Management of Postharvest Losses and Wastages in the Indian Tomato Supply Chain—A Temperature-Controlled Storage Perspective

Abstract

Tomatoes are an extensively cultivated and consumed horticulture product in India. Horticulture produce undergoes a series of operations such as harvesting, storage, packaging, loading, unloading, and transportation before reaching the end customer in the food supply chain (FSC). Any inefficiencies in these operations cause postharvest losses (PHL) and affect the whole FSC. However, the focus of existing studies has been more on improving productivity than addressing PHL. Several technologies, such as cold storage and evaporative cooling, are available to address PHL, but hardly any technology has been implemented in the Indian FSC. Hence, studies need to identify technology adoption barriers and perform a feasibility analysis of the available technologies. This study addresses this gap by first identifying the cause and effect of PHL in the Indian tomato FSC, exploring different technologies to address the PHL and challenges in implementing those technologies, and finally proposing a feasible option to manage PHL. The case study approach was followed for the collection of relevant data. The findings show several reasons for PHL across the stages of the FSC, including reduced shelf life due to improper storage and long-distance transport. Based on the analysis of the available technologies, temperature-controlled storage facilities and collaboration among FSC partners are suggested as the best possible solutions to address the problem of PHL.

1. Introduction

Agriculture is the primary source of employment for two-thirds of the Indian population. The horticulture production, including fruit and vegetable crops in India, was estimated at 326.6 million metric tons in FY2020 [1]; of this, around 40% of the total food products are wasted annually. Among the horticultural produce, fruits and vegetables have short shelf lives and contribute to the 70% of the wasted food [2,3]. This food wastage mainly happens in the postharvest stages of the supply chain due to poor facilities and infrastructure for storage and transportation facilities [4]. In addition, because horticultural products must be transported over long distances and through a variety of climate zones, they are exposed to varying environmental conditions that impact their quality. Consequently, it is crucial to identify obstacles and opportunities for addressing postharvest losses (PHL).

Among the horticultural products, tomato is the widely used vegetable crop that tops the list of canned vegetables. Specifically, in India, tomatoes contributed about 218 billion Indian rupees (INR) to the Indian economy in 2018 [5]. However, the major problem with the cultivation of the tomato supply chain is its shelf life, as the ripened fruit needs to be kept at a temperature of 10–15 degrees Celsius (C), and the relative humidity is to be held at 80–90% in the postharvest stages [6]. Therefore, the transport of the fruit needs special care through the refrigerated van under suitable packaging for the factory’s delivery [6]. However, in India, due to a lack of proper storage and transportation facilities, about 20–40% of tomatoes are wasted [7]. Thus, exploring opportunities/interventions to address the PHL is necessary.

Cold storage facilities help extend the shelf life of fresh goods and reduce the amount of waste generated. Cold chain logistics keep all products fresh and sealed through thermal and refrigerated packaging. Thus, cold chain development is an essential, central element of growth in food-related logistics and needs to be better incorporated into agriculture and food-related strategies and action plans. Over the past decade, horticulture, meat, and dairy have grown in India’s cold chain [8], and it is expected to grow by 13–15% in the following five years [9]. Hence, studies need to identify the current status of cold chain infrastructure in India and analyze the feasibilities and challenges in implementing cold chain infrastructure for food products, specifically for horticultural products.

According to Chakraborty (2020) [9], horticulture research has mainly focused on increasing production, but little importance has been given to minimizing PHL. Interventions such as cold chain technologies could be adapted specifically to the product’s geographic and socio-economic conditions. Further, the information exchange through collaboration among supply chain entities can help reduce the gap between supply and demand, hence decreasing the PHL. However, there needs to be more studies that explore the role of collaboration in addressing PHL.

Accordingly, this study explores the status and causes of PHL through an in-depth real-case analysis of the Indian tomato supply chain. Following the case study methodology, in-depth, semi-structured interviews were conducted with the supply chain entities, and the data were analyzed to answer the following research questions. Further, this study identifies different technologies available to address the PHL in developed nations and performs a feasibility analysis to determine the possibilities and challenges in implementing such technologies/practices in India.

This study addresses the following research questions:

RQ1: What are the causes of PHL in the Indian tomato supply chain?

RQ2: what are the different technologies/techniques available to improve the PHL?

RQ3: What are the difficulties and challenges in implementing the technologies and techniques to address the PHL?

RQ4: What can be a feasible technology solution to avoid PHL?

RQ5: How can supply chain collaboration help in reducing food waste?

This study contributes in the following ways:

• First, this study analyzes PHL in Indian tomato supply chains and identifies the fundamental causes.
• Second, technologies such as temperature-controlled chains or cold chains used for managing the PHL are identified from the literature.
• Third, the feasibility of adapting the identified technologies in the Indian food supply chain and the challenges are discussed in detail.
• Fourth, this study suggests a temperature-controlled storage system as a feasible opportunity to reduce the PHL.
• Fifth, this study suggests how supply chain entities can collaborate and share information with the help of technologies to reduce PHL.

In the following Section 2, the background of the Indian tomato supply chain, various causes of PHL, the impacts of PHL, and the multiple opportunities available to minimize the PHL are provided. Section 3 presents the research methodology and details of the case organizations considered for data collection. In Section 4, the findings are presented. In Section 5, the contributions and implications of this study are discussed. Section 6 concludes this study and provides possible extensions of this work.

2. Background

This section explores the literature on the FSC pertinent to India’s tomato supply chain. This study incorporates the findings from the recent literature in identifying the causes of PHL, the impact of PHL, and the opportunities available to minimize the PHL of tomatoes.

2.1. Indian Tomato Supply Chain

India is the world’s second-largest producer of tomatoes, producing 21.18 million metric tons in FY2021 [10]. India contributes 11% of the world’s tomato production. In addition, the tomato is the second most widely cultivated horticultural product in India, after potatoes, and it is one of the essential products in Indian cuisine. In India, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, and Karnataka are the top three tomato-cultivating states, producing 20%, 12%, and 10% of tomatoes, respectively [11]. The supply chain of tomatoes functions as follows: The farmers cultivate the tomatoes, pack them in plastic crates and transport them to mandis, where they are traded in an open market. At the mandis, traders buy the farmers’ produce and resell it to wholesalers, who then transport it to their respective region and sell it to the retailers. The customers then make purchases from the retailers. As such, multiple intermediaries are involved in the supply chain before the product reaches the end customers. In addition, the loading and unloading of tomatoes are done numerous times, resulting in injuries to the fruits and a reduced shelf life [12].

Most cultivated tomatoes are consumed fresh, as salads or as cooking ingredients. Only 1–2% of the tomato cultivated are processed to produce tomato paste, tomato sauce, and tomato ketchup. Due to this limited processing of tomatoes, around 31% of the tomatoes grown go to waste during the peak season of the tomato harvest, since the processing industries could not afford to buy the tomatoes at a higher price than farmers expect. Furthermore, the farmers find it difficult to recover the harvest cost when tomato prices are meager due to oversupply. As a result, farmers leave the tomatoes on the farm to waste.

2.2. Causes of PHL

Tomatoes are said to have greater economic value and are regarded as a crop that provides farmers with profitable returns [13]. However, due to poor packaging, improper planning of the quantity to purchase, more checkpoints in transport, and excessive handling by producers, agents, and retailers, a large amount of food wastage happens in the postharvest stages [14,15]. In general, the PHL of fruits and vegetables is influenced by many factors. These factors include losses due to physical, physiological, mechanical, and hygienic conditions. Fruits and vegetables have a high-level metabolic activity and short shelf life. As a result of these factors, a 30–40% loss occurs between harvesting and consumption [16,17]. The physiological causes of damage take account of respiration rate, ethylene production, and action, rates of compositional changes (associated with color, texture, flavor, and nutritional value), water stress, sprouting and rooting, physiological disorders, and pathological breakdown. The classification of PHL causes is presented in

Table 1. Classification of causes of PHL identified from the literature [18,19,20].

Category of Causes	Specific Causes
Physical causes	Heating of fruits Cooling and freezing Water loss Reduction in relative humidity
Physiological causes	Ethylene production Transpiration and respiration Senescence Sprouting and rooting
Mechanical causes	Damages due to cuts and bruises Scrapings Shrinkage
Hygiene-related causes	Dampness during storage Microbial action and pest infestation Rodent action

. The mechanical causes of deterioration include cuts and bruises on the outer surface of the fruits, scrapings, and shrinkage due to overpacking crates with tomatoes.

Environmental elements such as temperature, relative humidity, air velocity, atmospheric composition, and hygiene practices affect how quickly biological deterioration occurs. PHL in fruits and vegetables can also be caused by other elements such as insect and mite infestation, diseases brought on by non-contagious pathogens, and pathological rots. However, pathological rots are the most serious among the causes, followed by mechanical harm. The perishables suffer severe damage from pathological rots in addition to mechanical harm. Environmental factors significantly influence damage during storage, including temperature, relative humidity, and oxygen balance. Environmental factors such as temperature and humidity also contribute to the susceptibility of fruits and vegetables to pathological attacks [18].

2.3. Impact of PHL

India is the second-largest producer of horticultural produce such as fruits and vegetables, with 142.36 MT. [19]. However, a large volume of harvested horticulture produce goes to waste due to inefficient transportation practices, insufficient cold storage, and improper logistics infrastructure. In addition, the lack of cold storage facilities and, hence, the oversupply of products during the peak harvesting season result in a significant reduction in the product’s price, which does not even allow farmers to recover the cost. Since most of farmers in India are small-scale farmers with average land holdings of less than one hectare, it becomes difficult to repay the loan borrowed for cultivation purposes. As a result of such repeated incidents, farmers get stuck in the vicious debt cycle, sometimes leading to farmer suicides [20]. Almost half of all horticultural produce is lost prior to consumption. This proportion is even greater in developing countries.

Reduction in the PHL will play an essential role in avoiding a food crisis in the future and feeding the growing world population [21]. PHL have a significant negative impact on the economy, environment, and society by increasing the cost of disposal, reducing the overall profit, and increasing the emission and health impacts on people. PHL affect the availability of food products to meet the growing demand. Through the four aspects of food security—availability, access, utilization, and stability—PHL may impact nutrition and food security.

• Increased availability and access due to decreased losses.
• Farmers benefit from lower harvest losses by earning more money.
• Lower prices throughout the supply chain, in local areas, and distant urban areas result from increased supply throughout the state due to reduced losses.

2.4. Opportunities to Minimize PHL

During harvesting, postharvest handling, storage, processing, distribution, and consumption, losses in the food supply chains of horticultural produce such as tomatoes occur (Figure 1). The physical and physiological changes in fresh fruits and vegetables cannot be curbed. Nonetheless, it is possible to minimize losses with some safety measures such as low temperatures, relative humidity control during storage, and proper packaging and transportation, etc. The fundamental question in this study is how the quality and safety of the product could be maintained from farmer to the plate. There are many options to reduce the loss occurring after harvesting tomatoes. Below are some innovative suggestions that people around the globe use for storing various horticultural produce [21]. Given the need for addressing the PHL, we have reviewed the existing literature to identify different possibilities to address the PHL. We have identified the following methods for storing tomatoes from the literature review.

2.4.1. Forced Air Cooling Treatment

A severe issue with plant tissues is chilling injury, especially in plants with tropical and subtropical origins. Tomatoes are the products that are most at risk from chilling damage. It frequently causes the peel to ripen irregularly. A study at the University of Florida found visible chilling injury symptoms appear when fresh tomato fruit is stored below the recommended chilling threshold of 12.5 °C. However, it has been noted that their sensitivity decreases as they ripen, and their volatile profiles change as they mature and are influenced by physiological changes as they are stored. The biochemical processes in the fruit are altered by temperature, which impacts the production of some volatiles. Volatile changes demonstrate the presence of a chilling injury because it has been established that the damage begins before any outward symptoms manifest. There are changes in the volatile compounds that gives the aroma of a fresh tomato when damage begins. Some volatile compounds have undesirable properties that result in supposedly off-flavors [22].

2.4.2. Ethylene Treatment

Horticultural crops’ ripening and senescence are slowed by removing ethylene from the environment. An ethylene-absorbent chemical called calcium chloride reduces chilling injury and controls factors such as senescence. Additionally, it enhances disease resistance in fruits and vegetables kept at low temperatures, while assisting in developing physiological conditions. Potassium permanganate is a typical ethylene scrubber and an efficient ethylene oxidizer. On the surfaces of susceptible fruits and vegetables, there are two ways to use 1-methyl cyclopropane: as a gas and as an aqueous solution. It is used to suppress ripening and senescence processes such as pigment changes, de-greening, flavor and aroma development, cell wall metabolism, softening, scalding, and browning to preserve the internal quality, nutritional content, and consumer acceptability of fruit and vegetables [23]. Amino-ethoxy vinyl glycine (AVG) and silver thiosulfate (STS) prolong the shelf life of fruits and vegetables by inhibiting the production and action of ethylene during ripening and storage [24]. The use of ethylene as a dip treatment or gaseous exposure can produce uniform ripening. In this case, ethylene is obtained from the ether. Additionally, a significant extension of shelf life can be achieved by removing the ethylene produced by fruit using an ethylene absorbent, either prepared in-house or by the use of “Purafil” (a commercial form of ethylene absorbent) [25].

2.4.3. Evaporative Cooling of Tomato

The tomatoes lose weight due to the evaporation of their water content, which causes wilting and shriveling. To create the low temperature and high humidity needed to extend the shelf life of tomatoes, ambient air is passed through a saturated surface in this process. [25].

2.4.4. Modified Atmospheric Storage Using a Silicone Membrane

The term “modified atmosphere” refers to an atmosphere that contains traces of other gases and about 21% O₂, 78% N₂, and 0.03% CO₂. Increased food security can be achieved by lowering the O₂ concentration (below 1%) or raising the CO₂ concentration (above 5%) [26]. Modified atmospheric storage is a type of controlled ventilation in which the gas concentrations in the storage environment are regulated by recycling selective gas permeation. The membrane uses the polymer’s capacity to selectively permit the passage of gases at various rates in accordance with their physical and chemical characteristics of the tomatoes.

2.4.5. Blast Freezing

Blast freezing helps in killing bacteria in the range of −4 °C to −10 °C by making them susceptible to ‘cold-shock’, where their metabolism ceases. When the freezing rate slows, the bacteria adapt to new environments and spoil the produce/food; hence, the fresh food needs to be frozen as soon as possible. There are several ways to freeze food. They consist of liquid immersion freezers, plate freezers, liquid nitrogen freezers, fluidized bed freezers, impingement freezers, and carbon dioxide freezers. Also included are batch and continuous air blast freezers. The main advantage of the air blast freezer is its flexibility. The low viscosity of air makes it simple to follow around surfaces with asymmetrical geometries, which leads to a more uniform freezing rate throughout the entire product. While other freezing methods, such as plate freezing (contact freezing), offer quicker cooling times, they can only be used on products with the proper geometry [27]. Tomatoes must be cooled down from a temperature of +70 °C to −18 °C in less than 240 min to use the blast freezing method. This process and equipment are comparatively more costly than a cold storage unit and are currently not used for fresh foods/produce in India [28].

2.5. Research Gap

Cold storages (also referred to as temperature-controlled storage) form the heart of the cold chain business. Despite the opportunities available for reducing PHL, in India, most of the perishable agricultural products do not go through an end-to-end cold chain before reaching the end consumer due to inadequate cold storage facilities and improper utilization of existing cold storage facilities, resulting in a large volume of PHL. As highlighted by Chakraborty (2020) [9], the focus of existing research on horticulture is mainly on increasing the yield, but only limited studies focus on minimizing PHL. Specifically, in the context of India and tomato supply chains, studies focusing on understanding the status of PHL and cold chain adoption, the causes of PHL, and the challenges for cold chain adoption still need to be included in the existing literature. Furthermore, studies exploring the role of collaboration among supply chain entities in waste reduction are lacking in the literature. Our study addresses these literature gaps to add value to current and future research on tomato supply chains.

3. Methodology

This study follows a case study approach to answer the research questions and address the identified research gap. The case study approach is chosen as an appropriate research methodology when the researcher aims to investigate “how” and “why” a particular phenomenon occurs. In addition, “the distinctive need for case studies arises out of the desire to understand complex phenomena” ([29], p. 2), such as how food wastage occurs across the stages of the food supply chain. The case study method involves a comprehensive observation and understanding of the end-to-end process in that context. Hence, the case study approach is used in this study. This study considers the case of the tomato FSC. In total, ten entities of the FSC were interviewed following the semi-structured interview process to understand the breadth of the issue related to FSCs and PHL.

The five components of the research design suggested by Yin (2009) [29] are followed in this study. The first component is to define the research question. The research question for this study is about how/why PHL occur in the tomato FSC and the challenges in implementing technological solutions for PHL management. The second component is to identify the propositions that clearly define what is to be studied to answer the research questions posed. The proposition considered in this study is that the different (ineffective) practices followed across the postharvest stages of tomatoes for storage and transport result in PHL. The third component is the unit of analysis. In this study, the FSC entities are considered the unit of analysis. The fourth component is about linking collected data to the propositions. Analytic techniques such as pattern matching and explanation building are followed to identify the answers to the propositions and research questions. The fifth component concerns the criteria for interpreting the strength of the findings. The findings are supported and strengthened by obtaining similar conclusions from the literature and researchers’ understanding of the phenomenon [29].

3.1. Sample Selection

The supply chain of tomatoes is considered for the current study. This supply chain comprises farmers, commission agents, transporters, wholesalers, retailers, and consumers. The farmers grow fresh tomatoes and usually hold or acquire land for rent or lease. Farmers in the Dindigul district of Tamil Nadu, the southern state of India, are considered for this study. The other supply chain entities are spread across the state of Tamil Nadu. A purposive sampling [30,31] was used for sample selection since this study focuses on tomato-cultivating farmers and their corresponding supply chain entities. Since the agricultural practices of other farmers in the state are quite similar, the findings of this study can be generalized to other farmers and their supply chains across the state.

3.2. Data Collection

Semi-structured, in-depth interviews were applied broadly as an interviewing format with individuals and sometimes even with a group. In total, 10 of the supply chain entities were interviewed. The supply chain entities include four farmers, one agent, three wholesalers, and two retailers. The selected farmers have been cultivating tomatoes for more than 15 years. The agent acts as an intermediary between farmers and wholesalers and fixes the price for tomatoes through auction. The wholesaler procures tomatoes through auction, transports them to different regions of Tamil Nadu, and resells them to retailers. The interview was conducted conversationally with each respondent, and it took about 1 h per interview. The semi-structured interview had a blend of closed- and open-ended questions, often supplemented by follow-up why or how questions. The questions were aligned with the proposed research questions. The questions were left open-ended to trigger a conversation. The farmers were asked questions based on their farming techniques, fertilizers and pesticides, energy usage, options to store the produce, PHL, and the transport options used to send their produce for sale. The agents, wholesalers, and retailers were asked about selling the produce, storage options, incurring losses, and the options available for prolonging the shelf life of tomatoes, transportation, and packaging. The questionnaires prepared for the various supply chain entities are provided in Appendix A.

4. Data Analysis and Research Findings

The data collected were coded manually and analyzed manually by a group of three researchers (the first three authors of this manuscript) with expertise in food supply chain research. The authors analyzed all the interview data individually, and the findings were coded corresponding to the research questions. For example, “lack of awareness” and “cost of ownership” are some of the standard codes that correspond to the research question about the challenges of implementing cold storage facilities. Similarly, the interview questions’ responses were analyzed and grouped under each research question. Next, the findings of individual authors were combined and jointly discussed to identify the results of this study. The findings were shared with the respondents for their feedback to ensure the validity of the findings [30]. The findings of the analysis are discussed in this section.

4.1. Details of the Supply Chain Operation of the Case Study Considered

Tomatoes are grown between November and March and July and August. In the case of the Dindigul region of Tamil Nadu, most farmers use hybrid tomato seeds such as Ruchie and Sivam varieties. The tomatoes are harvested after the 60th to 75th day from the day seeds were sowed for seedling production. The harvested tomatoes stay in the field for about 4 to 6 h before reaching the agent. The traders known as commission agents facilitate the open bidding (auction) method-based sale of tomatoes from farmers to wholesalers. In this auction, the agent fixes the minimum price based on the current market price, the quality of the tomato, and demand from wholesalers. The wholesaler quotes their prices above the minimum price quoted by the agent. Whoever asks for the highest bid gets the maximum quantity he wants from a particular farmer’s produce. The wholesalers then transport the tomatoes to different parts of the state and resell them to retailers. Figure 1 shows the sequence of operations in the entire tomato supply chain and the time taken for the individual operations. The time from the harvest to the time it reaches the retailers is about 20 to 24 h. Further, the retailer generally takes 24 to 48 h to sell the tomatoes to the end customers.

4.2. PHL across the Stages and Ways to Minimize Losses

From sorting and cleaning to storing and selling, PHL happen. Poor harvesting practices cause irreparable damage to fresh produce. Therefore, it is essential to standardize harvesting techniques for tomatoes to minimize damage at harvest time. To decrease mechanical damage, avoiding unnecessary wounding, bruising, crushing, or containerizing is crucial. During harvesting, pickers should be careful and ensure the same by gentle digging, cutting, picking, and handling the tomatoes from the plant to minimize damage and waste. During sorting and cleaning, the fruits should be picked gently.

The organizations in the supply chain should be aware of the losses and take action. By providing the ideal temperature and relative humidity, modified packaging with modified atmospheres (MAs) [26], which have elevated CO₂ concentrations and decreased levels of ethylene and oxygen, can help maintain the freshness of fruits and vegetables after harvest. This technique is not used. Citing their elevated costs, one farmer said, “…we don’t have any structures built in our premises to store the produce. We leave it in the shade till the agent’s van comes for pickup”. Another farmer said, “From my father’s time, we are harvesting the fruits in the morning and leaving it in the shade, and we are unaware of techniques to store fruits on the premises.” According to the scenario observed at the farmer’s field, the farmers faced losses due to heat, overpacking, ball worm infestation, overirrigation, heat and humidity, and fungal attack. A farmer said, “We pack the fruits in the gunny bags and send it in the van that comes for pickup from the agent side. We are not sure how the fruits get squashed”. The undesirable fruits were thrown on the open ground. These practices followed by the supply chain entities result in a large quantity of waste. These losses can be avoided mainly by changing how the tomatoes are handled, as mentioned in

Table 2. Causes of PHL and opportunities and challenges to minimize PHL.

Activity	Causes of Losses	Possible Solutions	Current Status and Implementation Challenges
Harvesting	Common causes of losses are: mechanical damage to the crop, such as scratches, punctures, and bruises, as well as weight loss and wilting due to heat.	Harvesting during the day’s coolest period (early morning). To reduce weight loss and wilting, the produce should be kept in the field under covers.	Yes, this practice is generally followed.
Handling	Mechanical injury paves the way for pest attack and increases physiological losses.	Reduce the number of times the produce is handled.	Yes. This solution is followed.
Sorting and cleaning	Low-grade fruits do not bring market value.	Systematized sorting or grading combined with suitable packaging and storage. Ethylene treatment [32]	Farmers do systematic sorting and grading before sending to the agents, but ethylene treatment is not followed.
Packaging	Damage due to long-distance travel, stacking, and improper air conditioning	Store tomatoes in sealed bags to create an environment with a high CO2 and low O2 content. Packaging should preserve the firmness of the flesh, the concentration of soluble solids, low acidity, and late fruit lycopene release [33] Overpacking the crates can be avoided.	No. This is not followed, although a feasible solution. Instead, fruits are transported in crates.
Storage	Reduced shelf life due to improper or no storage options.	Using ethylene treatment to maintain a commodity at its ideal temperature, relative humidity, and environmental conditions. Evaporative cooling and forced air cooling. The structure should be kept cool, and the products kept in storage must be of high initial quality.	None of the techniques is followed since the structures are not constructed owing to high maintenance.
Transport	Damaged rotten fruits due to watering fresh produce and rough loading and unloading.	Carefully load and unload transport vehicles. When traveling, use a spotless, well-ventilated vehicle with a roof. Drive carefully when transporting horticultural produce during the cool part of the day to minimize crop damage. Avoid watering fresh produce before loading; doing so results in decay, rotting, and significant losses. Temperature-controlled/refrigerated vehicles can be used to transport the produce.	Transport loss minimization requires paying close attention to the vehicles, equipment, infrastructure, and handling. It is not implemented because it is expensive to maintain.

.

In addition to considering postharvest stages, we have collected data on preharvest steps and the causes of wastage. Most farmers have stated that pest infestation and diseases were the main problems affecting their produce. After interviewing the farmers and the Agri officers, it is concluded that there are some cases where farmers used higher-end pesticides to control mild worm infestations. However, using higher-end pesticides such as “delegate” leads to increased resistance among the pests. The fertilizer shop owner mentioned that “… the farmers should be aware of these phenomena. Ball worm infestation can be controlled by spraying pesticides like chlorpyrifos or aluminum sulfide. These treatments will help control ball worm infestation in the initial stages”.

According to the farmers, next to pests, significant losses are due to wilting, and adopting drip irrigation can help control wilting. After harvesting the fruits, overloading the plastic crates often produces damaged and broken fruits. One of the retailers mentioned that “Overloading of the plastic crates leads to wastage of about 2 kg per crate”. The plastic crates should be loaded as per their carrying capacities.

The wholesalers bring the fruits from the agent in lorries, sort them if needed, and sell the tomatoes to hotel owners, small diner owners, and retailers. One of the wholesalers mentioned, “We face loss when the fruits get crushed while transporting from one end to another. One kg per crate is a loss after transportation”. As a suitable practical solution, the representative of one of the agriculture-based start-ups mentioned, “The fruits can be packed in rigid plastic boxes to avoid crushing. Also, in cold storage, the shelf life of the fruits increases by two weeks”. Still, the fruits are transported in crates by the agents and wholesalers.

The different causes of PHL in the tomato supply chain can be understood from these above quotes. Table 2 summarizes all possible causes of losses and ways to minimize the same.

Currently, the farmers follow certain practices to reduce the PHL. For example, the farmers harvest fruits during the coldest part of the day and store them in the shade. However, there are other causes listed in Table 2 above that the supply chain entities need to address; focusing on these causes would help them extend the shelf life and retain the quality of tomatoes. According to the observations, cold storage can be the solution to solve the problem of PHL as it can control the fungal growth and prolong the shelf life to a maximum of 2.5 weeks. The solutions mentioned above and the model cold storage units shown in the subsequent sections can be implemented by creating awareness about cost-effective solutions among the agents and the farmers. Addressing the issue of PHL would also help in improving the sustainability of the FSC by reducing emissions to the environment from food waste and from resources used for the cultivation of those wastes, improving the revenue from reduced wastage, and enhancing employment and other social impacts [34].

4.3. Difficulties in Implementing Temperature-Controlled Storage Technologies

The central and state governments are giving subsidies to entrepreneurs interested in owning a cold storage facility as a business. In addition, the National Horticulture Board provides financial assistance for cold storage. These subsidies create interest in the cold chain business. Beneficiaries are cooperative societies, the agricultural produce and sale committee, agricultural industry cooperatives, and farmers’ cooperatives. The cold storage capacity should be 5000 Mt, since the cold storage expansion should not be more than two crores.

The percentage of capital investment for cold storage is as follows [35]:

a.

25% of the share comes from the National Horticulture Board (NHB), and 50% comes from the National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) as a loan.

b.

33%, which is up to 50 lakh rupees (60 lakh in the northeastern states), from the National Cooperative Development Corporation (NCDC).

c.

10% of the stock is owned by cooperatives.

d.

NCDC approval is needed for cooperative-based cold storage.

Despite the funding and facilities provided by the government, there is a need to identify critically the success of such support. From the data collected, several challenges are identified. Firstly, most farmers lack awareness at the farm level, as they mention “we are not aware of many of the technologies to address the PHL”. Secondly, due to the farmers’ small landholdings, they sell their crops as soon as they harvest them because they need some cash inflow for the subsequent activities or a new cycle of the crop, so they do not usually keep the harvested product on their farm beyond a few hours, even if the price is expected to increase. Thirdly, supply chain entities were not made aware of the subsidies available from the government, and they feel that establishing such facilities will cost them a lot. Furthermore, the question of “who will own the facility and maintain it?” is another reason for lacking collaboration among FSC entities. In the interview, a farmer said, “We are not aware of having a technical person (extensive agent) to educate on reducing PHL.” Finally, they lack awareness/realization about the losses and the value that can be retained by establishing a proper storage facility or following certain techniques.

As of now, the supply chain entities need to be made aware of remote cold storage or funding. Creating awareness about the available technology and subsidies, a low-cost temperature unit at their premises will boost their business and prevent PHL across all stages.

4.4. Temperature-Controlled Storage Systems—A Feasible Opportunity to Reduce PHL

The expansion of cold storage facilities at the farm and along the FSC is mandated by the steadily rising productivity of perishable goods such as tomatoes to increase their shelf life. The cold chain ensures that perishable goods are secure and of the highest caliber at the point of consumption. However, failing to keep the item at the proper temperatures can cause microbial development, coloration, bruising, and textural degradation [36].

Fresh horticultural produce is subject to biotic and abiotic diseases that can be delayed through cold storage. Fresh produce’s susceptibility to damage depends on factors such as temperature, rate of respiration, and stress from harvesting and postharvest handling [37]. Lowering the temperature of the fruits and vegetables soon after harvest maintains a high level of quality [38]. Although stability and shelf life are increased by low-temperature storage, it has no antifungal effects. Low temperatures unquestionably act to (a) delay senescence, inducing host resistance to fungus infection, and (b) directly inhibit pathogen growth and enzymatic activity. In addition, a low temperature prevents moisture loss from the host tissues and subsequent shriveling, allowing tissues to maintain a high level of resistance to pathogens compared to fruit kept in a low-moisture environment [39].

It Is crucial to reduce the storage temperature as much as possible because the atmosphere’s temperature is closer to that needed for the pathogen to grow and for a more extended period of incubation. Fruits can be kept in cold storage at lowered temperatures. Some fruits and vegetables’ vulnerability to chilling injury, however, constrains this likelihood [40]. The enzymatically controlled process of cellulose, pectin, and lignin breakdown by pectin esterase (PE), polygalacturonase (PG), and β-galactosidase (β-gal) in the cell wall results in a decrease in tomato firmness. [41]. This is an entirely temperature-dependent process [42]. The ability to control fungi and harbor a safe place to prevent nutrient loss makes cold storage a better option to control PHL in the tomato supply chain.

Though there is literature suggesting cold storage as a better option, in Tamil Nadu, there is no cold chain or cold storage options available for tomatoes. Hence, there is a need to introduce a temperature-controlled storage system for storing tomatoes. Another ingenious benefit of cold storage units is that they are highly customizable, retrofitted, and vital when keeping fresh produce in-house. Temperature and humidity levels can vary significantly between products. Therefore, customization becomes essential. Some of the proposed low-cost cold storage facilities follow.

4.4.1. Low-Cost Cold Chamber by the National Board of Horticulture

The National Board of Horticulture of India [25] has suggested a cold chamber made of simple local materials such as bricks, grass, jute bags or gunny bags, bamboo, and sand for storing tomatoes. This cold chamber is used for storing vegetables and fruits in the field itself. This cold chamber is low cost and simple to construct, owing to its simplicity in the materials used for construction. Fruits are fresh, appealing, and shrink-free for 3–4 days. It is predicated on the idea that coolness follows evaporation. The structure of a low-cost cool chamber is given in Figure 2. This kind of structure can be established for the farmers and the agents, since the tomatoes stay there for long hours; this structure can aid in prolonging the shelf life.

4.4.2. ColdHubs by Nigerian-Based Start-Up

Like the setup suggested by the National Horticulture Board, a Nigerian-based start-up has revolutionized cold storage by introducing ColdHubs. It is a “plug-and-play” modular, solar-powered walk-in cold room for off-grid storage available around the clock, according to ColdHubs, and it can keep perishable foods fresh, as demonstrated in Figure 3. It adequately reports the problem of PHL in horticultural produce and perishable food. Farmers store their produce in sanitary plastic crates stacked inside the cold room. ColdHubs are installed in farming areas and consumption hubs (in markets and farms). Cold-retaining 120 mm insulating cold room panels are used in the solar-powered walk-in cold room. Fruits, vegetables, and other perishable foods remain fresher for another 2 to 21 days. Energy is generated by solar panels mounted on the cold room’s roof and is then stored in large-capacity batteries. These batteries run an inverter, which runs the cooling system [43].

4.4.3. Mini Mobile Cold Storage by CRS Group—UK

The CRS Mini Mobile Cold Store (as shown in Figure 4) can be an excellent solution for people dealing with tomatoes for short-term frozen storage rental or event cold storage or have limited on-site space for storage [44]. This unit has a temperature range of 10 °C to −40 °C. The smaller unit provides a perfect cold storage environment for various products. Cold storage for fruit and vegetables comes in multiple sizes, comprising mini chillers suitable for hotel owners, and mega cold stores were made with large distributors and wholesalers in mind [44].

Various supply chain entities can use the above storage systems based on their requirements and needs.

4.5. Supply Chain Collaboration for PHL Reduction

Collaboration within the FSC enables the exchange of information, the formation of effective partnerships, and the appropriate application of technology throughout the supply chain [43]. Information exchange is one of the essential requirements for reducing PHL [44]. However, the case study findings show the need for more collaboration and knowledge sharing across the supply chain entities, resulting in a large quantity of PHL. One of the farmers said, “…we don’t receive any prior update on when the tomatoes will be shipped from our farm”. Effective collaboration and timely information updates would help farmers plan their harvest schedule to minimize the PHL [45].

Similarly, we found that the agent who procures tomatoes almost always receives supplies from the same farmers throughout the season, since the planting and harvesting in a particular region are done around the same period. Hence, collaboration allows agents to estimate the supply quantities from the farmers and plan their demand allocation accordingly. Furthermore, sharing the requirements with farmers enables them to harvest only the required number of tomatoes on a given day and leave the rest on the farm, keeping the fruits fresh for some more time. However, in the present case study scenario, the farmer says, “…there is no prior information shared with us in terms of how much tomatoes are required daily”. Due to this, the farmers harvest all the tomatoes daily and take them to the agents to sell. Depending on the supply on a given day, the prices are determined, resulting in significantly lower costs or no demand for the harvested products, resulting in waste.

On the demand side also, the agent supplies to the same set of wholesalers and retailers. Demand aggregation from these entities would allow agents to decide on the procurement quantity and explore new buyers for the product in the market. Collectively, the supply-and-demand estimation through collaboration helps reduce the supply-and-demand gap, reducing the excess inventory, which is one of the major causes of PHL [46]. As such, (big) data analytics and collaboration can play a significant role in this process of PHL management by helping with supply and demand aggregation and supply and demand forecasting [47]. Even a tiny step towards data aggregation and analysis would primarily help these farmers reduce food waste. Furthermore, this information can be used to plan better the harvest schedule and resource requirements, including logistics and storage facilities.

Even in the case of seasonality and festival seasons, the surge in demand can be estimated beforehand, and an appropriate plan can be devised to meet the excess demand with good collaboration.

5. Contributions and Policy Implications

Tomato is one of the most perishable produces in the Agri-sector. It is loaded with the significant issue of PHL due to various factors impacting quality and shelf life [48]. The study has theoretical and managerial contributions toward addressing this major issue. In terms of theoretical contributions, this study advances the literature on PHL management by identifying the causes and challenges of PHL reduction from a real-life case study. Further, this study showed how collaboration among supply chain entities would help address PHL.

In terms of managerial contributions, this study has shed light on reducing the PHL by giving many suggestions that are helpful, less costly, and feasible by application. The paper mentions the possible solutions to control PHL, such as ethylene treatment, temperature-controlled storage, evaporative cooling, MAS, blast freezing, and forced air cooling. There are many no-cost solutions that have also been suggested to reduce the losses, such as underpacking the plastic crates by the farmers and agents when transporting the fruits, harvesting the fruits at the coolest time of the day, storing the fruits in the shade, and using gloves for harvesting of fruits to avoid any injury. The farmer owing 50 cents of land harvests about 750 kg of fruits every third day. This shows a need to store the fruits in the field, since the farmers face heavy losses due to heat and transport. There is an approximate loss of 100 kg of fruits per harvest. The farmers can have low-cost cold storage underground, suggested by the national horticulture board. It can improve the shelf life by 2–3 days. This does not require any energy. The cold chain facilities are required closer to the farmers’ premises, which can be low-scale activity. However, with the advent of resource sharing mechanisms, the farmers can pool the facilities and pay negligible rent for using it. The latest technologies can help in reserving and pooling such facilities. The agents can use centralized cold storage facilities that the cooperative society owns or have a mini cold unit. This can reduce losses due to the overripening of fruits and help improve the sustainability of the FSC.

Policy Implications

• This study shows that the entities of the tomato supply chain lack awareness of the loss happening at every checkpoint and the techniques to overcome them. Thus, more awareness campaigns must be created among the supply chain entities to introduce them to the available technologies and their benefits.
• The Government provides various subsidy schemes for establishing individual and joint cold storage facilities. However, across the region of this study, farmers need to be made aware of these schemes and the potential of establishing a cold storage facility. Hence, initiatives should implement cold storage facilities at a small-scale level and the benefits of potential benefits that farmers can realize demonstrated.
• Since collaboration reduces PHL, initiatives to implement cold storage facilities in collaborative environments such as farmer–producer organizations could be encouraged.

6. Conclusions

Fruits and vegetables have short shelf lives, account for 70 percent of food waste, and account for up to 40 percent of economic loss [2,3]. The losses affect the farmers so much that sometimes they cannot bear the loss and they commit suicide [49]. Although cold chain facilities exist in India, they are predominantly used for potatoes. Potatoes have a longer life, and potatoes have higher value, but the investment in the cold chain has also increased. Whereas tomatoes have a shorter life span and have low economic value, if we sell every single product without loss, the economic potential is higher for tomatoes because it is a fast-selling product, and its turnaround time is rapid. Given the importance of the tomato FSC, this study explored the case of the Indian tomato FSC and identified the causes of food waste across the postharvest stages and current practices followed by the FSC entities to manage food waste.

Further, to address the identified causes, several technologies and collaborative arrangements are suggested based on the literature and expert opinions. In addition, the challenges in implementing the recognized technologies are discussed. Overall, this study will help FSC entities to take appropriate action to address the PHL in the FSC.

Although this study addressed the critical problem of managing PHL, this study too has certain limitations. First, this study discussed mainly the PHL in the tomato supply chain alone. Hence, future studies could focus on extending the findings of this study to other horticulture products and identify ways to reduce PHL. Secondly, the expected cost and benefit of implementing the suggested technologies should be evaluated more quantitatively. Thirdly, although this study shows how collaboration would help reduce PHL, the required benefit sharing and contract mechanisms for collaboration still need to be explored. Future studies could address these limitations and extend their contribution. In addition, future research could investigate the behavioral aspects of supply chain entities and identify ways to motivate them to prioritize food waste reduction.