% from water sources. This suggests that the outbreak has had a more significant influence on perishable agricultural goods compared to other products. A major limitation of labor inputs caused by the outbreak was the imposition of travel restrictions. Consequently, there was a scarcity of workforce, resulting in a decline in production. A scarcity of competent grain producers from Hubei, Hunan, and Sichuan provinces prohibited certain grain-producing regions along the southeastern coast from producing crops on schedule. Because of the travel limitations and the pandemic threat, most farm service providers discontinued operations [89]. There was also a partial delay in crop planting.

Typically, the planting season in China comes to a close around the Spring Festival. Yet, amidst the pandemic, the majority of production materials were lacking as a result of lockdown restrictions. According to a survey conducted by the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS) with 1501 households in rural areas, 51.19 percent of respondents reported having trouble affording inputs like fertilizers and insecticides, and 20.39 percent said they couldn’t afford them at all [90]. According to statistics compiled by the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs (MARA) on a national scale, seed sales had dropped by 10% to 30% by 10 March relative to the preceding year, and the official launch of the seed markets had been postponed by 10 to 15 days [91]. As of March 4th, just over one-third of rural families have personal access to fertilizers [91]. Meanwhile, there was a severe scarcity of feed for the breeding sector. During the outbreak, feed mills ceased operations along with other companies. To contain the infection, access to feed and veterinary medications was temporarily curtailed. This caused a scarcity of feed and caused numerous breeding farmers to cease operations and go out of business. Due to this, a considerable number of poultry operations were compelled to dispose of their birds and chicks. Nearly sixty percent of the chicks that were born during the outbreak were disposed of as per studies conducted by CAAS [91]. Furthermore, the COVID-19 pandemic coincided with the outbreak of African swine fever (ASF) in China, resulting in a significant decline in pork production for some time. A delay in the shipment of veterinary drugs has severely impacted the pig-breeding business, exacerbating the challenges of sustaining an adequate supply of pork and causing a surge in prices.

2.2.3. The Future of Agri-Food Systems and Food Security in Post-Pandemic

The need for resiliency and long-term viability came to light during the COVID-19 pandemic, which highlighted the weaknesses and risks associated with our food supply systems. The global pandemic underscored the precarious state of the world’s food supply in the face of growing poverty, hunger, and unemployment, particularly among the most vulnerable people. Following the post-pandemic era, the problems continued, however, compromising the stability, production, and revenue of the agriculture sector. In light of this, agricultural food production and supply systems require robust and adaptable methods for food crisis management. The world’s food supply has been in a downward trend for the past decade, according to the Global Food Security Index. This index takes into account a wide range of factors, including the availability, cost-effectiveness, value, and security of food, as well as the resilience of nationwide natural resource bases. Besides, uncertainty in climate conditions and intensification of farming techniques are among the primary factors accompanied by this degradation. Beyond that, the emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic also aggravated the situation [91]. As a means of robustness against the backdrop of rising international markets, initiatives have been taken to promote and recover shorter and more diverse food value chains as well as producer partnerships.

Firstly, the global pattern of decreasing agricultural labor is driven by technological innovations and the adoption of machinery and technology. As a result, there is a continuous decline in the workforce employed in the agriculture sector [92]. Although there has been notable advancement in this area, certain tasks, such as harvesting specific crops, like fruits and vegetables, still require a considerable amount of manual labor. For instance, in the UK, there is a recent dependence on seasonal migrant workers to gather locally grown produce, with an annual influx of 70,000–80,000 agricultural workers [93]. Seasonal agricultural laborers are a lifeline for the US, Canada, and Australia, nonetheless, they are unable to travel due to travel restrictions imposed by viruses. According to Torrero [94], some embassies have even suspended ordinary visa services out of concern that employees from other countries could bring in infectious diseases. In light of these circumstances, robots in agriculture appear to be an emerging technology in the wake of the global COVID-19 pandemic. New agricultural methods are mostly utilized by farmers to address workforce shortages, particularly for regular tasks like harvesting or weeding [95]. This sector specializes in autonomously harvesting certain crops and performing routine tasks, such as milking, that are typically performed by humans. The transition is very challenging; however, a positive aspect could be that other industries may benefit from agricultural advancements in machine vision and technology.

Secondly, multidisciplinary management also plays an essential function in decreasing vulnerabilities related to market uncertainty and unexpected resource shortages [96]. Several scholars have suggested that productive cooperation allows for the efficient utilization of shared resources among many business partners, serving as a proactive approach to address both short-term and medium-term limitations in boosting production capacity. The pandemic has drawn attention to inherent infrastructural deficiencies, such as limited access to necessary resources and inputs, hence emphasizing the need for improved public policy responses. Prompt policy actions, technical advances, improvements in innovative food production, urban agriculture, and research and development efforts are all long-term strategies that can lessen the effect of future COVID-19 pandemics or similar interruptions on the agricultural and food sectors [96].

The authors [97] put forth several approaches, ecological concessions, and cooperative enterprise models to overcome policy difficulties and promote community-centered methodologies for decentralizing and democratizing urban food access [98]. It is significant to recognize that exploring novel possibilities for technological advances is a highly promising strategy for enhancing global customer preferences. Sensors and sensor-based innovations have the potential to transform the food manufacturing process by increasing the total productivity of commodities that have gained prominence in the past few years. The incorporation of technological innovations (IT) with agriculture and food production has exhibited noteworthy advancements in enhancing productivity and assisting farmers in making well-informed decisions [99]. The majority of farmers throughout the globe have turned to mobile applications as a means of gaining access to specialized agricultural technology, information, new guidance, and market data through voice and text messaging, all without the need for the internet or wireless networks. As a result, farmers may be able to completely reinvent their strategies to maximize their utilization of digital technology and information, which could lead to a boost in agricultural production.

Additionally, farmers may now take advantage of remote sensors that help them optimize water irrigation, choose the right seeds, determine the optimal quantities of fertilizer, and minimize the dangers associated with chemical pesticides and infections by protecting their crops. With the advent of this approach, which allowed farmers to track their crops’ progress in real-time while reducing the need to get in touch with customers, the digital agriculture sector saw a dramatic shift in focus following the COVID-19 pandemic. In addition to reducing pollution and saving time and money on fertilizer and chemical applications, these activities may also assist in the monitoring of soil and plant physiochemical conditions through sensors, which is essential for achieving the ideal circumstances for the development of plants. Specialized applications have also emerged, such as the creation of products that enhance the immune system and supply essential nutrients to facilitate the recovery of COVID-19 patients. There is a growing need to educate and equip the younger generation for future technological advances and to accelerate measures in changing consumer behavior to help them recognize the benefits of these novel commercial services, products, and technologies.

To boost agri-food systems’ ability to withstand and recover from future pandemics, it is essential to establish measures that help maintain and revitalize biocultural assets in these areas. Shorter food supply chains and the utilization of traditional knowledge systems and related resources constitute essential components of robust food systems that seek to enhance the health, equity, and sustainability of food systems for all [99]. Furthermore, individuals within families must possess the necessary expertise and abilities to prioritize provisions above desires when handling family finances [99]. Additionally, the promotion of food security laws is crucial to achieving all objectives of food, particularly ensuring its accessibility.

Together with resilience methods, these techniques could strengthen the system to withstand crises without compromising quality or exposing it to possible contamination. Ensuring food quality reduces the risks of eating spoilt or otherwise unhealthy food, which is good for the general population’s health. The development of localized distribution and production systems is another characteristic of a stable and environmentally friendly food system. This system strengthens regional economies and enhances community well-being by guaranteeing the availability of fresh, locally procured agricultural products. Furthermore, it establishes a stable economy in these areas, which ensures consistent livelihoods and fortifies local resilience. To strengthen food systems and make them more resilient towards achieving food security, one sustainable approach is the utilization of life cycle assessments (LCAs). This strategy advocates for both immediate and far-term feasible measures, such as facilitating the free flow of labor, studying resilience-related regulations, and strengthening resilience in production, transportation, and inventory management.

LCA studies the effects on the environment of food production systems at every stage, from gathering raw materials to disposal of processed food. Stakeholders could leverage this assessment to identify and remedy environmental challenges, make the most of available resources, and reduce food waste at every step of the manufacturing process. Through the process of assessing the environmental impact of food production, LCA enables individuals to make well-informed decisions that promote environmental sustainability [99]. These decisions may include choosing production methods that are more environmentally friendly, limiting the production and distribution of greenhouse gases, and minimizing water consumption.

2.2.4. Opportunities Arising Due to COVID-19 in the Agri-Food Supply Chain

Although the COVID-19 pandemic is a huge concern on a global level, it offers certain opportunities for various players in the agri-food industry. Following the initial weeks of the crisis, hoarding of foodstuffs out of fear motivated more people to look for alternative ways of buying goods. Consequently, there was an early increase in the pricing of goods. Fast-food companies like Panda Express and Burger King adopted strategic choices that resulted in major monetary benefits. Online business remains the preferred method of shopping for the vast majority of buyers, according to Alaimo [100]. Since the beginning of the global pandemic, internet food shopping has increased by about one-third on a global scale. According to Chua [101], the percentage of people in Europe who have shopped for food or groceries in the past has risen from 5% to 15%.

Within the European Union, there was a significant decline of 17.9% in total retail sales. Nevertheless, sales made through online orders experienced a notable gain of 30% between April 2019 and 2020 [102]. By the end of April 2020, China, France, Spain, and the UK had increased their market shares of online groceries by 3.6% [102]. Online food stores like Kroger and Walmart both recorded significantly more revenues compared to the previous year; Kroger’s reached 92% and Walmart’s reached 74% [102]. Notwithstanding the growing interest from researchers, an exhaustive overview of the online food retailing industry remains unclear [103]. Consumers’ choice for online shopping changed amid this global pandemic, even though in-store grocery shopping was intended to be unsafe [104]. Ali [105] notes that one negative aspect of internet purchasing is that customers tend to spend less money than they would in shopping centers.

2.2.5. Government Responses to the Agriculture Sector

Implementing social security initiatives is crucial for the financially deprived society to alleviate the repercussions of the COVID-19 pandemic. The government authorities, in collaboration with business organizations, are actively working to maintain and enhance the agricultural supply chain. This is being accomplished to guarantee the protection of agricultural and related workers and to ensure sustainable food production as put forward by Hidrobo et al. [106]. Data from the IMF revealed that in 2020, the second quarter saw an economic downturn in the U.S. economy of about 31.4%, which translated into a 6.2% unemployment rate. Accordingly, the agriculture sector, farmer’s incentives, public health, family aid, and unemployment insurance received approximately USD 5731 billion, or around 27.34% of 2020 GDP from the US government.

Similarly, the French economy declined by 8.3% in 2020 [106]. Therefore, to circumvent such crises, the French government set aside approximately US$211.7 billion, or 8% of GDP, to be used for crop and livestock management, agricultural logistics, welfare, tax reliefs for businesses, worker wage assistance, small-scale businesses, direct loans for farmers, utility and rent payment, and other similar programs. The Indian government allocated $402.6 billion to various programs and initiatives, subsidized food, gas, and cooking oil for low-income families, and monetary incentives for low-paid farmers. Food industry supplies, farmers’ income supports, tax reductions for small businesses, and unemployment benefits were all part of the relief offer worth around US$233.8 billion offered by the Brazilian government. The Turkish government provided a total of US$74 billion towards various initiatives, including loan guarantees for agricultural firms, tax exemptions for agribusinesses, equity injections into public banks, a value-added tax (VAT) elimination on agricultural products, and the extension of the short-term work allowance system for all sectors until June 2021 [107].

To boost the agriculture sector, guarantee a sufficient amount of food, and facilitate the delivery of agricultural supplies through efficient logistics, the Chinese government released immediate notices. Three distinct categories comprise these notices. Getting the logistics unblocked is the first step [107]. Due to that, the Ministry of Transport issued a notice, making it extremely apparent that all agricultural commodities and other fundamental daily needs are within immediate reach. All levels of transport departments must prioritize the opening of “green channels” for vital food supplies.

A second objective is to balance supply and demand. More than significant coordinated groups and e-commerce businesses facilitated direct matching and transactions. Additionally, live-streaming events are organized by farmers and local governments in partnership with e-commerce platforms to boost the sale of online goods. The third objective is to safeguard the adequate supply of crucial agricultural commodities. The initiatives encompass several strategies, such as adapting labor movement restrictions based on local danger levels, initiating the production and distribution of agricultural inputs, whilst providing direct financial assistance [108]. It is worth noticing that the implementation of these strategies by the government successfully mitigated the issues in agricultural productivity.

Meanwhile, as of April 24th, several agencies had successfully established significant agricultural product marketplaces to actively establish partnerships with important manufacturing and distribution regions. A total of 2.24 million metric tonnes of excess products were successfully sold to purchasers. Other e-commerce companies sold a total of 88.2 thousand metric tonnes, resulting in a total of 19.8 million online transactions, thus maintaining the continuous supply of agricultural inputs. By the end of February, around 78% of the township-level highways in over 1500 agricultural countries across 25 provinces remained accessible, hence rising the percentage to 92% by 22 March [108]. As of mid-April, 98% of agricultural material firms had returned to regular operation and achieved 90% of their usual production, surpassing the same figures from last year [108].

2.3. “Post-Pandemic Reality” vs. “Resuming Normalcy” vs. “Integrating Both Approaches”

Four years into the COVID-19 pandemic, the standards of society have evolved dramatically, demonstrating an imbalance between the longing for the pre-pandemic way of life (“resuming normalcy”) and the acceptance of new ways of living (“post-pandemic reality”). Industry adaptations, particularly in the agriculture and tourism sectors, can be understood more fully in light of this shift. “Resuming Normalcy” marked the beginning of new digital norms, rigorous health procedures, and a boom in domestic tourism. Local tourism and other alternatives became prevalent as a result of the pandemic’s restrictions on overseas travel. Digital platforms become vital for keeping travelers interested, giving features like smartphone registration, reservation systems, and electronic transactions. Notwithstanding these developments, there is nonetheless a significant drive to restore mass tourism and foreign travel to return to normalcy. Attempts are intensifying to draw in foreign tourists as travel restrictions throughout the world weaken. The tourism sector must now, however, strike a balance between this recovery and long-term shifts in tourist desires, such as increased safety requirements and a growing preference for sustainable tourism. Tourists became more conscious of the social and environmental effects of their visits as a result of the pandemic, which raised awareness of sustainable tourism. These insights ought to be embraced going forward as the industry rebuilds international travel.

Technology advancements and an emphasis on distribution system robustness have propelled the agriculture industry’s “post-pandemic reality”. A greater focus on regional food production schemes resulted from the pandemic’s exposure of inadequacies in international food distribution networks. These technologies have lessened reliance on foreign vendors and minimized labor shortages and lockdown-related inconveniences. To improve food security and streamline their operations, farmers have resorted to innovative methods. Likewise, in the tourism industry, the agriculture industry must balance the need to “bring back normalcy” by reviving global commerce and exporting with the “post-pandemic reality”. Despite the strengthening of community food systems, the agriculture industry still depends significantly on international distribution networks, especially crops, livestock, and agricultural goods. To safeguard food safety while fostering international ties, establishing equilibrium between the positive aspects of localized agriculture and global trade is crucial. The demand for revival and development serves as what drives “resume normalcy”, whereas endurance, innovative thinking, and flexibility epitomize the “post-pandemic reality”. Although agriculture continues to emphasize indigenous systems while utilizing international trade, tourism will seek to experiment with hybridization situations. Striking a balance that restores independence and prospects that prevailed before the pandemic while embracing the positive impacts of structural modifications and technological breakthroughs is vital. As both tourism and agriculture traverse the immediate aftermath of the pandemic, it will be essential to maintain flexibility and cope with developing circumstances.

More importantly, four years into the pandemic, new realities have impacted the tourism and agriculture industries. To balance creativity to regain the independence and lifestyles that prevailed before the pandemic, both industries need to integrate these new processes with more conventional methods. As the world embraces the post-pandemic period, agility, endurance, and adaptation remain key variables driving long-term success.

2.4. Key Reflections on Tourism and Agriculture Industries

2.4.1. Tourism Industry

The present review has underscored the influence of the pandemic on different aspects of global life. The tourism industry has been significantly hit by the pandemic, revealing a noticeable decline in international arrivals, surpassing 80% from January 2020 to 2022 [5]. This is remarkable and unparalleled in terms of its magnitude. Specifically, the pandemic’s impact jeopardizes the attainment of the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals, comprising the mental health and well-being of all individuals. As a result of the major shifts in travel behavior driven by the pandemic, the hospitality sector around the world has been devastated, according to the review. In light of the current situation, how travelers choose their destinations is being revised, which in effect poses challenges to established theoretical frameworks and concepts within the tourism industry. This review has shown that in the past, various groups, governments, and scholars viewed tourism as a robust and rapidly expanding sector. However, considering developments in recent decades, this sector is susceptible to crises that could culminate in substantial losses.

According to the studies, the pandemic is a game-changer in the area of creativity and innovations in the tourism industry. Even though the pandemic has enabled scholars to carry out studies on some hitherto research areas, novel and intriguing areas of study have also surfaced. One could argue that the pandemic has affected the fundamental structure of certain components of the tourism industry. This review has recognized a noticeable shift as a result of travel restrictions and associated changes in tourism behavior. An abrupt shift from the “over-tourism” to the “non-tourism” paradigm occurred in the initial stages of the pandemic due to the global tourism industry’s unexpected halt in operations. It is interesting to notice that the number of international tourists dropped due to the limitations of global movement; nevertheless, local tourism saw a significant boost when the national lockdown measures were lightened.

It can be deduced that, at the height of the COVID-19 pandemic, domestic travel grew in prominence as a means for government and tourism to limit the spread of the virus while also bolstering the economy. Meanwhile, to forestall the spread of the virus, destination-related mobility management techniques must be put in place, with the intent of ultimate harmony among the competing interests and consumer perspectives. To mitigate the detrimental effect on tourism-related businesses, tourists have revised their behavior at destinations, while both private and public organizations have taken measures to limit social distancing and congestion.

Although policies and guidelines governing tourism are prominent factors influencing tourism and its recovery, their psychological effects might prove less readily apparent. Several psychological impacts could be directly attributable to COVID-19, whereas other effects could be secondary, motivated by external reasons such as increased anxiety and weakened confidence among nations. The prevailing pattern in post-COVID-19 outbound travel choices has a negative correlation with both geographical and sociocultural remoteness. For most citizens planning to travel abroad, countries that are geographically and culturally distant will not be their topmost priority. A clear consequence of COVID-19 is that more people will seek to travel to rural, historical, and culturally significant locations, as well as those that offer opportunities to experience nature. It can therefore be asserted that following COVID-19, rural tourist sites could witness an increase in the number of visitors. COVID-19 has caused people to patronize short-distance and shorter-duration excursions. As a result, it is believed that domestic travel would rebound faster than outbound tourism. New evidence from this study confirms that the risk of pandemics in years to come is extremely real. Therefore, novel strategies and technologies will continue to be a game changer in the future of all industries.

In summary, this review has highlighted COVID-19 as an opportunity to reevaluate tourism policies and practices to strike a balance between the well-being of locals, visitors, and industries. To boost the local economies, governments around the world have taken different approaches. The tourism industry will become a hotspot sector If governments take proactive measures to restrain the virus.

2.4.2. Agriculture Industry

This study has highlighted a major effect on world food security from the COVID-19 pandemic. Several factors have contributed to this effect, including shifts in consumer behavior, economic uncertainty, interruptions in food production, and distractions in the supply chains. The review has raised concerns about food insecurity, which has affected many small-scale farmers. The COVID-19 pandemic has dampened the desire for continuing output among agri-food system players. Amidst growing concerns about food insecurity, nutritional deficiencies, and impoverishment, particularly in localized communities, the COVID-19 pandemic has exposed the fragility of our global agriculture systems. The industry’s stability, efficiency, and viability are threatened by the continuing obstacles that the pandemic has presented. The necessity for novel methods of tackling crises in agricultural food production and supply chains will contribute to combating future pandemics.

COVID-19 has revealed the preexisting disparities and weaknesses in the agriculture sector. Coping with the effects of the crisis has been particularly challenging for developing nations, small-scale farmers, etc. Additionally, the COVID-19 pandemic sparked worries regarding the safety and security of food around the world. Damage to the agrifood chain infrastructure was obvious during the pandemic. It can be deduced that the dramatic drop in agricultural output was caused in part by government restrictions on workforce movement and stringent import and export laws. Consumers’ preferences and lifestyles around food consumption have been profoundly impacted by the pandemic. People purchased more rarely amid the lockdown worldwide, and there was a general decline in the consumption of fresh goods. Meanwhile, the consumption of commodities with longer shelf lives registered an alarming trend.

In general, changes in food consumption patterns would persist even after the pandemic has ended. Online shopping convenience, health consciousness, and increased domestic cooking are anticipated to influence customer preferences in the years to come. Besides, the pandemic has worsened pre-existing systemic deficiencies, especially the limited availability of vital inputs and resources. This calls for a critical need for improved public policy interventions. Robust long-term strategies will be a significant factor in reducing the adverse impact of similar disruptions in the agri-food sector in the future.

2.5. Implementing Lessons Learnt from COVID-19 in Facing Future Pandemic

The world’s health experts are constantly on surveillance for new viral risks. Even though no new crisis has developed to the severity of COVID-19, many infectious diseases continue to be vigorously tracked. Concerns today encompass novel COVID-19 variations as well as the return of avian influenza, Ebola, Marburg virus, and monkeypox virus. Scientists warn that if these viruses as well as others like the Nipah virus and Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever are not adequately controlled, they could pose serious hazards and cause more worldwide health emergencies. Novel strategies that capitalize on the knowledge and insights gained from hitherto crises, such as COVID-19, are crucial to creating resilient tourism and agriculture sectors that can resist pandemics or novel viral strains in decades to come. This section extends the insights acquired from COVID-19 to future global crises in a comprehensive manner.

2.5.1. Tourism Industry

Figure 7 presents eight key innovative strategies that can enhance the robustness of the tourism industry.

Hybrid Tourism Models

To safeguard a resilient tourist sector in the wake of potential outbreaks or the emergence of new variants, blended tourism models that incorporate virtual and real experiences offer a smart strategy. Utilizing virtual tours, cultural events, and facilitated online conversations, these models empower travelers to interact with places, alleviating their desire for in-person travel while preserving a sense of connectivity to their desired areas. In this regard, tourists might utilize virtual reality tours to view popular destinations while enjoying a thrilling time in the comfort of their homes. Once travel restrictions are relaxed, tourists can physically experience the destinations of their choice, ensuring their continued participation during the interruption period. Despite providing possibilities for individuals who are unwilling to travel physically, this strategy retains places as current and at the forefront of people’s thoughts. The tourism business continues to remain agile and resilient through hybrid tourism models, which integrate offline and online interactions. They effectively preserve tourists’ interest regardless of the face of pandemics that limit global movement, enabling tourist places to carry on with their usual business.

Blockchain for Health Credentials

A novel strategy for maintaining a robust tourist sector in the event of future pandemics or the advent of new variations is blockchain for health credentials. With this technology, travelers’ medical histories, including test results and vaccination records, can be securely stored and verified. This will facilitate easier cross-border immediate confirmation and preserve confidential data. This means that immigration officials, hotels, and airlines can authenticate travelers’ health credentials using blockchain-based passports without disclosing personal information. The confidentiality and protection of travelers’ health data are guaranteed using blockchain technology, which is safe and impenetrable, building confidence between authorities and tourists. Furthermore, travelers can easily navigate airports, border checks, and hotel check-ins due to an effective authentication procedure. By limiting movement within these restricted areas to those who satisfy particular health requirements, this strategy guarantees the resiliency and agility of the tourism industry.

Policy Advocacy and Collaboration

Effective communication between tourism and health organizations is critical to establishing a strong tourism business in the event of future pandemics. Better collaborations between the tourism industry and public health organizations will be established which will promote comprehensive travel health management, and facilitate continual tracking of health developments and concerted actions. The framework enables tourism businesses, such as hotels, airlines, and attractions, to quickly adjust to evolving health regulations, reducing interruptions and protecting both visitors and employees. For instance, tourist organizations may team up with health ministries to develop “pandemic safety certifications” for a variety of attractions. These certifications validate the implementation of health standards, such as enhanced hygiene, social distance, and vaccination requirements, affording travelers assurance regarding the safety of their desired locations. Through the implementation of public health initiatives for tourism-related activities, the sector could proactively address health concerns and prevent extensive impacts. This alliance renders the tourism industry more flexible and robust against potential pandemics or health threats. This can be achieved by ensuring that organizations retain the ability to operate safely, foster confidence among travelers, and provide a secure travel experience. By implementing this novel strategy, the travel and tourism sector can become more resilient and adaptive to pandemics in the coming years.

Self-Sufficient Tourism Models

Self-sustaining decentralized tourism models offer a robust approach to preserving the tourism industry in the wake of subsequent pandemics. These models lessen dependency on huge international centers, which tend to be particularly susceptible to global disturbances. Furthermore, in instances when foreign travel is rare, tourism can persist by focusing on agritourism, rural tourism, and community-driven events. These smaller-scale models are less vulnerable to complications associated with pandemics since they can operate without significant international infrastructure. Travelers could enjoy safe, and isolated activities by creating self-sustaining eco-resorts or rural lodges that use off-grid energy and locally sourced food. In addition to satisfying the quest for long-term viability, these eco-friendly tourist attractions offer relatively safe options compared to standard tourism.

Smart Infrastructure

During future pandemics, a thriving tourism sector must depend on smart infrastructure, commonly referred to as pandemic-resilient travel infrastructure. This infrastructure prioritizes adaptability and cutting-edge technologies to instantly establish health precautions like isolated areas and quarantine facilities in modular hotels and flexible airports, enabling tourism agencies to react to medical emergencies promptly. By eradicating viruses from surfaces, innovations such as UV-C light therapy and antimicrobial substances are essential for suppressing the spread of viruses in high-contact regions. Travelers can be assured of a more secure environment by using UV-C light to sanitize public areas and rooms at hotels and airports. Additionally, by minimizing contacts, touchless systems like biometric screening with facial identification or iris scans could be utilized to reduce physical contact. The tourism sector could remain robust and run responsibly amid emergencies and new outbreaks by implementing these health-focused components into pandemic-ready infrastructure.

Hyper-Localization

One proactive method to fortify the tourism sector against upcoming pandemics is through hyper-localization. Microtourism shifts the emphasis from foreign to domestic travel by enticing tourists to explore neighboring locations. This strategy offers more secure, intimate traveling experiences while minimizing the potential hazards inherent in mass tourism. Encouraging short-term getaways, small group tours, or city-based events enables tourists to utilize the advantage of individualized, private journeys that prioritize well-being and avoid congested places. These moments are customized to satisfy the desires of the individual or group, guaranteeing excellent interactions while reducing the risk of spreading viruses. By embracing microtourism, the sector possesses the capacity to withstand health emergencies. This method offers a sustainable substitute for high-risk travel while promoting responsible travel and adherence to safety regulations. In addition to assisting local companies, it establishes a structure that is adaptable and responsive, enabling tourism to flourish despite the face of pandemics or emerging variations.

Adaptive Travel Bubbles

An effective way to maintain tourism in the event of a pandemic is through the use of adaptive travel bubbles. Travel bubbles allow tourism to thrive regardless of the face of worldwide restrictions by establishing safe travel corridors between locations that have successfully handled the pandemic or attained high vaccination rates. Nationwide travel bans are lessened since they permit safe travel within areas that have modest transmission rates. Vaccinated tourists would be able to travel openly between certain nations or areas if “vaccine tourism corridors” were established. These corridors reduce the possibility of spreading viruses while promoting safer travel by providing expedited screening and quarantine measures. This strategy offers the safe and regulated operation of tourism, safeguarding the public’s health and bolstering the sector. During health emergencies, the tourism industry could sustain its resilience by using adaptive travel bubbles. By enabling uninterrupted service with few interruptions, these adaptable travel corridors efficiently strike a balance between economic activity and consumer protection, boosting the continued development of tourism irrespective of the face of future pandemics.

Predictive Travel Approach

An innovative strategy for bolstering a robust tourism sector in the event of future pandemics should utilize predictive travel planning. Using AI and machine learning, these systems can evaluate big datasets to forecast appropriate travel times and identify new health hazards. By considering important variables like vaccination rates, infection trends, and local health guidelines, tourists can utilize these platforms to schedule travel during preferable periods. AI-powered travel apps, for instance, provide real-time information on travel safety, notifying users of possible health hazards and providing alternate routes or rescheduling choices based on predictive models. By minimizing the likelihood of visitors encountering high-risk locations, this proactive strategy enables them to adopt more informed and secure travel choices. The tourism business maintains its flexibility by integrating AI-driven solutions into trip planning, guaranteeing safe and effective travel amid unforeseen crises.

2.5.2. Agriculture Industry

Figure 8 presents eight key innovative strategies that can enhance the robustness of the agriculture industry.

Agri-Fintech

Strengthening the agriculture industry’s adaptability, especially in the event of a pandemic, necessitates the utilization of Agri-fintech for financial stability. Agri-fintech solutions safeguard agricultural operations in times of crisis by providing farmers with digital financial tools like crop insurance, micro-loans, and flexible credit choices. This guarantees that farmers have the funds necessary to continue producing. Agri-fintech provides customized banking services that support farmers in obtaining capital in times of distress. These strategies empower farmers with rapid and adaptable avenues for capital, enabling them to invest in essential inputs like seeds and equipment, sustain operations, and meet unforeseen expenses. At times when a pandemic affects supply chains or markets, Agri-fintech keeps major business disruptions at bay by offering financial stability. Farmers could quickly access loans or insurance payouts using mobile platforms, which helps them deal with cash flow issues. In challenging times, this timely financial assistance guarantees farmers to keep up with their activities and buy necessary supplies. Agri-fintech ensures the stability of the agriculture sector during health crises by providing easily accessible digital financial services that assist farmers in overcoming financial constraints.

Continuity Automation

In food processing, automation and robotics are essential to preserving a robust agriculture sector, particularly in the wake of crises. The agriculture industry often lessens their reliance on human labor which is frequently impacted by social distance and outbreaks. During emergencies, this strategy guarantees very little disruption to production. Despite labor constraints, automation helps operations run smoothly. Sorting, packaging, and processing are among the various tasks that robots and automated systems could perform. This guarantees continuous production and a consistent supply of food. Robotic arms, for instance, can accurately do routine tasks like sorting and packaging, enabling improved production. This optimizes food safety during pandemics by lowering contamination risks and boosting output. Automation protects against interruptions by ensuring that vital food production continues even when labor is scarce. To sum up, automation and robotics are essential for maintaining the resilience of the agriculture sector, guaranteeing steady output, and reducing interruptions during emergencies.

Modular Food Processing

A key approach for boosting the agriculture sector’s resilience, particularly in the event of pandemics, is the utilization of modular food processing. The sector reduces its reliance on centralized facilities that are susceptible to disruptions like lockdowns and labor shortages. Localized and versatile manufacturing is made feasible by decentralized processing facilities that are situated closer to farmers. These modular centers could be swiftly adjusted to varying conditions to satisfy local needs. Producers reduce their dependence on distant manufacturing centers that could be impacted by supply chain problems. Long-distance transportation is less necessary because of on-farm processing facilities that handle duties including packaging, sorting, and preliminary product processing. This reduces the possibility of food rotting and guarantees a steady supply of fresh goods in times of emergency. Decentralized processing facilitates effective regional food production during pandemics, guaranteeing accessibility regardless of situations where global distribution systems are under stress. By adapting to local demands, modular units can ensure ongoing production while fostering a more robust food chain.

Traceability and Transparency Model

To increase the agriculture sector’s resiliency, especially in the event of pandemics or the development of novel variants, traceability and transparent models are essential. This technology offers the decentralized, transparent tracking and recording of every phase of the agricultural supply chain, from farm to consumer. By boosting awareness at every level, this strategy reduces vulnerabilities like scams, interruptions, and disturbances while fostering loyalty. Transparency in the blockchain records every movement and transaction in the supply chain, creating an accurate and irrevocable database. The entire process, from obtaining seeds and inputs to shipping goods to customers, is recorded so that all parties involved can view accurate data. Particularly in times of crisis, this transparency model makes it easier to recognize bottlenecks and inefficiencies instantly. Besides, it allows stakeholders to be more effective in addressing challenges like delays, contamination, or fraud.

Self-Sufficient Systems

With an emphasis on indigenous agricultural practices, community-supported agriculture, localized food systems, and urban farming, this technology seeks to decentralize the agricultural systems. These methods reduce the dependency on worldwide logistics networks, which are frequently at risk due to pandemics. Communities could guarantee sustained food accessibility irrespective of times of crisis by prioritizing local food production. Fresh vegetables can be grown in confined surroundings outside the traditional farmlands due to vertical farming in urban locations. In addition to decreasing reliance on remote food sources, this strategy also lessens the impact of supply chain interruptions while guaranteeing local sustenance in situations where global borders have been tightened. Decentralized systems provide a steady food supply by encouraging local, small-scale food production, and shielding people from outside influences. In times of unforeseen circumstances, localized food systems propel the agriculture sector to be more resilient, allowing it to cope with local demands and advance biodiversity and food safety.

Agri-Tech Innovations

The agriculture industry’s robustness is greatly enhanced by Agri-Tech innovations for remote management, particularly in times of crisis. Through the use of cutting-edge technological platforms, farmers could supervise and oversee their activities from a distance, guaranteeing production even in the absence of thorough on-site supervision. Real-time insights into crop health, soil conditions, and insect infestations are made possible by Agri-tech technologies, including data analytics, satellite images, and Internet of Things sensors (IoT). This makes it possible for farmers to make well-informed decisions from a distance, ensuring that farm operations run efficiently irrespective of interruptions. Farmers can remotely modify their irrigation, fertilization, and pest control systems by using smartphone apps to get real-time data. During pandemics, remote supervision guarantees that agricultural activities continue unhindered, giving farmers the means to sustain output and food security. The farm sector is better equipped to handle any health emergencies in the decades to come owing to these developments.

Augmented Network System

To ensure the agriculture sector’s resilience to future pandemics, supply chain resilience is crucial. The COVID-19 pandemic revealed serious flaws in international supply chains, highlighting the necessity of technological advancement, diversity, and adaptable logistics systems. Resolving these issues will render the farm industry more resilient to potential future crises. International supply chains and an excessive reliance on a small number of major suppliers were exposed by the pandemic. Localizing output and diversifying suppliers are essential to reducing these threats. Local manufacturing of agricultural inputs such as seeds and machinery might help lessen reliance on foreign suppliers. This is because shorter supply chains tend to be less susceptible to worldwide interruptions, food production, and most importantly, delivery could continue in times of demand. Digital Supply Chain Technology makes agricultural supply chains more transparent, adaptable, and agile, thereby enhancing their capacity for resilience. Responsive decision-making is made possible by data-driven technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI) and analytics, which estimate requests and monitor revenue. Additionally, digital networks integrate farmers and customers directly, eliminating the need for agents and expediting distribution in the event of interruptions. Logistics solutions for flexible transportation networks enable prompt modifications to distribution paths and techniques in times of emergency, guaranteeing that agricultural products reach their final destinations despite disruptions to conventional transportation networks. A consistent supply of food is ensured by carefully positioned warehouses near markets, which could reduce transportation delays and act as reserves amid future crises.

Precision Systems

Precision farming and smart farming systems use cutting-edge technologies like drones, IoT devices, and artificial intelligence (AI) to increase farming resilience and efficiency. Instantaneous surveillance of crop conditions, soil health, and water consumption is made attainable by these systems, which empower farmers to arrive at data-driven and well-informed decisions. This decreases dependency on labor-intensive tasks and enhances resource management, both of which are key during health crises. Drones with AI capabilities, for instance, can identify early indicators of insect infestations or illness, enabling swift action and reducing the destruction of crops. This ensures maximum output while reducing the necessity for manual field checks. Additionally, sensors are employed by automated irrigation systems to provide crops with the proper amount of water, minimizing waste and fostering enhanced development. Precision agriculture helps the agriculture sector be resilient during future pandemics, maintaining food production and economic stability.

3. Implications

3.1. Tourism Industry

The tourism sector has been severely impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic, demanding the formulation of novel plans to guarantee endurance, recuperation, and longevity. This section provides an outline for the short-term, medium-term, and long-term gradual integration of the suggested remedies presented in Section 2.5.1.

Recovering from the economic downturn and restoring trust among consumers are the primary concerns in the short term. Therefore, in a bid to address growing safety concerns, hybrid tourism models could potentially assist apprehensive tourists by blending physical services with interactive tours and augmented reality excursions.

Blockchain implementation for medical credentials could guarantee safe and accurate health information, promoting secure traveling and reviving the tourism industry. To lessen reliance on foreign markets, governments and industry players should collaborate and advocate for policies that value urgent measures including financial support and uniform safety guidelines. Also, domestic trips could be championed as a component of self-sufficient tourism models. To further improve both comfort and security, advancements in smart infrastructure, especially technologies for managing crowds and contactless payment methods should be explored. Initiatives that promote indigenous cultures and encourage hyper-localization could entice domestic travelers while boosting the local economy. Finally, adaptive travel bubbles, which are created between low-risk areas, should be facilitated to regulate cross-border travel.

In the medium term, the focus switches to boosting sustainability and adaptability as the primary concerns. As virtual reality continues to advance, hybrid tourism continues to complement real-life encounters. Through the use of blockchain technology, medical credentials can be standardized worldwide, making international travel easier. In compliance with sustainability objectives, partnership systems would stimulate ecotourism and support localized tourist strategy. Regional hubs should be developed to link local supply chains as a key component of self-sufficient tourist models, to strengthen financial independence. There should be an improvement in accessibility and efficiency by investing in smart transportation networks. Hyper-localization needs to be strengthened through local culture, whilst sustainable journeys should be overseen by local communities. At the same time, travel bubbles should include multi-regional agreements to promote intra-regional tourism through coordinated safety measures. Predictive travel models should be utilized to keep tabs on worldwide trends, optimize marketing to each individual, maximize efficiency, and deepen connections with travelers.

In the long term, these initiatives seek to evolve tourism into a vibrant, technology-oriented, and sustainable global sector. Hybrid tourist experiences should incorporate metaverse-based offerings, to generate novel avenues for profit and broaden the industry’s scope. Blockchain technology should be essential for multiple purposes, including visa management, rewards schemes, and insurance policies. Coordinated policy efforts should deepen global relationships, to guarantee readiness to face potential emergencies. Self-sufficient tourism models should be developed into circular economies to optimize resource efficiency. Tourism-oriented smart towns should be developed, to utilize AI-driven services and sustainable technologies. Hyper-localization should be a fundamental aspect of tourism, to safeguard heritage sites and bolster community-driven projects. Adaptive travel bubbles should evolve into enduring localized tourist collaborations with optimized systems, while predictive travel systems should facilitate strategic planning to harmonize demand with environmental and economic objectives.

3.2. Agriculture Industry

The recommended strategies addressed earlier in Section 2.5.2 are presented in the agriculture sector, together with a complete roadmap for the progressive implementation over the short-term, medium-term, and long-term.

Short-term priorities include resolving urgent interruptions and guaranteeing recovery. Rural communities could benefit immensely from agri-fintech approaches, such as mobile-based digital payment systems and microloan networks. To alleviate personnel constraints, continuity automation should be promoted to offer fundamental capabilities such as drone surveillance and controlled irrigation. Modular food processing units for perishables should guarantee local value, whilst blockchain pilots and QR code-based verification models should be utilized to boost customer trust in the safety and quality of food. Community-supported agriculture and other self-sustaining systems should promote indigenous farming to increase adaptability to interruptions in the global food chain. Agri-tech technologies for monitoring agricultural products should be utilized to give farmers valuable information, and enhanced network structures. Precision techniques that improve resource efficiency should incorporate satellite imagery and controlled irrigation.

The medium-term focuses on expanding these technologies for long-term resiliency. While harvesting, planting, and sorting are all automated processes, agri-fintech platforms should be expanded to incorporate digital marketplaces and risk-control systems. Transnational supply chains should be made more efficient with modular processing centers and enhanced monitoring mechanisms. Smart agricultural technologies should incorporate predictive analytics and AI-powered tools on huge scales, while circular economy frameworks should integrate recyclable materials into self-sustaining structures. The application of augmented network systems should facilitate effective cooperation across regional digital systems, while the use of automated technology should be aimed at promoting precision agriculture.

In the long term, the strategies seek to make agriculture a tech-driven, self-sufficient, and globally integrated sector. Fully automated farms should deploy robots to optimize resources, while agri-fintech platforms should utilize AI for investment analysis and dynamic loan structuring. Global tracking schemes for modular food processing should be employed through independent, and closed-loop approaches. These strategies should be implemented by self-sufficient systems, to incorporate national food security. High-efficiency ethical agriculture should be made possible by cutting-edge technology such as genetic modification and AI-powered systems. Transfer of knowledge should be boosted by global cooperation networks, and big data should be utilized by precision systems to control climate risk and distribute resources.

This study advances the knowledge of managing crises by introducing novel methods that are multi-sectoral, tech-driven, and sustainability-focused. The findings contribute to the domain of crisis handling by providing adaptable frameworks, innovative tools, and insights into human behavior that can be used to address possible future emergencies in the tourism, and agriculture industries. This all-encompassing input will also help other industries adapt to global shocks to promote resiliency and long-term growth.

Overall, the revival of the tourism and agriculture industries is a collaborative effort by local communities, NGOs, and governments. The government offers financial support for agricultural producers and small to medium enterprises in the tourism sector, low-interest loans, tax incentives, and policy advice. Additionally, investments in advanced smart infrastructure, including digital platforms and IoT, bolster flexibility, while financing innovation accelerates the embracing of technologies such as blockchain and AI. NGOs strengthen organizations, gather resources, and encourage long-term viability. Collaborative efforts between the public and private sectors enhance the availability of resources for initiatives such as modular food processing and sustainable tourism hubs. Subsidized insurance programs and capacity-building programs provide additional support. Stimulus packages in local communities promote local agri-tourism, entrepreneurial drive, and cultural preservation awareness. These interventions promote sustainable, resilient, and inclusive development across both sectors.

More importantly, the sustained viability, longevity, and resiliency of these sectors will be attainable if all stakeholders collaborate toward a unified objective.

4. Limitations

Research studies on COVID-19 pandemic impact are in their preliminary stages. This research examines how the pandemic influenced the tourism and agriculture industries. Even though it focuses on grey literature, it neglects every pertinent detail. Despite this study seeking to establish the basis for future COVID-19 literature reviews, its theoretical contributions are scant. Inevitably, some significant works about the tourism and agriculture industries could have been overlooked by the study’s search procedure and keyword selection. A potential way to widen the database is to incorporate more terms in the search query that have some relevance to the agriculture and tourism industries. Given its reliance on peer-reviewed research, the present study poses the risk of reporting skewed findings.

Additionally, due to the stringent criteria for selecting publications for inclusion in the research, it is possible that particular scholarly contributions were disregarded. The study may have been biased because it was limited to English, which prevented it from considering relevant papers written in other languages and restricted its ability to provide a worldwide perspective on the topic. There is also a potential risk of overlooking significant findings from other sources if data gathering is dependent on certain databases. Publications retrieved in the WoS and Scopus databases are the primary focus of this investigation. Therefore, this research overlooked research papers that weren’t included in other databases. This leads to less detailed results with insufficient data sources. There is a likelihood that publications could gloss over problems or setbacks in favor of highlighting achievements. Policies are transient, and the findings might fall short of capturing recent research advancements. The independence of this research work could be compromised due to bias in the research selection. Results could be outdated if interventions occur before research publication.

Despite the prevalence of studies addressing immediate problems, only a handful have examined potential long-term remedies to the pandemic. This study falls short of its overly theoretical and its lack of practical relevance for industry players.

5. Directions and Propositions for Future Research

The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the tourism and agriculture sectors has been examined in this comprehensive review. Adopting technology, implementing policies, and promoting sustainable agriculture are a host of key steps highlighted to combatting pandemic concerns. Given the goal of safeguarding the tourism and agriculture sectors to cope with potential pandemics, policymakers, academicians, and stakeholders should take a multifaceted strategy. According to research on crisis and disaster management, the role of government in handling crisis management is crucial at every level, from preparation to recovery and prevention. Comprehending how different stakeholders could boost their preparedness in combating disaster and crisis management strategies in the future is key. The concept of multilevel governance amid times of crisis and its consequences for local, national, and internal policies need to be looked at.

The COVID-19 pandemic has unlocked the possibility for innovative perspectives regarding the agriculture and tourism sectors. Besides contributing to the shortcomings of particular industries, it has exposed socioeconomic weaknesses more greatly. Nevertheless, the vast majority of studies concerning COVID-19 and its impact on sustainable tourism and agriculture lack empirical data. Subsequent work will need to address numerous questions this study presents. While effect estimates could be beneficial for managing funds for agriculture and tourism recuperation, policymakers could find more practical and innovative directions in developing pandemic plans and policies through impact simulation modeling. Literature retrieved from WoS and Scopus is the key emphasis of this research. Consequently, our study could not incorporate research that did not appear in any other databases searched. Future works should explore different databases.

Considering the significant impact of many articles in the field of science, it could be worthwhile for future research to search out and analyze these works. Future works on the utilization of technology in the tourism and agriculture sectors could focus on managing crises as an interesting subject. Despite enormous influence on the present research, its popularity has barely emerged in the last few years. This paves the way for multiple directions of investigations in the application of digital technology from various perspectives. This review has emphasized various resilience initiatives, such as public-private partnerships, to better prepare the agri-food industry for potential global disruptions. Several experts have highlighted the urgency of enhancing readiness to face potential pandemics, crises, and shocks that might influence the agri-food and tourism industries.

The research delineates the effects of the pandemic on the tourism and agriculture sectors, with particular emphasis on the interdependence of different impacts. This enables policymakers to devise strategies more effectively and strategically to mitigate the effects on these sectors. Various stakeholders need to have a deeper understanding of the tourism and agriculture industries due to the interrelated nature of these sectors. Examining the interactions of various impacts between the tourism and agriculture industries is crucial.

6. Conclusions

This research has brought to light the shortcomings and flaws of various industries with the agriculture and tourism industries experiencing substantial losses due to the global pandemic. It is interesting to recognize that beyond the apparent risk concerns experienced by millions of people globally, the pandemic has significantly affected global trade, governmental policies, and the stock market. Capitalizing on this crisis offers us the opportunity to rethink and reorganize several sectoral structures to ensure robustness and resiliency. In light of new health concerns especially Ebola and recent variants of the monkeypox virus, the tourism and agriculture sectors must ponder on lessons learned in the previous years, as the pandemic remains far from over.

The review has revealed an extensive analysis of the unparalleled challenges of two interrelated sectors while highlighting novel strategies to promote recovery, resiliency, and sustainability. The study addresses a notable gap in the existing literature by examining the interconnectedness of tourism and agriculture industries, whilst highlighting various ways disruptions in one sector could influence the other. The multifaceted strategy put forward stands out as one of the major accomplishments in handling crises, sectoral recovery, and sustained growth.

This research offers a comprehensive strategy by integrating innovative ideas, including hybrid tourism models, predictive travel approaches, agri-fintech, blockchain, augmented network systems, and continuous automation, which have been scarcely researched in the literature. It also resolves sectorial inadequacies by presenting a detailed plan for progressive execution in the short-term, medium-term, and long-term. Deploying these strategies and executing them in stages could establish an integrated structure to combat imminent constraints, and guarantee long-term transformation in the tourism and agriculture industries.

The review has demonstrated that in an attempt to fortify the tourism and agriculture industries, multi-stakeholder actions are crucial. Every level of government, NGO, and community must collaborate for the betterment of reviving the industries. Communities need to champion local implementation, business development, and maintain cultural heritage, while NGOs need to provide essential resources. More importantly, to guarantee viable recovery plans, practical frameworks such as participatory planning and multi-sector cooperation are essential. The aforementioned concerted plans establish a benchmark for managing future crises, ensuring that industries remain more robust and resilient.

The review has recognized the need for cooperation among governmental bodies and private agencies in the recovery process for tourism and agriculture industries, nevertheless, it falls short of comprehensively addressing the immediate repercussions inherent in such collaborations. Conflicts of interest could emanate when governmental bodies prioritize public welfare whilst private organizations center on profit. These will result in preferential differences and consequently lead to distorted goals. In addition, financial constraints could impede both entities, as the government grapples with budgetary challenges whilst private organizations battle with operational deficits. Finally, variations in regulations among countries, including different safety protocols and policies could add complexity to international collaborations.

Managing partnership concerns, fairness, and financial stability is key, together with implementing long-term systemic changes, and global policy frameworks. By addressing these gaps and presenting novel solutions, this research marks a significant impact on academic discourse and practical recovery strategies for tourism and agriculture industries amid subsequent crises.