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Article

Strategic Siting of Hydroelectric Power Plants to Power Railway Operations with Renewable Energy

by
Masahiko Nakai
1,
Taku Masumoto
2,* and
Takashi Asaeda
3
1
Japan International Consultants for Transportation Co., Ltd., Tokyo 100-0005, Japan
2
Energy Planning Department, East Japan Railway Company, Tokyo 151-8578, Japan
3
Institute for Environmental Science, Saitama University, Saitama 338-8570, Japan
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2024, 16(16), 7086; https://doi.org/10.3390/su16167086
Submission received: 22 July 2024 / Revised: 12 August 2024 / Accepted: 16 August 2024 / Published: 18 August 2024
Browse Figures
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Abstract

:
The present study explores the strategic siting of hydroelectric power plants, focusing on the Miyanaka Intake Dam (MID) and Shinano River Hydroelectric Power Station (SHP). Built in 1939 to support Tokyo’s railway electrification, these facilities demonstrate the complexities of balancing renewable energy production with ecological conservation. Despite the high costs and energy losses associated with transmitting power from the Sea of Japan side, the SHP has effectively powered Tokyo’s rail system for over 80 years, owing to advanced transmission technologies and the region’s abundant water resources. However, river-crossing structures such as dams disrupt fish migration and habitats, necessitating the implementation of fishways. The MID fishway, continually improved since its construction, emphasizes the importance of integrating ecological considerations into hydropower projects. Our findings highlight the higher power generation efficiency on the Sea of Japan side and stress the need for careful site selection to ensure sustainable hydroelectric power while preserving river ecosystems. In conclusion, hydropower sites should be chosen based on both environmental impacts and future development potential to maintain the ecological balance and support long-term renewable energy goals.

1. Introduction

Downstream fish migration and diversity are indicators of the continuity and health of river ecosystems [1]. The impacts of river-crossing structures are evident both in fish movement and long-term changes in rivers [2]. In general, existing dams significantly impede fish migration [3,4] and negatively affect upstream habitats [5]. Human activity has contributed more to environmental deficits than to climate change [6]. River biodiversity is related to habitat composition and development [7]; therefore, it is necessary to regulate river biodiversity from both water use and environmental protection perspectives [8] and make strategic investments [9]. The natural river morphology is dynamic [10] and subject to natural disturbances [11]; however, human intervention can cause unintended long-term negative environmental impacts upstream and downstream [12].
Dams are required for irrigation, freshwater supply [13], and flood control [14]. Hydroelectric power, a balanced renewable energy source, minimizes the impact on ecosystems [15], and mitigating sudden changes in the flow rate allows for both environmental improvement and power generation [16].
Previous studies on environmental flows have often overlooked the reduction in flow velocity caused by river-crossing structures [17]. The number of dams is expected to increase, boosting fresh water supply by 10%, while the population will grow by 45% [18]. Therefore, dam construction seems inevitable, although it results in the loss of healthy ecosystems [19]. Although river-crossing structures do not completely restrict river continuity [20], their effects on the hydrological balance can be global [21]. Both natural and human factors must be considered simultaneously [22].
The Miyanaka Intake Dam (MID) and Shinano River Hydroelectric Power Station (SHP), which were the subjects of this study, were built in 1939. One of Tokyo’s most important rail lines, the Yamanote Line, which circulates around the center of Tokyo, has operated on electricity generated by the SHP for over 80 years. Water for SHP was sourced from MID, constructed in a river on the Sea of Japan side of Honshu Island, opposite Tokyo. The Ojiya No. 2 Power Plant, part of the SHP, produces 206 MW of electricity and is the eighth largest in Japan [23].
Under climate change conditions, the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events have increased. Large-scale climate change may affect local precipitation in reservoir basins [24]. Although annual precipitation shows a slight decreasing trend, the annual river flow series shows a significant decreasing trend [25]. Hydro-meteorologically, rivers in this region are influenced by the southeast monsoon in summer and the northwest monsoon in winter. Rivers on the Sea of Japan side receive substantial snowfall in winter. River flow rates in temperate regions peak due to snowmelt. Despite late summer and winter dry periods, frequent year-round precipitation events increase river flow rates [26].
The dam site uses snow drainage channels for surface water utilization. One such user is the Japanese National Railway [27]. This maintains a stable and high flow rate from winter to spring. In contrast, the Pacific Ocean side maintains a low flow in winter despite occasional strong storms from summer to autumn.
Owing to the unique climatic characteristics of the Sea of Japan side, there is a substantial amount of snowfall, which poses considerable challenges, including high costs in the construction and maintenance of hydroelectric dams and transmission lines. Additionally, energy losses occur during the transmission of electricity from the Shinano River to the Tokyo metropolitan area, covering a distance of over 200 km.
Until the late 20th century, fish migration was not considered in Japanese rivers. It was added to the River Law in 1993. For abundant fish migration, particularly the economically important species Plecoglossus altivelis and Oncorhynchus keta, a fishway was constructed in 1939. Although fishways were installed, they did not completely solve the issue [28]. Subsequently, various types of fishways were constructed, enhancing their effectiveness [29].
Implementing fishways is not necessarily effective immediately [30], and maintenance is required [31]. The presence of climbing fish is crucial. Fish migration is influenced by changes in the surrounding area and the dam’s location over time. It is essential to ensure that the surrounding zone maintains its natural conditions.
Many existing dams are equipped with fishways to mitigate biodiversity conservation challenges. However, planning for these dams and fishways typically only considers ecosystems a few years before and after construction. It remains unclear which processes and challenges should be addressed in the long-term construction of new dams. This study examined the impacts of flow rates, drainage basin areas, power generation, power transmission, and urbanization on hydropower plant locations on both the Sea of Japan and Pacific Ocean sides. By analyzing the construction history of the MID, we identified the processes and challenges involved in the strategic siting of hydroelectric power plants, aiming to harmonize water use with the conservation of river environments for several decades into the future.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Location of MID

MID is located on the Shinano River in Niigata Prefecture on the Sea of Japan side of Honshu. The Echigo Mountains, with Nakano-dake (at 2085 m) as its highest peak, separate Niigata from the Tokyo metropolitan area (Figure 1).

2.2. Data Collection

To understand the difference in flow rates between the Pacific Ocean and the Sea of Japan sides, we used the Water Information System managed by the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport, and Tourism. Data on normal, drought, and maximum water flow rates were compiled. We surveyed the towns of Ikuta, Tategahana (Nakano city, Nagano Prefecture, Japan), Miyanohara (Tsunan town, Niigata Prefecture, Japan), Sugata (Tokamachi city, Niigata Prefecture, Japan), and Muikamachi (Minamiuonuma city, Niigata Prefecture, Japan) on the Sea of Japan side, and Iwamoto (Numata city, Gunma Prefecture, Japan), Yorii (Yorii town, Saitama Prefecture, Japan), and Chofubashi (Ome city, Tokyo, Japan) on the Pacific Ocean side.
To evaluate the effective locations of hydroelectric power plants, we compiled data from the literature on power transmission technology, the process for determining dam locations, water rights, dam installations, power generation efficiency, historical changes in the surrounding areas, and a comparison of the efficiency of MID fishways with those of other dams. Power transmission technology is considered capable of crossing mountain ranges. The decision-making process for selecting dam sites, including considerations of water rights, is discussed using MID as an example. The power generation efficiency is devised as an indicator of the authorized output relative to the total reservoir capacity. Historical changes in the surrounding areas are assessed by examining the GDP and population trends of riverside cities. The efficiency of fishways is examined using the Shinano River, where MID is installed, as a case study.

3. Results

3.1. Potential Rivers for Hydropower Dam Construction

Several factors influence the suitability of rivers for the construction of hydropower dams. The Tokyo metropolitan area, located on the Pacific Ocean side of Honshu, includes Tokyo, Kanagawa, Saitama, Chiba, and the surrounding prefectures of Tochigi, Ibaraki, and Gunma. Niigata and Nagano prefectures are located on the Sea of Japan side. The rivers that flowed through these regions were targeted. Figure 2 shows the normal, drought, and maximum flow rates of rivers on both sides. The normal water flow rate is defined as the 185th highest flow rate when the flow rate data for 365 days are arranged from the largest to smallest. The drought flow rate is represented by the 355th flow rate in this sequence. The maximum flow rate is identified as the highest flow rate at a specific time. The flow rates of rivers on the Pacific Ocean side, such as Yorii, Iwamoto, and Chofubashi, are lower than those on the Sea of Japan side, especially during droughts and normal times.
Owing to the high annual flow rate, the Ministry of Railways considered hydroelectric power generation on the Shinano River (near Nakazato, Niigata Prefecture), Uono River (near Muikamachi, Niigata Prefecture), and Chikuma River (near Komoro, Nagano Prefecture) along the Sea of Japan. Considering the geological conditions of the dam site and the history of the acquisition of water rights, it was decided to build the hydroelectric power station serving the metropolitan area on the Shinano River.

3.2. Power Transmission Technology

Advanced technology is required to operate power cables across mountainous ranges of the Sea of Japan side. Large offshore wind farms are under construction or already in operation [32]. Reducing and preventing damage to overhead power lines caused by natural disasters is crucial [33]. In 1936, a 140-kV power line constructed in the mountainous area of the Joetsu region was destroyed by falling deep snow, completely destroying the tower and several kilometers of the power line [34]. Recovery from such accidents is challenging owing to the weather and terrain. Accidents on power transmission lines, which are vital for safe and stable railway transportation, have a significant impact on trunk line transportation.
A 66-kV line (1912) and the first 154-kV line (1923) transmitted electricity 200 km from the Azusa River to the Tokyo metropolitan area in the Shinano River system. This established standard specifications for long-distance power transmission lines from the Shinano River system to the Tokyo metropolitan area. Efforts have been made to improve the design efficiency, such as reducing snow movement pressure on slopes by 40% [35]. However, in areas with heavy snowfall, where frequent on-site inspections are difficult, the deformation of components due to snow accumulation remains an issue [36].
The main snow-related damages [37] include:
  • Wires buried under snow cornices.
  • Wires broken or damaged by ice.
  • Pylon collapse due to avalanche or snow accumulation.
  • Loss of railway-associated members due to sudden weather changes.
  • Short circuits and wire breaks caused by falling ice.
  • Earth faults from trees falling due to snow accumulation.
Data regarding tower collapses and breakages were collected as the line passed through one of Japan’s heaviest snowfall areas. Japan’s first long-distance 154-kV power transmission line was completed in 1939 through concerted efforts.

3.3. Process of Determining the MID Location

The process applied until the location was determined is as follows. The MID and SHP were developed by the Ministry of Railways as self-sufficient power plants to save coal and electrify Japan’s railways. Electric trains began running on the electrified Kobu Railway in 1904 and Kyoto Electric Railway Co., Ltd.’s Fushimi Line in 1905. After World War I, issues of preserving natural resources and railway electrification emerged worldwide. The Electrification Investigation Committee, established in 1919, prioritized stable and inexpensive self-sufficient electricity generation and supply. The conservation and regulation of coal and liquid fuels became an issue, leading to the idea that developing hydroelectric power, an unlimited natural resource, for railroad electricity was wise.
The initial permission for water rights was obtained from the Governor of Niigata Prefecture in March 1920. An investigation was conducted into the construction costs, electricity generation, and expenses of the thermal power plant operating at the time. The railway was electrified in 1925 and spanned approximately 160 km, but by 1941, it was planned to be extended to approximately 780 km, requiring a power output of 150,000 kW. The plan was temporarily scrapped after the Great Kanto Earthquake in 1923, but research and development continued. Thus, it was concluded that installing a regulating pond and combining 6000 cubic feet of hydropower with thermal power would be optimal throughout the year. In the first construction phase, including the MID and Senju Power Plants, part of the SHP was completed in 1939, and the fourth phase was completed in 1969. The SHP, contributing to the electricity supply for the Shinkansen (bullet train), is essential for achieving carbon neutrality by reducing CO2 emissions. Currently, electricity generated by MID and SHP, the only ones managed by railway companies in Japan, accounts for 21% (1.23 billion kWh) of the railway company’s electricity consumption. The SHP, equipped with balancing reservoirs, contributes to stable train transportation during morning and evening rush hours in the metropolitan area. The electricity generated by SHP is cheaper than that from self-operated thermal power plants (35%) and that purchased from power companies (44%). Additionally, the SHP provides clean energy without emitting carbon dioxide. Therefore, its continuous operation should be maintained with a focus on preserving biodiversity.

3.4. Power Generation Efficiency

The SHP, utilizing precious water from the MID, has a higher authorized output (power generation efficiency) relative to its total storage capacity compared to other dams. As shown in Table 1, hydroelectric power generation from dams built on rivers on the Sea of Japan side is more efficient than those on the Pacific side. There is a correlation between power generation efficiency and the size of the basin area (r = 0.69, p = 0.15).
Dams such as the Kamigo Dam on the Mogami River, Akiba Dam on the Tenryu River, and Futatsuno Dam on the Kumano River were considered by the Ministry of Railways as candidate sites for hydroelectric power plants owing to their high power generation efficiency and potential to provide a stable power source. However, conflicts over water rights arising from the development of nearby dams and the need for consistent construction plans led to these dams being constructed by electric power companies also developing nearby dams. Similarly, the Ootori Dam, Kanose Dam, and Toyomi Dam in Fukushima Prefecture demonstrated high generating efficiency. Nonetheless, intense competition for water rights among numerous electric power companies resulted in the Ministry of Railways not considering these dams as viable power sources for the electrification of railways in the Tokyo metropolitan area.

3.5. Historical Transition of Areas Surrounding the Selected Location

Dams are used for decades after their construction, and hence, selecting a construction site requires careful consideration of both current environmental impacts and the future development potential of the surrounding area. It is essential to choose a site that is as undeveloped as possible to preserve nature. After a dam’s construction, significant changes can occur in the surrounding area. From the 1950s to the 1990s, Japan experienced substantial industrial growth during economic booms, as illustrated by the GDP in Figure 3. This growth did not result in uniform development across the country but rather created distinct areas of developed and natural land.
The Tokyo metropolitan area became highly industrialized, with rapid population growth and land use transitioning from agricultural to urban, as shown in Figure 4. Changes in land use and population are important factors driving changes in the ecosystem service value [38]. In contrast, Niigata and Nagano prefectures along the Shinano River (Chikuma River) on the Sea of Japan side experienced minimal changes until 1990, with the population decline starting in 2010. In Tochigi and Gunma prefectures, located along the Tone and Kinu rivers on the Pacific side, the population increased gradually until 2010, followed by a decline starting in 2020.

4. Discussion

River conditions can remain stable for hundreds of years without human intervention [39], but human activities can cause significant changes within decades [40], altering the past river flow [41]. Human activities can cause changes in topography and the disruption of connectivity, and changes in water quality and climate affect river biodiversity and resilience [42]. Therefore, strategies to balance ecological and economic objectives are crucial for the sustainability of hydropower [43]. With the global recognition of river environment deterioration, environmental assessments have been established [44], covering changes in river morphology, flood impacts, sediment conditions, and water quality [45,46,47]. Interdisciplinary discussions considering changes in river morphology are encouraged [48]. Ecosystem services are discussed from biological and cultural perspectives [49], with their relationship with landscape diversity confirmed [50].
The MID site was selected on the Sea of Japan side of the Shinano River, far from where the generated electricity was consumed. Environmental issues were not considered during construction. However, the area around the MID remained less developed compared to the Tokyo metropolitan area, where the generated electricity was consumed. Dams can be used for more than a century, and hence, site selection should consider future development potential. Maintaining sound river conditions while balancing biodiversity conservation and economic development is crucial [51]. Local communities now have opinions about human society and river environments [52], and the relationship between river water temperature changes and dams due to global warming is under scrutiny [53]. Planning for ecosystem conservation is challenging [54], but dam locations should be designed considering present conditions and future predictions. Therefore, the dam site should be selected considering the environmental impact of the construction site and period and the future development potential of the surrounding area, prioritizing locations that are minimally developed to better preserve nature.
Water temperature is a critical factor affecting the spatiotemporal variability of ecosystems [55]. Rising river water temperatures and declining flow can contribute to habitat deterioration [56]. Discharge changes due to electricity demand impact downstream ecosystems of dams [57], especially during dry summers [58]. Operational changes can help recover riverine and riparian habitats [59], and hence, physical habitat capture methods should be strengthened [60].
Urbanized watersheds construct artificial systems, contrasting sharply with forested rivers [61]. Urban rivers experience few morphological changes [62], and therefore, it is important to quantify long-term surface water information, considering seasonality [63]. In urban areas, rivers are often channelized [64], with residential areas replacing riparian vegetation, narrowing the water surface width [65] and severely restricting fish populations. This results from management focused on flood control and water use [66]. Natural values are lost due to levees protected by revetments [67] and river-crossing structures for water intake [68]. In nature, flow forces threaten ecosystems, but in urban areas, ecosystems degrade regardless of flow forces [69] owing to changes in vegetation distribution caused by sudden water level changes [70]. The restoration of continuity by removing river-crossing structures is essential [71]. There is a lack of quantification tools to define continuity in urban rivers [72], and mechanisms are needed to mitigate flow conditions caused by power generation discharge [73]. The decline in urban water storage capacity influences short-term river changes [74], requiring significant efforts for monitoring [75]. Human influences are more evident than those of river morphology and hydrology [76], making the dynamics of urban rivers more complex than those of natural rivers [77].
Article 44 of the River Law, revised in 1964, and Article 3, Chapter 2 of the River Management Facilities Structure Order, enacted in 1976, define a dam as a river structure 15 m or more in height. The International Commission on Large Dams registers over 30,000 dams worldwide, listing the top 50 in terms of height, total storage capacity, authorized output, and number [78]. No Japanese dam is in the top 50 based on these terms. For example, in the United States, in 2018, there were over 90,000 registered dams with an average age of 57 years [79]. Many large dams, which later had adverse effects on ecosystems, were built in North America and European countries until 1975 [80]. According to the Japan Dam Association, there are just under 3000 dams, with approximately 30 completed annually since 1950. The average age of these structures is more than 100 years [81]. Rivers along the Sea of Japan are expected to have abundant water volumes, contributing to efficient hydroelectric power generation. Therefore, the MID was constructed on the Sea of Japan side, incorporating advanced technology despite the high cost of laying power transmission cables and a 6% energy loss during transmission [82]. However, many parties have established water rights for the Shinano River system. Historically, the allocation of water rights has been a source of conflict among nations [83]. In Japan, the Old River Law enacted in 1896 focused on flood control, and overlapping water rights adjustments were often left to the government [84]. The Ministry of Railways acquired the necessary water rights to establish the MID and SHP. Overlapping construction periods led to several years of negotiations with upstream developers. These stakeholder discussions regarding water rights continued until the enactment of the River Law in 1964, which entrusted the national government with these responsibilities.
Initially, only fish migration within the river channel was considered, ignoring the effects of modification of riverine terrestrial areas. Although the construction of fishways is a viable solution for allowing fish to move freely between upstream and downstream areas of the dam [29], fish migration is also affected by the development of riverine and terrestrial areas. In rivers significantly modified in the riverine zone, with many weirs (although not necessarily dams), more rehabilitation projects for flood and gravel mining are common. These artificial modifications notably impact the behavior, habitat, and migration of fish. Therefore, fish migration is better promoted in rivers flowing through more natural areas than in those flowing through artificially modified areas [85]. Balancing fish conservation and river connectivity is essential [86].
Based on the Capital Region Development Act enacted in 1956, the Pacific Ocean side has become highly developed and urbanized, with numerous industries and a large population [87]. In contrast, natural conditions remain along the terrestrial areas of rivers on the Sea of Japan side, particularly midstream of the Shinano River, where the MID was constructed. Artificial development has primarily occurred in riverine terrestrial areas, whereas the inside of the river channel remains natural. The Shinano River (known as the Chikuma River in Nagano Prefecture) is the longest river in Japan (367 km long) and contains 11 river-crossing structures (dams, weirs, and headworks) from upstream to downstream, all equipped with fishways (Figure 5).
Fishways have primarily focused on fish species such as O. keta and Oncorhynchus tshawytscha, which are commercially valuable worldwide. Migratory fish, which travel between the sea and rivers, depend on the continuity of river systems. There are three types of migratory fish. The first is anadromous fish such as O. keta, which are born in rivers. Their juveniles migrate downstream to spend most of their life in the sea and then return upstream to the river to spawn. The second is descending migratory fish, such as Anguilla japonica, which spend most of their life in rivers but spawn in the sea. Their young swim upstream to mature. The third is amphidromous fish, such as P. altivelis and Cottus pollux, which spend most of their life in rivers. After hatching, their juveniles immediately descend to the sea and then return upstream to the river to grow, and eventually move to the downstream part of the river to spawn. In Japan, these migratory fish as well as freshwater fish, such as Tribolodon hakonensis and C. pollux, are considered valuable. Fishing rights are established for them, similar to those for salmonids, and some fish species are treated as endangered. Therefore, to ensure the continuity of rivers required by various fish species, multiple fishways are often installed in parallel [88].
A full-capture survey conducted at the MID fishway in June identified 32 fish species, including O. keta, spotted every October [29]. The fishway at the MID, installed in 1939, harmonizes water usage and the river environment, accommodating a wide range of aquatic organisms, from large to small fish and crustaceans. Three fishways were installed to create various flow speeds [89], and a large fishway was converted into an ice harbor to stabilize the flow conditions and provide resting areas. This combination has been demonstrated to be highly effective [90].
When the MID fishway was constructed, fish migration effects were not initially considered, as there were no restrictions in the River Law. However, at the request of the Fisheries Cooperative Association [91], followed by a survey by the Ministry of Railways and discussions with the Ministries of Interior, Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries, and Communications, a fishway was constructed in 1939 to avoid loss of fishing grounds and decreased catches. Consequently, the MID, situated in a remote area rather than a highly urbanized zone, still offers favorable conditions for fish migration. As a result, the construction, maintenance, and improvement of fishways have significantly enhanced fish migration and biodiversity. The MID fishway must be further improved to markedly contribute to the Kunming–Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework adopted at the 15th Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity in December 2022. These improvements include minimizing the period when water cannot flow through the fishway for regular annual maintenance and efficiently managing vegetation in rock-ramp fishways to support habitats for juvenile and bottom-dwelling fish.
In this study, we did not evaluate the impact of various ecological changes on river flow, fishways, and power output. These aspects need to be assessed to further optimize the strategy for selecting hydroelectric power plant construction sites.
In Japan, a national census on river environments is conducted for each river system every five years, with the results published by the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport, and Tourism [92]. The survey comprises eight components: six biological surveys (fish, benthic fauna, plant, bird, amphibian, reptile, mammal, and terrestrial insect surveys), a river environment base map creation survey that examines river structures such as vegetation maps and the status of rapids, pools, and water’s edge areas, and a river-space utilization survey that investigates the number of users of the river space. These surveys can potentially evaluate the impact of river flow and fishways on ecological changes. Additionally, three surveys are conducted in dam lakes: a zoophytoplankton survey, a dam-lake environment base map creation survey, and a dam-lake utilization survey. These surveys can assess the impact of total water storage volume, which is crucial for power generation output, on ecological changes. For a long time, these surveys were conducted by directly capturing and counting fish. In recent years, it has become easier to identify species using environmental DNA analysis [90]. Although this technology is not yet capable of accurately determining population sizes, it is likely that more efficient national censuses of river environments will be conducted in the future. Environmental health and biodiversity can serve as effective indicators if water resource managers conduct their own surveys in the intervening years to complement the data published every five years. Analyzing fish fauna in relation to river water temperatures, which are expected to increase with global warming, will also be more useful.
Following the Taskforce on Nature-related Financial Disclosures recommendations, rapid ecological and climatic changes will be monitored to implement measures for achieving nature-positive outcomes in collaboration with stakeholders. The state of the river environment and trends in river water temperature are analyzed in detail using efficient survey techniques to predict future conditions. Considering these predictions, along with advances in power transmission technology and anticipated changes in population distribution, decisions regarding the continuation of hydroelectric power generation, which requires significant long-term investment, will be debated. These approaches, combined with historical data, will aid in forecasting changes over the next 100 years.
A potential challenge lies in comprehensively verifying changes in river characteristics, including fishways, and their impact on ecological changes. Utilizing hydroelectric power is a highly effective strategy for achieving carbon neutrality by 2050. As with other renewable energy sources, it is essential to consider environmental harmony and biodiversity preservation. It is crucial for stakeholders to create a consensus-building forum that integrates socioeconomic benefits for distant sites with the concerns of local residents and the fishing industry. During this process, evaluation policies tailored to the investment and environmental conditions of each hydroelectric power plant will be established.

5. Conclusions

In 1919, the Ministry of Railways considered establishing an SHP on the Sea of Japan side of Honshu to support trains in the metropolitan area and acquired water rights for the MID in 1920. Established in 1939, the MID has significantly contributed to railway electrification in the metropolitan area. Advanced transmission tower technology enables the electricity generated to exceed that of the Echigo Mountains. Although rivers on the Pacific side, closer to the metropolitan area, are suitable for hydroelectric power generation, the power generation efficiency on the Sea of Japan side, indicated by the authorized output relative to total water storage capacity, is higher. The specific flow, indicated by the relationship between the flow rate and upstream drainage basin area, is also higher in the rivers of the Sea of Japan side. The new concepts of specific flow rate and power generation efficiency are expected to contribute to harmonizing long-term investment with biodiversity conservation by continuously accumulating quantitative data.
Japan’s GDP grew rapidly after 1950, leading to marked urbanization in metropolitan areas. However, urbanization around the Shinano River, where MID is located, has not progressed to the same extent. River environments are affected by long-term natural and short-term artificial effects. Fishways were installed to mitigate short-term artificial effects, and the MID fishway, installed in 1939, continues to demonstrate its effectiveness. However, urbanization impacts river environments and continuity, and fishways may not fully mitigate these effects.
Dams have affected rivers for over 100 years, presenting many challenges in balancing biodiversity maintenance and economic development. Although there are limitations associated with formulating strategies in advance, considering the future development potential of the environment around the dam, it is proposed that dams should be built in areas where nature is likely to remain relatively unchanged for a long time.
Future evaluation of the relationship between river flow, fishways, total water storage volume, and ecosystem changes will help further optimize the strategy for selecting hydroelectric power plant construction sites. It is essential to predict changes over the next 100 years based on historical data from the past 100 years and to comprehensively verify changes in river characteristics, including fishways and their impact on ecosystems.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, M.N., T.M. and T.A.; methodology, M.N., T.M. and T.A.; validation, M.N., T.M. and T.A.; formal analysis, M.N., T.M. and T.A.; investigation, M.N., T.M. and T.A.; resources, T.M.; data curation, T.M. and T.A.; writing—original draft, M.N.; writing—review and editing, M.N., T.M. and T.A.; supervision, M.N.; funding acquisition, M.N. and T.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Data will be made available upon reasonable request.

Acknowledgments

We thank for the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism for the hydrology and water quality database.

Conflicts of Interest

Author Masahiko Nakai was employed by the company Japan International Consultants for Transportation Co., Ltd. Author Taku Masumoto was employed by the company Energy Planning Department, East Japan Railway Company. The remaining author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. The location of the Echigo Mountains, which separate the MID from the Tokyo metropolitan area. The MID is located at 37°3′58.445″ N, 138°41′50.321″ E.
Figure 1. The location of the Echigo Mountains, which separate the MID from the Tokyo metropolitan area. The MID is located at 37°3′58.445″ N, 138°41′50.321″ E.
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Figure 2. Normal, drought, and maximum water flow rates of rivers on the Pacific Ocean and the Sea of Japan sides. Yorii, Iwamoto, and Chofubashi are on the Pacific Ocean side; the remaining are on the Sea of Japan side. P: Flow observation station on the Pacific side.
Figure 2. Normal, drought, and maximum water flow rates of rivers on the Pacific Ocean and the Sea of Japan sides. Yorii, Iwamoto, and Chofubashi are on the Pacific Ocean side; the remaining are on the Sea of Japan side. P: Flow observation station on the Pacific side.
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Figure 3. Changes in Japan’s GDP.
Figure 3. Changes in Japan’s GDP.
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Figure 4. Changes in Japan’s population from the 1920 census onward.
Figure 4. Changes in Japan’s population from the 1920 census onward.
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Figure 5. Location of river-crossing structures on the Shinano River (including the Chikuma River). ★: Indicates the locations of 11 places. The MID is located at 37°3′58.445′′ N, 138°41′50.321′′ E.
Figure 5. Location of river-crossing structures on the Shinano River (including the Chikuma River). ★: Indicates the locations of 11 places. The MID is located at 37°3′58.445′′ N, 138°41′50.321′′ E.
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Table 1. The ratio of power generation (authorized output) to total reservoir capacity (power generation efficiency) and catchment area of major dams on the Sea of Japan and Pacific coasts. The prefectures on the Sea of Japan side are underlined.
Table 1. The ratio of power generation (authorized output) to total reservoir capacity (power generation efficiency) and catchment area of major dams on the Sea of Japan and Pacific coasts. The prefectures on the Sea of Japan side are underlined.
NamePrefecturesCompletion YearAuthorization Output
(kW)		Total Water Storage Capacity
(Million m3)		Power Generation Efficiency
(kW/m3)		Basin Area
(km2)
MiyanakaNiigata1938449,0000.97462,8877841.0
NisiotakiNagano1939177,0000.78227,7997020.0
KanoseFukushima1928104,59916.5363306264.0
ToyomiFukushima192961,80018.6733116048.0
AkibaSizuoka1958129,40034.7037294490.0
KamigoYamagata196215,4007.6620101810.0
NishiuraNagano193716,3000.3448,6571472.2
TagokuraFukushima1959400,000494.00810816.3
FutatsunoNara196258,00043.001349801.0
YambaGunma201911,700107.50109711.4
OotoriFukushima1963182,00015.8011,519656.9
OkutadamiNiigata1960560,000601.00932595.1
KomoriMie196530,0009.703093564.0
SameuraKochi197842,000316.00133472.0
HitotsuseMiyazaki1963180,000261.32689445.9
MiboroGifu1961215,000370.00581442.8
TedorigawaIshikawa1979250,000231.001082428.4
FujiwaraGunma195921,60052.49412401.0
ShimokuboGunma196815,270130.00117322.9
YubariHokkaido201428,470427.0067279.0
IkariTochigi195615,30055.00278271.2
TokuyamaGifu2007161,900660.00245254.5
ArimineToyama1959534,170222.002406219.9
KurobeToyama1963337,000199.291691188.5
KuzuryuFukui1968220,000353.00623184.5
KawamataTochigi196627,00087.60308179.4
YagisawaGunma1967240,000204.301175167.4
TsuduraoNara193721001.141847120.4
NaramataGunma199012,80090.0014295.4
SagurigawaNiigata199210,30027.5037576.2
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Nakai, M.; Masumoto, T.; Asaeda, T. Strategic Siting of Hydroelectric Power Plants to Power Railway Operations with Renewable Energy. Sustainability 2024, 16, 7086. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16167086

AMA Style

Nakai M, Masumoto T, Asaeda T. Strategic Siting of Hydroelectric Power Plants to Power Railway Operations with Renewable Energy. Sustainability. 2024; 16(16):7086. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16167086

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Nakai, Masahiko, Taku Masumoto, and Takashi Asaeda. 2024. "Strategic Siting of Hydroelectric Power Plants to Power Railway Operations with Renewable Energy" Sustainability 16, no. 16: 7086. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16167086

APA Style

Nakai, M., Masumoto, T., & Asaeda, T. (2024). Strategic Siting of Hydroelectric Power Plants to Power Railway Operations with Renewable Energy. Sustainability, 16(16), 7086. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16167086

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