Mobile Government Service Promotion Strategies: Exploring Sustainable Development Pathways Based on Provincial Government Practices in China

Abstract

The level of mobile government services has become a crucial metric for modernizing a government’s governance capabilities, and it plays a significant role in promoting sustainable development. This study aims to explore the key factors influencing the level of mobile government services across 31 provinces in China, along with their combinatory pathways. Using the technology–organization–environment (TOE) framework and employing fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA), this study conducts an in-depth analysis of mobile government service levels across these provinces, focusing on the dimensions of technology, organization, and environment. The results identify three pathways that promote high levels of mobile government services: technology–organization, technology–environment, and internal–external linkage-driven pathways. These pathways offer viable strategies for achieving sustainable development in mobile government services. Additionally, this study identifies two pathways associated with lower service levels, technology deficiency, and organization–environment misalignment, highlighting key factors that hinder sustainable development. The findings suggest that organizational and environmental factors can complement each other based on technological conditions, internet penetration rates, and citizen participation levels. Based on these insights, this study recommends that provincial governments proactively explore sustainable development pathways, optimize the “technology–organization–environment” conditions to harness synergies, and work towards enhancing mobile government service levels, thereby reducing inter-provincial disparities and advancing sustainable development.

1. Introduction

Recently, the rapid advancement of modern digital technologies, such as artificial intelligence, big data, the Internet of Things, and blockchain, has led to the deepening of “digital government” and “smart city” practices across the globe. As a result, mobile government services (MGSs) have become the mainstream mode of public service delivery [1,2]. MGSs represent an innovative governance approach in which the government provides information and public services to the public and other societal entities via mobile devices [3,4]. As a significant subset of e-government services [5], this new form of public service delivery is unrestricted by time and place, offering greater mobility, responsiveness, and flexibility [6]. MGSs provide citizens with convenient and timely services [7], while also improving administrative transparency, reducing corruption, bridging the digital divide, and strengthening communication between the government and citizens [8,9]. MGSs are increasingly becoming the preferred method of service delivery for government departments [7,10] and serve as a crucial tool for guiding and achieving the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), moving towards a more equitable and sustainable future [11].

The Chinese government views MGSs as an innovative approach to digital governance, aiming to enhance citizen participation, achieve effective governance, and advance the modernization of the government’s governance capabilities [12]. As an important initiative for achieving sustainable development, local governments are required to expedite the development and utilization of mobile government services. In 2016, the State Council issued the “Guiding Opinions on Accelerating the Promotion of ‘Internet + Government Services’”, explicitly requiring local governments to expedite the construction of internet-based government services [13]. According to the “2019 Mobile Government Service Development Report” released by the E-Government Research Center of the Central Party School (National Academy of Governance), all 31 provinces, autonomous regions, municipalities directly under the central government, and the Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps have established provincial-level mobile government service platforms [14], with the “App + Mini Program” model becoming the mainstream form of MGSs. In 2021, the central government issued the “National Integrated Government Service Platform Mobile End Construction Guidelines” to address existing issues with mobile government service platforms, aiming to comprehensively develop mobile government service capabilities and enhance the sense of gain and satisfaction among enterprises and citizens [15]. MGSs are gradually becoming a vital mode of public service delivery, continuously penetrating the country’s modern governance system [16] to improve government operational efficiency [17], public services [18], and transparency [19,20,21,22]. To fully realize the benefits of social sustainability promoted by MGSs, we must confront and overcome multiple challenges, including funding, data security and privacy protection, and issues of technological compatibility [23]. The rise of MGSs signifies a comprehensive social transformation, with its development relying not only on the improvement of technology and information infrastructure, but also on the deep integration of technological, political, and social systems [24]. As a key governance innovation advancing the sustainable development strategies of governments, the progress of MGSs urgently requires the adoption of a holistic approach. This approach should comprehensively consider all aspects of technological advancements and deeply explore their far-reaching impacts on sustainable practices for both current and future generations [23]. However, most existing studies on the level of digital government services are based on single factors [25,26] and are lacking comprehensive consideration. Therefore, a comprehensive and multidimensional analysis of the factors contributing to the differences in mobile government service capabilities among China’s provincial governments, as well as an exploration of the determinants and driving pathways of MGSs, will help deepen our understanding of regional disparities in the level of MGSs among China’s provincial governments. This understanding is crucial not only for grasping the imbalances in mobile government development, but also for providing valuable insights for other countries’ provincial governments in building and improving mobile government service levels.

With the ongoing advancement of digital transformation, the technology–organization–environment (TOE) framework has gained increasing popularity among scholars worldwide for analyzing the government’s adoption and utilization of information technology [27]. The widespread application of the TOE framework lies in its ability to comprehensively and systematically capture complex interactions between technological factors, organizational capabilities, and external environments [28]. This multidimensional analytical framework is particularly suitable for cross-national comparative research and empirical analysis in different socio-cultural contexts. This study adopts the TOE framework to investigate the commonalities and differences in the process of promoting MGSs among provincial governments in China. What are the key factors and combinatory pathways influencing service levels? What are the multiple causal relationships in the formation mechanisms of these pathways?

To analyze the driving pathways of mobile government service levels among China’s provincial governments, the second part of this article constructs a TOE research model applicable to provincial government MGSs in China based on the PPM framework. The third part of this article introduces the fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA) method and the process of handling relevant variables. Subsequently, the data analysis and empirical results are described. By analyzing the mobile government service data of 31 provincial-level administrative regions in China, this study reveals the key factors and combinatory pathways affecting service levels. The fifth part of this article provides an in-depth discussion of the empirical results, combining China’s unique socioeconomic context with international research experiences to explore the theoretical and practical significance of these findings. Finally, in the Conclusion, this study summarizes the main findings, proposes relevant managerial recommendations, and outlines the contributions of this entire work. Additionally, this study discusses the limitations of this research and offers insights into future research directions, aiming to provide a reference for subsequent studies.

2. Literature Review

In the digital age, MGSs have become a key innovative approach for governments to achieve sustainable development goals. These services are driven not only by the internal motivation within organizations to meet the demands of modern civilization, but also by the external pressures exerted by technology-driven citizens who are keeping pace with the times. The interplay of these multifaceted factors collectively influences the level of MGSs. When these factors are harmonized and balanced, MGSs become important tools for promoting harmonious development, enhancing the quality and efficiency of public services, driving social progress, and achieving sustainable development [29]. The PPM model offers a theoretical perspective [30] that provides a foundational framework for understanding the dimensions of factors influencing MGSs.

The PPM theory originated in the study of human migration, positing that push factors (negative factors that drive individuals away), pull factors (positive factors that attract individuals), and mooring factors (personal and social factors influencing migration decisions) jointly affect human migration behavior [30,31]. With the advancement of technology, the PPM theory has been applied to examine user behavior across various technological products, such as instant messaging services [32], blogging services [33], mobile payments [34], and mobile shopping [35].

As an extension of e-government services, MGSs shift public service delivery from fixed terminals to mobile devices, such as personal mobile phones, pagers, and personal digital tablets, thereby achieving innovative service delivery. Through the lens of the PPM theory, we can gain a deeper understanding of MGSs, thereby better exploring their driving paths and advancing the digital transformation and enhancement of government services.

2.1. The Influencing Factors of MGSs

2.1.1. Push Factors Influencing MGSs

The driving factors for MGSs refer to the external or internal pressures that prompt governments and the public to transition from traditional government services to MGSs. These factors originate from the field of electronic governance and focus on the additional resource inputs required by governments during the development of economic and technological systems. These factors may include technological advancements, policy pressures, growing public demand for convenient services, and shortcomings in the existing government service system. Under the influence of the information technology revolution, governments actively embrace new technologies, transforming their traditional service and governance models [36]. Internal political activities and reform objectives aim to strengthen administrative procedures and leadership capabilities, engage in long-term strategic planning, and formulate feasible policies [37]. Establishing specialized organizational departments or working groups responsible for e-government is an effective means of addressing obstacles and accountability deficits in the development of MGSs [38].

The development of MGSs integrates the iterative updates of information and communication technology (ICT), socioeconomic development levels [39], and citizens’ digital literacy [40]. Managers’ attitudes determine whether new technologies are adopted [41,42], and their characteristics [43] also influence technology adoption and application, thereby affecting the level of MGSs. Public demand further explains the introduction and development of electronic information technology in the construction of an informatized government [44]. The expected benefits can only be realized when citizens are willing and able to use these systems [45]. Digital government innovation services are unlikely to succeed without policy support, technical enterprises solving technical challenges, and some government departments and institutions willing to experiment with and promote MGSs. In the development of MGSs, driving factors primarily play a role in accelerating innovation and changing the status quo [46]. They promote the widespread adoption of MGSs by increasing technological investments, enhancing service quality, and prompting policymakers to focus on the necessity of digital transformation.

2.1.2. Pull Factors Influencing MGSs

MGSs are a form of public service provided to enterprises and citizens. Pull factors are the attraction or benefits that encourage the public and government agencies to actively adopt and promote MGSs. By leveraging ICT to provide public services, MGSs can reduce costs, increase productivity, or redesign work practices, thereby improving traditional government systems [47,48]. These characteristics prompt government departments to accelerate the construction of MGSs.

In MGS practice, citizens’ perceptions of services, accessibility, usability, reliability, accuracy, responsiveness, friendliness, and usefulness all influence their judgment of service levels [49]. Efficiency, convenience, flexibility, and MGSs’ contribution to improving public service accessibility and transparency are powerful pull factors. These factors make the public more willing to accept and use MGSs while also motivating governments to further promote and optimize these services. Technology acceptance, continued use intention, and satisfaction are key factors influencing the performance of MGSs. Scholars have used the Technology Acceptance Model [50,51] (TAM), Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology [52,53] (UTAUT), Theory of Reasoned Action [54] (TRA), Social Cognitive Theory [55] (SCT), Expectation Confirmation Theory [56] (ECT), and trust theory [57,58] to examine citizens’ behavior when adopting new technologies. Citizen participation plays a decisive role in MGSs [59,60]. Pull factors stimulate demand and enhance user experience, helping MGSs gain broader acceptance and application in society, thereby driving their further development.

2.1.3. Mooring Factors Influencing MGSs

Constraining factors refer to those that may impede or limit the development of MGSs, such as technological barriers, legal uncertainties, internal organizational resistance, and the public’s concerns about security and privacy. As a new technology, citizens’ acceptance and use of MGSs are influenced by various factors, including trust in the technology, ease of use, expected outcomes, citizen characteristics [61], and the maturity of related government service technologies [62]. MGSs inherently face issues of unequal access due to differences in population, economic, and social diversity, as well as the digital divide across different countries and regions [3]. Moreover, the inclusivity of culture and society is also crucial to the acceptance of MGSs [63]. The construction of MGSs is built on the foundation of e-government. The maturity of e-government [64] and the openness of government data [39] may affect the speed of mobile government service promotion, potentially leading to failure in some cases. Constraining factors play a balancing and adjusting role in the development of MGSs. Although they may slow down the impact of driving and pulling factors, to some extent, they also help ensure the robustness and sustainability of MGSs.

In the development of MGSs, driving and pulling factors play critical roles. The interaction between these factors, along with their balance with constraining factors, determines the overall state of development of MGSs. However, existing research often focuses on the analysis of individual factors, and there is still a lack of paradigms or reference samples that can explain the differential paths of mobile government service levels, thus making it difficult to provide sufficient theoretical support for selecting these paths. Furthermore, most cases are based on best-practice scenarios, thus lacking research on the resource endowment differences in the same-level government under a unified political environment in adopting a mobile government. As the latest practice in digital governance, MGSs have not yet reached an anchored equilibrium state. We can categorize these factors within the PPM model according to the dimensions of technology, organization, and environment (as shown in Figure 1) to gain a more comprehensive understanding of these influencing factors and their impact on MGSs.

2.2. Mobile Government Service Level Modeling

Governance in the digital age presents complex and dynamic challenges, and research on the levels of MGSs requires a more comprehensive and flexible perspective. This perspective should consider constantly evolving technologies, appropriate infrastructure levels, social development trends, and human, social, and governmental factors driven by stakeholders [65]. The TOE analysis framework has a certain adaptability in exploring the synergistic matching of technological, organizational, and environmental influences. This framework, proposed by Tornatzky and Fleischer (1990), is used to understand the factors influencing an organization’s adoption of innovative technologies [66]. The framework outlines the main factors affecting the adoption of new technologies, including technological factors, organizational factors, and environmental factors. Over time, the TOE framework has been used not only to explain enterprises’ adoption of new technologies [67], but also to examine governments’ adoption of new technologies [68]. Research has applied the TOE framework to analyze e-government adoption [69], the introduction of digital technologies [70,71], smart city construction [72], open government data [28], open innovation in government departments [27], internal government network adoption [73], and online fiscal transparency [3].

In the context of the research subject, the TOE framework can be flexibly adjusted to relevant decisive factors, demonstrating strong applicability and explanatory power. MGSs are public service models that innovatively utilize mobile communication technology from the government. Studying the influencing factors of MGSs’ service levels involves examining the factors affecting the government’s application of new technologies. Therefore, it is feasible to use the TOE framework to study and explain the adoption of digital technology in a mobile government. Moreover, all provincial governments in China now provide MGSs, but the service levels vary. This underscores the practical necessity of identifying multiple equivalent driving mechanisms to achieve high levels of mobile government.

(1)

Technological Conditions: Technological conditions are key factors in the development of MGSs, and they mainly include technological infrastructure and the level of government data openness. The development of MGSs requires strong technical support [74]. Technological infrastructure is the foundation of MGS development, supporting governments in data-driven thinking and providing hardware support for the modernization, digitization, and intelligentization of digital governance. Government data openness is a key factor in enhancing MGSs. By opening government data, the issue of information asymmetry in government services can be better addressed, improving the level of e-participation in the region [75]. MGSs constitute data-centric public service reform. Data resources are not only the foundation of mobile government governance, but also the guarantee for optimizing public service delivery mechanisms. Governments need to fully utilize cross-departmental information to solve complex problems [76]. By integrating and opening government data, MGSs can offer personalized, convenient services, improve communication between citizens and governments, and enhance the efficiency of public service delivery in cities where e-government development lags, achieving smarter, more efficient government construction [77].

(2)

Organizational Conditions: Organizational factors are critical to the development of mobile government services, and these factors primarily encompass government attention and financial investment. Among the factors influencing local government behavior, the degree of emphasis placed by higher-level leadership and the preferences of local governments are pivotal [78]. Strong leadership and well-formulated strategic planning facilitate the accelerated development and implementation of e-government applications [79]. From the perspective of resource-based theory, setting strategic development goals within public sector organizations enhances the interaction between resources, thereby aiding public sector managers in developing capabilities tailored to the objectives of the public sector and its “strengthening” efforts [80]. Financial resource allocation is essential for the innovation and advancement of online government services [41]. A robust economic foundation and sufficient financial budget contribute to higher e-service performance [81], driving the improvement of mobile government service levels.

(3)

Environmental Conditions: Environmental conditions encompass three critical dimensions: internet penetration rate, citizen demand, and citizen engagement. These factors collectively influence and govern the interactions between the internal and external elements of the MGS system, thus ultimately determining the system’s operational mode and functionality. The regional internet penetration rate is a crucial factor in determining the accessibility of MGSs within a specific area. A higher penetration rate increases the likelihood that citizens will access and utilize MGSs. Moreover, the methods and capabilities of e-government service provision must be built upon a precise understanding of user demand. The core function of MGSs lies in providing public information and government services to the public, and the magnitude of citizen demand directly impacts the quality of service [82]. The varying intensity of user demand faced by different governments may lead to distinct performance outcomes in their online service offerings [83]. Citizen engagement refers to the level of participation and activity of citizens within the MGS system, encompassing aspects such as the frequency of use, depth of interaction, and breadth of engagement. A rise in citizen engagement signifies a greater number of users actively utilizing MGSs, which not only incentivizes government departments to enhance service quality, but also drives innovation and improvement in services, thereby further elevating the overall level of MGSs.

Based on the preceding analysis, this study develops a TOE analytical framework, as depicted in Figure 2, encompassing seven secondary conditions. The synergy of these factors plays a critical role in determining the quality of mobile government services. The development of mobile government services requires not only technological support, but also substantial financial and human resource investments from the government. Additionally, the external environment significantly influences the progression of mobile government services. By comprehensively considering these factors, we can gain deeper insights into the driving mechanisms and development pathways of mobile government services.

3. Research Methods and Variable Design

3.1. Research Method

In order to systematically compare the MGSs levels of various provincial governments and construct a theory based on cases [84], this study eschews the traditional statistical methods based on the “independent variable-dependent variable” binary relationship. Instead, it adopts the Qualitative Comparative Analysis (QCA) method, rooted in set theory, to analyze the diverse and complex driving mechanisms behind the MGSs at the provincial level in China from a configurational perspective. QCA is a research method proposed by American sociologist Charles C. Ragin, which is based on set theory and Boolean algebra, and it offers distinct advantages in causal analysis, especially for small to medium-sized datasets [85]. By applying Boolean logic, QCA seeks to understand the different paths that lead to a specific outcome, thus providing an asymmetric focus [86]. This method, which supports the assumptions of asymmetric causality, synergistic effects, and equifinality assumptions, is more closely aligned with reality [87] and can elucidate the various ways and channels that lead to a certain outcome, helping researchers identify the optimal path.

Fuzzy Set Qualitative Comparative Analysis (fsQCA) is a commonly used method in academia to study the practice of electronic government. Unlike traditional set relations where conditions are either “present” or “absent”, fsQCA refines and quantifies these relationships, enabling researchers to analyze conditions that may exist to varying degrees [88]. To reveal the diverse pathways that drive MGSs under different resource conditions, this research builds on previous studies that employed fsQCA to explore pathways such as digital government construction, government data disclosure, and online digital services. The goal is to examine the multiple concurrent causal relationships between various resource conditions and the level of provincial MGSs.

3.2. Sample Selection

This study selects the MGSs’ terminals of 31 provincial-level governments in China as samples for the following reasons: Firstly, provincial-level governments, as crucial administrative units in China, play a vital role in the implementation of MGSs, serving as a key link between the central government and local governments. Currently, the development of MGSs at the provincial level has become an inevitable trend in the digital reform of the Chinese government and has achieved significant results. Secondly, the research subjects selected in this study cover both economically developed and underdeveloped regions. These provincial-level governments have already normalized MGSs, making them representative and operationally viable, with a sample size suitable for analysis using fsQCA. Finally, considering the availability of data, provincial-level governments, compared to municipal, district, and street-level governments, have more abundant and comprehensive public information, which is conducive to the development of this study.

3.3. Variable Design

3.3.1. Outcome Variable

This study utilized the ‘Report on Provincial Mobile Government Services in China (2022)’, jointly released by the Digital Governance Laboratory of Fudan University and Beijing National Information Cloud Technology Co., Ltd., as the data source to assess the level of MGSs clients of provincial governments. Based on relevant Chinese government service policies and local practices, the report integrates domestic and international government service evaluation experiences to assess provincial MGSs applications across five dimensions: availability, usefulness, ease of use, satisfaction, and sense of security, using the ‘Hand-in-hand Index’ as the measurement indicator. The report organizes annual expert seminars and dynamically adjusts its evaluation criteria based on the latest development trends and user feedback, ensuring that its results scientifically assess the level of provincial MGSs. Due to its data availability and evaluation rigor, this study adopts the report as its primary data source.

3.3.2. Condition Variable

(1)

Technology Conditions

Technological Infrastructure (TI): The technological infrastructure serves as the foundation of m-government construction, and its level of development directly impacts the quality of MGSs. In this study, we measure the level of technological infrastructure construction in each province using the per capita number of internet ports in 2022 as an indicator, based on the measurement standards proposed by Tan Haibo et al. (2019) [89]. It is worth noting that the internet port and population data we used are sourced from the “China Statistical Yearbook 2022 [90]”.

Level of Government Data (LGD): The level of government data openness reflects the state of provincial data integration and provides strong support for the development of m-government. Since 2017, the Digital Governance Laboratory at Fudan University, in collaboration with the National Information Center’s Institute of Digital China Research, has regularly conducted comprehensive evaluations of local government data openness levels. These evaluations utilize the “Open Data Forest Index” to assess government data openness. This study adopts the provincial government Open Data Forest Index from the “2022 China Local Government Open Data Report” as a standard for measuring the level of government data openness.

(2)

Organizational Conditions

Government Attention (GA): Government attention is reflected in the provincial government offices issuing implementation opinions and policies to implement the central government’s policy guidelines. This is specifically manifested in the establishment of specialized organizational structures under the provincial institutional system responsible for the planning, construction, and implementation of MGSs, as well as for supervising policy implementation to improve services. Therefore, this study’s measurement of government attention refers to the volume of policy documents issued by provincial government websites, based on Tan Haibo et al. (2019) [89], and combines the scores of provincial digital government organizational structures and institutional systems from the “2022 China Digital Government Development Index Report” issued by the Tsinghua University Data Governance Research Center. The weighted average is used as the measurement standard.

Financial Input (FI): Given that the level of socioeconomic development significantly impacts the government’s internet service capabilities [41], economically developed regions tend to be more receptive to e-government innovations [81]. This study considers financial investment as a crucial guarantee for maintaining and enhancing the level of provincial MGSs, with financial investment being directly proportional to the level of MGSs. The measurement indicator for financial investment uses the per capita general public budget expenditure in 2022 to gauge financial resource capabilities at the provincial level, with data sourced from the “China Statistical Yearbook 2022”.

(3)

Environmental Conditions

Internet Penetration (IP): A high internet penetration rate implies that more citizens have the ability to access MGSs, which can prompt the government to improve the quality and efficiency of these services. At the same time, the widespread use of the internet enhances citizens’ social participation and monitoring capabilities, further driving the government to provide higher-quality MGSs [91]. Therefore, increasing the internet penetration rate helps to enhance the level of MGSs, thus fostering closer interaction and service between the government and citizens. The internet penetration rate data used in this study is sourced from the 51st “Statistical Report on China’s Internet Development” published by the China Internet Network Information Center in 2022.

Citizen Demand (CD): Citizen demand plays a crucial role in explaining the introduction and development of information technology in the public sector [92,93]. MGSs, as a digital governance innovation to meet citizen demand, are best reflected by the proportion of internet users in a region’s total population [94]. This ratio effectively indicates the level of demand for MGSs among citizens. The data used in this study are sourced from the 51st “Statistical Report on China’s Internet Development” and the “China Statistical Yearbook 2022” published by the China Internet Network Information Center (CNNIC).

Citizen Participation Level (CPL): Citizen participation plays a crucial role in determining the effectiveness of government MGSs. Additionally, citizens’ information technology literacy is a key factor in promoting e-government development and achieving digital governance [33]. This implies that lower illiteracy rates in a region correspond to stronger information technology skills among citizens, leading to higher overall participation levels. Therefore, the measurement of citizen participation level is based on the illiteracy rate among the population aged 15 and above at the provincial level, with data sourced from the “China Statistical Yearbook 2022”.

Table 1. Variable descriptions and data sources.

Types	Dimensions	Variables	Measurement Items (Units)	References	Resources
Conditional Variables	Technology Conditions	Technological Infrastructure (TI)	the per capita number of internet ports (numbers)	Tan et al., 2019 [89]	“China Statistical Yearbook 2022”
		Level of Government Data (LGD)	Open Data Forest Index (points)	Harrison and Sayogo, 2014 [75]	2022 “China Local Government Open Data Report”
	Organizational Conditions	Government Attention * (GA)	Policy text volume (numbers)	Zheng et al., 2013 [42]	Provincial Government Websites
			Report scoring (points)		2022 “China Digital Government Development Index Report”
		Financial Input (FI)	The per capita general public budget expenditure (Yuan)	Tolbert et al., 2008 [81]	“China Statistical Yearbook 2022”
	Environmental Conditions	Internet Penetration (IP)	Internet penetration rate (percent)	Asogwa 2013 [91]	The 51st “Statistical Report on China’s Internet Development”
		Citizen Demand (CD)	Proportion of Internet users (percent)	Lee et al., 2011 [93]	The 51st “Statistical Report on China’s Internet Development”
		Citizen Participation Level (CPL)	The illiteracy rate (percent)	Yu et al., 2017 [40]	“China Statistical Yearbook 2022”
Outcome Variable		MGSs levels	Hand-in-hand Index (points)		“Report on Provincial Mobile Government Services in China” (2022)

Note: For all metrics, a uniform weight of 100% is applied, except for the Government Action * (GA) metric, where the weight is equally distributed between the number of policy texts and the report score, each contributing 50% to the total. Following standardization, these values are aggregated to determine the final GA score.

summarizes the specific information about the outcome variables and all condition variables used in this paper.

3.4. Measurement and Calibration

In fsQCA, each condition and outcome is treated as an independent set, and each case is assigned membership scores within these sets. The process of assigning membership scores to cases is called calibration. Drawing on existing research [95], this study utilizes direct calibration to convert data into fuzzy set membership scores according to the data types of each condition and outcome, based on existing theoretical and empirical knowledge [96]. Following Ragin’s guidance [97], the calibration standards for the intersections of MGSs’ levels, technological infrastructure, level of government data, government attention, financial investment, internet penetration, citizen demand, and citizen participation level are set at the 0.5 percentile, with the completely non-membership calibration standard set at the 0.05 percentile, and the completely membership calibration standard set at 0.95. This setup is adjusted based on the actual situations of the cases to enhance the accuracy of fuzzy set analysis. The calibration information for each condition and outcome is shown in

Table 2. Calibration of conditions and results.

Dimensions	Condition	Calibration
		The Completely Membership Calibration	Intersection Point	The Completely Non-Membership Calibration
Outcome Variable	MGSs levels	70.5	54	37.5
Technology Dimensions	FI	1.02	0.77	0.58
	LGD	68.6	23.2	2.1
Organizational Dimensions	GA	307.5	88.7	26.5
	FI	35,500 (Yuan)	17,000 (Yuan)	12,000 (Yuan)
Environmental Dimensions	IP	86.9 (%)	75.7 (%)	67.4 (%)
	CD	0.86 (%)	0.76 (%)	0.67 (%)
	CPL	1.21 (%)	2.82 (%)	9.14 (%)

.

4. Results

4.1. Necessary Analysis of Individual Conditions

Before conducting the configurational analysis of conditions, it is necessary to individually test the “necessity” of each condition. In this study, combined with the current popular QCA research, we first examine whether a single condition (including its negation) constitutes a necessary condition for achieving a high level of provincial MGSs. In QCA, a condition is considered necessary for an outcome if it always exists when the outcome occurs [83]. Consistency, as an important criterion for assessing necessity, indicates that a condition is necessary for an outcome if its consistency is greater than 0.9 [83].

Table 3. Analysis of necessary conditions.

Antecedent Variable	High-Level MGSs		Non-High-Level MGSs
	Consistency	Coverage	Consistency	Coverage
TI	0.727	0.737	0.598	0.580
~TI	0.585	0.603	0.728	0.719
LGD	0.713	0.822	0.437	0.482
~LGD	0.550	0.505	0.838	0.737
GA	0.576	0.669	0.585	0.650
~GA	0.698	0.638	0.702	0.613
FI	0.619	0.717	0.589	0.653
~FI	0.700	0.640	0.744	0.651
IP	0.624	0.683	0.576	0.604
~IP	0.638	0.611	0.697	0.640
CD	0.634	0.689	0.575	0.598
~CD	0.631	0.608	0.701	0.647
CPL	0.691	0.655	0.653	0.592
~CPL	0.570	0.632	0.620	0.658

presents the results of the necessity tests for high and non-high levels of MGSs analyzed using fsQCA 3.1 software.

From Table 3, it can be seen that the consistency levels of all conditions are less than 0.9. Therefore, there are no necessary conditions that influence the non-high and high levels of MGSs. This result demonstrates the complexity of provincial MGSs, indicating that the interaction and coordination of multiple conditions in the technological, organizational, and environmental aspects are required to jointly affect service levels. In other words, the high or low level of MGSs should be comprehensively considered in terms of the concurrent synergistic effects of multiple conditions on the technological, organizational, and environmental aspects.

4.2. Sufficiency Analysis of Conditional Grouping

Unlike the analysis of necessary conditions described above, configurational analysis aims to reveal the sufficiency of different configurations consisting of multiple conditions in causing outcomes. From a set-theoretic perspective, it explores whether the configuration composed of multiple conditions represents a subset of the outcome set. Consistency is also used to measure the sufficiency of configurations, but the acceptable minimum standard and calculation method differ from those used in the analysis of necessary conditions. Schneider and Wagemann [98] pointed out that the consistency level for determining sufficiency should not be lower than 0.75, and the frequency threshold should be determined based on the sample size, with a threshold of 1 for small- to medium-sized samples. In this study, the same consistency threshold of 0.75 and a frequency threshold of 1 are used to cover the complete sample as much as possible.

Through the analysis of truth tables using fsQCA 3.1, it was found that technological infrastructure and the level of openness of government data are core conditions for achieving a high level of MGSs, while the level of openness of government data is a core condition for non-high levels of MGSs. There are five pathways leading to a high level of MGSs, with an overall consistency of 0.948, indicating that approximately 94.8% of provincial governments that conform to these five configurations exhibit a higher level of MGSs. The overall coverage of the solution is 0.52, indicating that the five combinations of conditions can explain approximately 52% of high-level MGSs cases. There are three pathways leading to non-high levels of MGSs, with an overall consistency of 0.953, indicating that approximately 95.3% of provincial governments that conform to these three configurations exhibit a non-high level of MGSs. The overall coverage of the solution is 0.453, indicating that the three combinations of conditions can explain approximately 45% of non-high-level MGSs cases. The specific pathways are shown in

Table 4. Conditional grouping analysis of m-government service levels.

Condition	Intermediate Solution
	High-Level MGSs					Non-High-Level MGSs
	Configuration 1	Configuration 2	Configuration 3	Configuration 4	Configuration 5	Configuration 6	Configuration 7	Configuration 8
TI	●	●	●	●	●	○		●
LGD	●	●	●	●	●	○	○	○
GA	●	●		○	○	●	●	○
FI	●		●	●	○	○	○	●
IP	●	●	●	○	○	○	●	●
CD	●	●	●	○	○	○	●	●
CPL		●	●	○	●		●	○
Original Coverage	0.279	0.332	0.366	0.221	0.305	0.325	0.321	0.230
Unique Coverage	0.008	0.017	0.046	0.022	0.040	0.062	0.053	0.068
Consistency	0.995	0.960	0.970	0.994	0.943	0.980	0.994	0.931
Solution Consistency	0.520					0.453
Solution Coverage	0.948					0.953

Note: ● indicates the existence of core conditions, ○ indicates that the condition does not exist.

. Based on the configurations of conditions, we can further identify the differentiated adaptation relationships of technology, organization, and environment in the process of MGSs.

4.3. Combined Path Analysis

To better illustrate the combination pathway differences leading to provincial MGS levels, this study categorizes the five configurations of conditions under high-level MGSs into three pathways: “technology-organization” driven, “demand-support” driven, and internal-external linkage driven. For non-high levels of MGSs, the three configurations of conditions are categorized into two pathways: “technology” deficiency and “organization-environment” misalignment (see

Table 5. Combined path and corresponding province.

Provincial MGSs	Pathway	Corresponding Conditional Configuration	Typical Province
High Level	“Technology-Organization” Driven	Configuration 4	Hainan, Jiangsu
	“Demand-Support” Driven	Configurations 2, 3, 5	Beijing, Fujian, Chongqing
	Internal-External Linkage Driven	Configuration 1	Tianjin, Zhejiang, Shanghai
Non-high Level	“Technology” Deficiency	Configuration 6	Hunan, Gansu
	“Organization-Environment” Misalignment	Configurations 7, 8	Shanxi, Jilin, Xinjiang

). This classification helps to clarify the roles and interactions of technology, organization, and environment in the formation process of MGSs’ levels.

Specifically, Pathway 1 indicates that the “technology–organization”-driven approach is key to achieving high-level MGSs. In this context, long-term e-government development at the provincial level has established robust technological infrastructure. Furthermore, the high degree of government data openness in recent years has complemented financial investment at the organizational level, laying the foundation for MGSs to potentially achieve a high level of service. Hainan Province and Jiangsu Province are representative provinces. The two provinces have similar levels of technological infrastructure construction, government data openness, and financial investment. Technological infrastructure is the material foundation on which local governments rely to provide internet services. The better the material foundation, the higher the service capacity and level [41]. Furthermore, provincial e-government service platforms help coordinate resources across the province, achieve the integrated supply of government services in various regions within the province, and promote the improvement in the internet service capabilities of prefecture-level administrative regions. Government financial investment is crucial to complementing the above-mentioned technological conditions.

Pathway 2 is constituted by configurations 2, 3, and 5, and based on the characteristics of these configurations, it is categorized as “demand–support”-driven. This configuration indicates that the province has a robust capacity for citizen engagement, while the government possesses strong technological infrastructure and a high level of open government data. Representative regions along this pathway include Beijing, Fujian, and Chongqing. The development of MGSs aims to provide citizens with convenient channels for public service access. In multiple government documents, Beijing has emphasized that mobile government services are a significant innovation in digital government construction. The goal is to create a mobile government platform centered on the needs of the people, with the aim of enhancing citizen engagement and satisfaction. To achieve this goal, government departments have taken the lead in establishing MGS construction teams and issuing relevant supportive policies. Based on citizen needs and the types of online public services that can be realized, government departments have also called on capable technology companies to provide technical support to jointly create a high-level MGS interface.

Pathway 3 represents an internal–external linkage-driven model, corresponding to Configuration 1 in Table 4. Under this model, even if citizens’ participation capabilities are lacking, as long as the technological, organizational, and internet penetration conditions can meet citizen needs, MGSs can still achieve a high level. In representative regions, although Tianjin’s level of public government data disclosure and government attention are relatively low, with high-standard technical infrastructure and high internet penetration, the fiscal investment in the construction of MGSs that matches public needs is sufficient to demonstrate a high level in provincial mobile government services. The Shanghai Municipal Government has adopted a different strategy by establishing a “Suishouban” mobile-government-integrated service team led by the party leadership within the organization and annually releasing the “One-Network Comprehensive Reform Work Points” as a guide for improving MGSs, with ongoing financial support. In terms of external technical and environmental conditions, as an international modern metropolis, Shanghai not only has well-developed technical infrastructure and high internet penetration, but also actively responds to public demands. This internal and external linkage based on the “technology–organization–environment” conditions has made Shanghai a successful model for providing high-level MGSs to both enterprises and the public.

In the context of non-high-level MGSs, the “technological deficiency” pattern in the two pathways corresponds to Configuration 6, representing provinces such as Hunan and Gansu. In these provinces, both technological infrastructure construction and open government data levels are relatively underdeveloped. Despite significant attention from the Hunan government in the policy aspects of MGSs, the lack of technology undoubtedly undermines the service level, thus serving as a fundamental obstacle to development.

The “organization–environmental misalignment” pattern corresponds to configurations 7 and 8, representing provinces such as Shaanxi, Jilin, and Xinjiang. As a government-led transformation of public service digitization, the emphasis on organizational conditions is crucial. However, the absence of certain environmental factors, such as internet penetration rate, citizen demands, and citizen participation, may also lead to non-high-level MGSs at the provincial level. This further illustrates that provincial-level MGSs are systemic projects involving multiple factors. The absence of any factor or mismatched factor combinations may lead to non-high-level results.

4.4. Potential Substitution between Conditions

Through a further analysis of the combination paths of high-level MGSs, we can identify the potential substitution relationships among technological, organizational, and environmental conditions, as shown in Figure 3. Comparing configurations 1 and 2 indicates that with the completion of technological conditions, fiscal investment and citizen participation can be mutually substituted. In contrast, comparing configurations 2 and 3 shows that for provinces with relatively excellent technological and environmental conditions, the governmental attention and fiscal investment in organizational environments can be mutually substituted to maintain high-level MGSs. Meanwhile, comparing configurations 1 and 3 indicates that the levels of citizen participation and governmental attention can be mutually substituted when other conditions are relatively excellent, thus achieving high-level MGSs.

The potential substitution relationships among technological, organizational, and environmental conditions indicate that, under technological conditions, technological infrastructure and the level of open government data are essential foundations for MGSs. Under conditions of benign interactions between internet penetration rates and public demand, governmental organizational attention, fiscal investment, and citizen participation can be mutually substituted. MGSs represent the latest innovation in public service models in the current e-government, built upon sound technological infrastructure and high internet penetration rates. The openness and integration of government data are crucial for the effectiveness of government integration and are also key factors in determining whether MGSs are comprehensive and efficient. These efforts are meaningful only when they align with public demand.

For example, Shanghai and Tianjin have relatively excellent technological infrastructure and open government data levels, as they are municipalities directly under the central government. At the same time, their internet penetration rates and levels of public demand are relatively high. Although the Shanghai municipal government’s level of attention to MGSs is not as high as that of the Tianjin municipal government, its strong support in financial investment and citizen participation has greatly promoted the overall improvement in MGS levels.

4.5. Robustness Test

During the robustness test, this study adjusted the PRI consistency threshold from 0.75 to 0.8 and then re-examined the configuration of conditions for high and low levels of MGSs. The results showed that the number of paths explaining high levels decreased by one, with the coverage of the solution dropping to 0.51, accounting for approximately 94% of the total explanations. The adjusted paths did not show significant changes in consistency and coverage of the explanation, indicating the robustness of the configuration analysis results.

5. Discussion

The development paths and driving factors of MGSs exhibit unique complexity and diversity against the backdrop of international research experiences and China’s cultural, historical, and socioeconomic context. This study identifies three key paths through an analysis of mobile government service levels across 31 provinces in China: a technology–organization-, technology–environment-, and hybrid internal–external-driven approach. These paths provide valuable strategies and references for the sustainable development of MGSs on a global scale. Additionally, this study reveals two paths that lead to lower service levels, thus highlighting potential obstacles in achieving sustainable development in MGSs. These two paths are technological inadequacy and organizational–environmental misalignment.

International research shows that technological advancements often complement organizational capabilities, in which technology acts as a push factor and organizational capacity as a pull factor, together forming a critical driving force in enhancing government service levels. Particularly in developed countries, information technology is closely linked to the restructuring of governance structures and processes within organizations, thereby improving the efficiency and transparency of government services [99], which is crucial for achieving sustainable development goals. With the deepening implementation of the “Digital China” strategy, the technology–organization-driven path demonstrates its unique advantages. The Chinese government has effectively elevated the level of MGSs by vigorously promoting informatization and strengthening the integration of technology and organization. This strategy has shown strong adaptability both domestically and internationally. Particularly within China’s complex socio-cultural context, enhancing organizational capabilities through technological means can effectively address inefficiencies inherent in traditional governance models. Therefore, this path not only contributes to improving service quality, but also provides a solid foundation of technology and organization for achieving sustainable development.

Globally, the development of MGSs also relies on the support of the external environment, including the policy environment, legal framework, and socioeconomic conditions. The technology–environment-driven path reflects the interaction between technological conditions and the external environment. For instance, in Western countries, a well-established legal system, transparent policy framework, and robust economic foundation provide strong support for the development of MGSs [100]. In China, although regional development is uneven and disparities in the external environment (such as policy incoherence and varying levels of economic development) may act as mooring factors limiting technology diffusion, the overall rapid economic growth and government policy support provide strong assurance for the realization of the technology–environment-driven path. This path emphasizes the deep integration of technological conditions with the policy environment and socioeconomic context, which contributes to the balanced development of MGSs. Particularly in developing countries like China, the synergy between technology and environment is crucial for effectively narrowing regional disparities and achieving sustainable public service development.

In the context of non-high-service level paths, technological inadequacy and organizational–environmental misalignment reflect deficiencies in push and pull factors, respectively. These deficiencies not only constrain the development of MGSs in certain regions, but may also act as “mooring” factors, thus hindering the overall improvement in service levels. In China, some regions lag in service levels due to weak technological foundations or insufficient organizational capacity. This phenomenon indicates that in the process of promoting the sustainable development of MGSs, shortcomings in technology and organizational capacity must be effectively addressed to mitigate the negative impacts of regional development imbalances.

Technological inadequacy and organizational–environmental misalignment reveal key factors that hinder the sustainable development of MGSs. The technological inadequacy path indicates that when technological conditions are insufficient, even with strong organizational capacity and environmental support, service levels may still fall short of expectations. The organizational–environmental misalignment path highlights the challenges posed by the mismatch between organizational capacity and environmental conditions, particularly in a country like China with significant regional disparities. This mismatch can lead to considerable differences in mobile government service levels across different regions.

Under the TOE framework, this study proposes three driving paths for achieving high levels of MGSs and identifies key factors that lead to lower service levels. Considering international research experiences and China’s specific context, this research uncovers the complex mechanisms driving the sustainable development of MGSs and provides valuable references for other countries and regions worldwide. By effectively coordinating push, pull, and mooring factors and strategically utilizing these driving forces, local governments can develop targeted strategies to optimize the “technology–organization–environment” conditions, thereby achieving the sustainable development of MGSs and reducing the service level gap across regions.

6. Conclusions

The rapid development of information technology has driven the emergence of mobile government services as innovative models for public service provision in the new era of governance. This transition is fundamentally aligned with human lifestyles, thereby enabling a more effective realization of the long-term goals of sustainable development. Enhancing the level of MGSs requires comprehensive support from technology, organization, and environmental conditions. In terms of technological conditions, technological infrastructure is the key foundation for the effective operation of MGSs. Technological innovation has not only improved the mode of public service supply, but has also greatly promoted the transformation of government organizational structure by enhancing service efficiency. At the organizational level, the government, as a key driver of m-government service development, guides the orderly transformation of MGSs into the main public service supply mode in the digital era. The government’s attention to MGSs is reflected not only in policy focus, but also in long-term and sustainable financial investment [101]. In terms of environmental conditions, MGSs are public service innovations based on a high internet penetration rate, thus serving as collective action to meet the needs of, serve, and benefit the people. Environmental factors are important external conditions for the steady promotion of MGSs.

Based on the TOE theory framework and the fsQCA method, this study explores the pathways driving provincial-level MGSs. This research draws the following conclusions: (1) Overall, technology, organization, and environmental factors cannot individually serve as necessary conditions driving MGSs, thus indicating that no single element constitutes a bottleneck for high-level MGSs. There are five driving pathways for high-level MGSs, namely three adaptation modes, which can be summarized as being “technology–organization”-driven, “demand-support”-driven, and internal–external linkage-driven. (2) MGSs are the result of the collaboration of multiple factors, and the effective combination of each factor can achieve the same result in a diversified manner. However, under specific conditions, organizational factors and environmental factors can be mutually substituted to achieve a high level of MGSs. (3) Deficiencies in technological conditions are bound to bring irreparable disadvantages to MGSs, affecting their service levels.

6.1. Recommendations

The conclusions of this study provide three policy recommendations for provincial-level MGSs: Firstly, regions should enhance the coordinated integration of technology, organization, and environmental factors. The construction of MGSs is a comprehensive project for the modernization of social civilization. Based on the technological level of resource foundation and organizational emphasis, only by strengthening the connection between resources and capabilities [102] can MGSs better play their role. Secondly, governments at all levels should pay special attention to the construction of technological infrastructure and the opening of government data. Technological conditions are the foundation of MGSs, determining whether they can provide high-level public services. Thirdly, policies to enhance MGSs should be tailored to local conditions. Local governments should fully leverage their advantageous resources, compensate for insufficient resources, and create MGSs that are in line with local structures. Additionally, MGSs are innovative public services that meet the needs of and benefit citizens. Only by actively expanding the paths for citizen participation can the maximum value of m-government service construction be realized, thus enabling citizens to feel a sense of accomplishment and happiness.

6.2. Contributions and Limitations

The use of technological empowerment in government services to achieve sustainable development goals has become a hot topic in academic research. As a cutting-edge application of government technology, mobile government services are valuable and a necessary topic to be studied. Building on previous research, this paper shifts the focus of mobile government service research from single perspectives, such as policy support, economic level, and technological means, to the synergistic effects of technology, organization, and environment. It analyzes the concurrent synergies and interactive matching models of these multiple conditions in promoting provincial government mobile services, explains the ‘causal complexity’ behind mobile government services, enhances the understanding of complex mechanisms, enriches the answers to the issues related to mobile government service levels, and provides a theoretical foundation for exploring sustainable development paths in digital government practice.

However, this study has several limitations. First, due to the strict limitations on the number of conditions in qualitative comparative analysis, this study selected only seven antecedent variables, which may not fully capture all of the influencing factors. Second, the research subjects are limited to mobile services provided by provincial governments in China, thereby overlooking MGSs at other administrative levels (e.g., municipal and county levels) and in other countries. Additionally, in the context of China, we did not consider the potential service disruptions caused by cyberattacks on MGSs, nor the severe damage these could inflict on various levels of government. Addressing this issue requires the implementation of national legal measures to ensure the establishment of a secure digital environment, which is as crucial to the development of MGSs as the promotion of key infrastructure construction and the coordination of business processes [103]. Third, this study primarily focuses on the comparative analysis of provincial government mobile applications. Future research could explore the service levels of different forms of mobile government, such as public WeChat accounts, official Weibo accounts, and public video accounts.