New Insights into the Layering Process of Urban Environment and Private Garden Transformations: A Case Study on the Bubbling Well Road Area in Early Modern Times, Shanghai

Abstract

The surrounding area of Bubbling Well Road in early modern times, Shanghai, served as an important transportation hub connecting the western and central districts of Shanghai’s International Settlement. It also marked the beginning of a half-century trend of profit-oriented private gardens. The development process from rural outskirts to bustling commercial areas is exemplified by the area of Bubbling Well Road, making it significant for the study of urban transformation in early modern times in Shanghai. In this work, private gardens in the vicinity of Bubbling Well Road are examined as hierarchical elements of urban subdivision using the layering approach of the Historic Urban Landscape. Based on summarizing the trajectory of different types of private gardens under urbanization, typical time nodes were extracted and then horizontally correlated with the process of urbanization to elucidate the hierarchical logic underlying the symbiotic interaction between private gardens and cities. The results show that private gardens have created new hot spots and gathered a lot of popularity for the Jing’an Temple area, prompting this area to gradually evolve from a traditional town to a “backyard garden” of Concession dominated by the entertainment industry. Through the rapid development of the modern entertainment, commerce, and real estate industries, the Jing’an Temple area successfully embraced the trend of developing Concession to the West while achieving transformations in business models and urban style. Finally, with the assistance of the transitional entertainment space, such as profit-oriented gardens, the Jing’an Temple area has successfully undergone a transformation into a modern entertainment industry hub and solidified its commercial status as the “consumption circle” of Shanghai. We systematically investigated the significance of the urban subdivision layer in relation to the temporal changes in the urban environmental structure and the evolution of spatial organization patterns at the macro level; this helps deepen the historical urban landscape approach from an ideological framework level to the practical level.

1. Introduction

Over the past two decades, extensive research has been conducted on the modern urban transformation of Shanghai, yielding substantial findings. From a macro perspective, these studies encompassed the development trajectory of modern Shanghai. At an intermediate level, various aspects such as road networks [1], Concession properties [2], municipal engineering projects [3,4], and spatial forms [5,6] have been examined. On a micro level, Lu Hanchao (2008) conducted detailed investigations into the daily lives of Shanghai citizens during the modern era [7]. In recent years, with the gradual exploration of the Historic Urban Landscape (HUL) approach in urban heritage conservation and cultural excavation, describing the process of historical urban formation, development, and transformation through layered information has become increasingly important. This approach focuses on the dynamic and interconnected relationships among various elements within an urban area, providing valuable insights into understanding the value of HUL. It is of great significance to dynamically and systematically conserve urban heritage in contemporary times in China.

The HUL approach considers urban areas as examples of historic layering with cultural and natural values. It considers urban heritage as a dynamic combination of historic layering and current development, emphasizing the connection between culture and nature, as well as the material and intangible. In other words, heritage objects are recognized from the perspective of value association and historic layering [8]. The UNESCO Recommendation on the Historic Urban Landscape (2011) not only encompasses the definition of HUL but also introduces the concept of “historic layering”, which refers to the ongoing process of overlaying and accumulating historical remnants from different periods within a specific spatial scope or object in a city [9]. The concept of “historic layering” not only indicates that the development of a historical city is dynamic and organic but also suggests that urban development and changes have identifiable patterns and trajectories. By employing the method of historic layering, the accumulated and analyzed value of the broader urban context and its geographical setting can enable researchers to gain a comprehensive understanding of the profound connotations and implications that the past bestows upon contemporary society.

As the HUL “layering” concept has gained increasing application in identifying the value of law throughout the entire life cycle of heritage, pilot practices have been internationally implemented in select World Heritage cities and Non-World Heritage cities, encompassing specific areas within urban renewal and planning practices [10,11,12]. For example, Ibarra from Ecuador sought different scales of natural and artificial factors in historical layers of urban landscapes from the 17th century to the first half of the 20th century, emphasizing the importance of historical continuity and interconnection in conservation through quantitative analysis [13]. For the historic landscape of Bethlehem’s city center, the University of Pavia and the local government collaborated to develop a comprehensive digital database consisting of multiple informative layers, providing guidelines for better urban management and the enhancement of historical and traditional values of architectural heritage [14]. In particular, the cognitive method of “layering” employed by HUL and Mr. Gu Jiegang’s theory of “ancient history is formed by layers”, proposed in 1923, share similar philosophical foundations on the study of history and the observation of historical cultural development [15]. Both approaches emphasize the significance of historical “change” and posit that this change accumulates through continuous “layers”, thereby revealing inherent correlations and mechanisms of generation alongside temporal sequences and spatial distributions. This aspect also constitutes a focal point when applying HUL’s layering method.

Currently, China is gradually integrating its own cultural heritage conservation characteristics with the study and reference of international experience, thereby expanding the application scope of the “layering” approach. This encompasses research on industrial heritage sites [16], historical and cultural cities [17], traditional villages [18], and landscape cities [19]. Among them, material layers such as water systems, terrain, and the built environment of human activities have received early attention in terms of “layering” and have been investigated in the process of urban macro-level accumulation. In this process, scholars have gradually shifted their focus toward the subdivision layers of cities and their corresponding accumulation processes. Furthermore, the introduction of smaller but distinctive interactions between nature and humans enables a more accurate interpretation of the “layering” mechanism, which is crucial for applying the holistic thinking of HUL to guide relevant practical operations [20]. Therefore, the study of historical parks as a subdivision layer in the “stratification” process of historical urban landscapes has become a new development trend. Han Feng’s group (2016) examined the “broader urban context” of the Historic Urban Landscape by considering historic parks as emblematic representations of a tangible and intangible network of heritage where nature and culture intersect [21]; Xiao Jing (2020) conducted a layered analysis of urban historic parks from the perspective of public culture [22]; Xu Qing (2020) integrated interdisciplinary perspectives and methods, using urban parks as a typical case study for brownfield regeneration strategies [23]. These studies considered parks as a subdivision layer and explored their evolution and development on a broader scale. It had significant implications for enhancing the overall comprehension of historical parks’ value, as well as contemporary conservation and revitalization efforts. Private gardens in modern Shanghai, as a typical representative of the “mutant” urban development model, played an important role in social and political events, serving as significant carriers to preserve the collective memory of the city. These private gardens are intricately intertwined with urban economic, cultural, and social development. The study of private gardens in modern Shanghai as a subdivision layer of the city helps us understand the role and value of these gardens in the city, thereby guiding contemporary protection and facilitating their active utilization to ensure the preservation of urban heritage. However, research results in this area are still relatively limited.

Herein, private gardens in the Bubbling Well Road area of the western district of the Shanghai International Settlement are taken as the research object. They are regarded as a “subdivision layer” within the historical urban landscape and are associated with the layered development process of the city’s history. This study explores the logic of urbanization trajectories in the western district of Shanghai International Settlement in early modern times Shanghai by examining the evolution and transition in private gardens, highlighting their significant importance for urban development and cultural continuity.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area and Object

Bubbling Well Road (now Nanjing West Road) in Shanghai was the first Western-style road constructed by the Ministry of Works after the opening of the Shanghai port in 1862. This road was named after one of the “Eight Scenic Spots of Jing’an Temple (静安八景)” called “Bubbling Spring (涌泉)” located at the western section of the road. After its completion, the Bubbling Well Road, connected with the Nanking Road, which had developed earlier, became a backbone road for the rapid westward expansion of urban space in the International Settlement (Figure 1).

Before the opening of the port, the area near Bubbling Well Road was still a rural landscape. After the relocation of Jing’an Temple to Yongquan Bang (涌泉浜) in the ninth year of Jiading during the Southern Song Dynasty (1216), the vicinity witnessed a significant influx of individuals due to its close proximity. By the late Qing Dynasty, Jing’an Temple had become a popular destination for outings in suburban Shanghai. With the building of Bubbling Well Road and the expansion of the International Settlement area, this district entered the process of urbanization (Figure 2 and see details in Supplementary Note S1, Supplementary Materials).

Private gardens in the vicinity of Bubbling Well Road are taken as the research object since this area provides a typical landscape that showcases its transformation from a tranquil countryside to a bustling metropolis during Shanghai’s urbanization process in early modern times. In the second half of the nineteenth century, private gardens in the Jing’an Temple area were once famous in Shanghai. Shen Garden (申园) and West Garden (西园) were the predecessors that ushered in the era of modern Shanghai profit-oriented private gardens. The subsequent Yuyuan Garden (愚园) and Zhang Garden (张园) were representatives of the heyday of profit-oriented private gardens. Zhang Garden has consistently held the top position among profit-oriented private gardens in Shanghai, while the Aili Garden (爱俪园) was renowned as the top private gardens in Shanghai, known as “the Great Sea-viewing Garden on the Sea”. These private gardens were located on both sides of Bubbling Well Road, which was created by the British Concession, thus establishing the status of the Jing’an Temple area as the “backyard garden” of the Concession (

Table 1. List of main private gardens in the Jing’an temple area in early modern times shanghai.

Type of Garden	Name	Owner	Duration of Existence	Area (ha)
profit-oriented private garden	Shen Garden	Li Yixian et al.	1882–1893	0.80
	West Garden	Zhang Yicha et al.	1887–1889	—
	Yu Garden	tycoon Zhang Shi of Siming	1888–1921	2.00
	Zhang Garden	Zhang Shuhe	1882–1919	4.10
	Xu Garden	Xu Hongkui	1883–1937	0.20~0.67
Affiliated gardens	McBain Garden (Garden of Majestic Hotel)	—	1911–1930	4
	Jue Garden (South Garden)	The Jian brothers	1916–Now	6.67
Private residential garden	Aili Garden (Hardoon Garden)	Silas Aaron Hardoon	1903–1948	About 6.67–13.33
	Xi’s Family Garden *	Xi Exian	1911 *–1937	—
	Xin’s Family Garden	Xin Zhongqing	The end of the Qing Dynasty–1921	—

* The location of Xi’s Family Garden was originally acquired through the auction of properties owned by a foreign company. It was purchased by Xi Exian from Jiangyin. There is no record indicating the exact year when the private garden was built but, based on the restructuring of the foreign company in 1911, it can be inferred that Xi’s Family Garden was established within a few years after 1911.

and Figure 3).

2.2. Research Framework

By combing the historical literature, this study examines the development process of the surrounding plots near Jing’an Temple in early modern times and analyzes the urban environment of Bubbling Well Road at different periods, including road networks, urban texture, and types of businesses. These analyses provide a broader urban context for subsequent garden research. Within this urban background, we considered private gardens as “Anchor points” on a timeline. Along the vertical timeline, we connected these “Anchor points” from various historical sections to outline and summarize the trajectory of changes in different types of private gardens within an urban context, including the location, scale, rise, and fall of gardens. Based on this foundation, we extracted typical time nodes and horizontally correlated them with the urbanization process at that time. Typical states of interaction and iteration between gardens and cities in the western area of the International Settlement were summarized with Bubbling Well Road as its core during different stages of early modern times. Therefore, we could gain an understanding of the logic of layering behind the symbiotic relationship between gardens and the city and recognize the significant role that private gardens centered around Bubbling Well Road played in terms of business transformation and urban change in Shanghai’s International Settlement area during modern times. The specific research framework used is shown in the diagram (Figure 4).

2.3. Materials and Sources

The literature and historical materials involved in this study mainly included local chronicles, especially specialized ones, such as “History of Shanghai Urban Areas” [24], “Shanghai Ming Jie Zhi” [25], “Jing’an District Chronicle” [26], and “Shanghai Jing’an District Place Name Chronicle” [27] et al. These materials from the literature mainly came from the abundant collection and resources of Shanghai Library, Zi ka Wei Library, and other institutions. At the same time, relevant historical materials were obtained by searching electronic databases. For example, the Shanghai Library has sub-databases under the “The National Newspaper Index Database”, such as “Full Text Database of Journals in Late Qing and the Republic of China”, “Chinese Modern Newspaper Digital Literature Database”, and “Chinese Modern Book Full-text Database” et al.

In terms of historical images, the mapping imagery of Shanghai held significant importance in the study of the urbanization process and changes in gardens along Bubbling Well Road. The “Guide to Old Shanghai: Distribution Map of Roads, Institutions, Factories, and Residences” [28], which was published by the Shanghai Academy of Social Sciences Press in 1947, provided comprehensive maps of the city’s neighborhoods. The “Complete Atlas of Shanghai Antiquated Maps” [29], published by Shanghai Calligraphy and Painting Publishing House, collected over a hundred modern maps from Shanghai, providing important historical materials for the urban development of the Bubbling Well Road area in different historical periods. The websites of Tian Di Tu (see details in Supplementary Note S2, Supplementary Materials) and Virtual Shanghai (see details in Supplementary Note S3, Supplementary Materials) also provided electronic map data for this research.

Moreover, landscape paintings, such as those in the Dianshizhai Pictorial that depicted the overall or partial view of gardens, accompanied by inscriptions that recorded the observations, viewpoints, and emotions of the creators in the gardens, are also important historical materials for understanding the spatial layout and elements of modern gardens. However, when it came to objectivity, the urban landscapes and garden scenery recorded by modern photography provided more reliable visual historical materials for this study.

3. Results

3.1. Development and Changes in Bubbling Well Road Area

3.1.1. Ancient Scenery and Temple Fair at Jing’an Temple (before 1862)

The western end of Bubbling Well Road starts from Jing’an Temple, which is not only the oldest Buddhist temple in Shanghai but also one of the ancient Buddhist temples in the Jiangnan region. It is traditionally believed to have been built during the Chiwu period (238–251). During the Southern Song Dynasty, due to the impact of flooding, Jing’an Temple was relocated to its current location at No.1686 Nanjing West Road in the Jing’an District, Shanghai. Since the Yuan Dynasty, Jing’an Temple has become a famous tourist attraction in Shanghai and has attracted countless literati with its unique charm. Many poets throughout history have composed “Eight Poems of Jing’an” to praise its eight famous attractions, which have brought numerous tourists and literary figures within its unique scenery and historical value.

In addition, Jing’an Temple holds a temple fair once a year, usually on the important festival of Bathing Buddha. This temple fair has been established since the Jiaqing period of the Qing Dynasty and gradually developed into a fairly large market. The fair is themed around burning incense, and local villagers usually participate in selling and trading activities. Many vendors set up stalls at the fair, bringing considerable popularity to Jing’an Temple. During the Qing Dynasty, Jing’an Temple was recorded to have a huge temple foundation covering 1.67 ha, as well as about 1.3 or 2 ha of farmland. Despite the gradual development of the surrounding area in the later period of the Qing Dynasty, this temple still remained in the peaceful countryside, away from the hustle and bustle [30].

3.1.2. Formation of Urban Road Network (1862)

The year 1862 marked a significant moment in the development and transformation of the Jing’an Temple area. Prior to 1862, the vicinity of Bubbling Well Road was still a suburban rice field similar to other regions in Jiangnan. It was adorned with numerous small rivers flowing through vast farmlands, dotted with many villages that showcased natural rural scenery and tranquil village life. According to the 1914 map of the western district of the Shanghai International Settlement (Figure 5), the road network at that time already covered most areas in the district. We can still see an intertwined pattern between villages and riverbanks with the road network, demonstrating the integration and collision between the road network and traditional rural texture at that time. The formation of these road networks can be traced back as early as 1862.

Furthermore, in 1862, the British authorities provided assistance to the Qing government to suppress the third attack by the Taiping Army on Shanghai, with the aim of safeguarding British political and economic interests in China. Financed by the Shanghai British Concession Racing Club, a horse racing track was constructed beyond the boundaries from Nicheng Bang (泥城浜) to Jing’an Temple, named after one of the “Eight Scenic Spots of Jing’an” called “Bubbling Well” located in front of Jing’an Temple. In the same year, six military roads were constructed, five of which, including the Bubbling Well Road, not only became important components for the urbanization of the western district of the Shanghai International Settlement but also laid down the basic framework for the road development and urban construction of the Jing’an District in later years (Figure 6 and see details in Supplementary Note S4, Supplementary Materials).

3.1.3. The Beginning of Urbanization (1862–1899)

The construction of roads in 1862 made the area around Jing’an Temple a transportation hub, and after being destroyed during the Taiping Rebellion, Jing’an Temple was rebuilt in 1880. Since then, the annual Jing’an Temple Fair has been held, attracting a large number of people. With the connection between Bubbling Well Road and the central district of the International Settlement, the Jing’an Temple area gradually became a popular destination for spring outings and summer relaxation in Shanghai at that time, developing into “Jing’an Temple Market” and gathering popularity. In 1899, the International Settlement expanded again and included Jing’an Temple in its westward expansion. As urbanization progressed from east to west in the International Settlement, modern commercial forms had not fully developed in the area around Jing’an Temple; during this period, there were many vacant lots with low land prices nearby. With road construction, people’s activity space expanded. Many garden villas and commercial buildings were built by merchants and celebrities around temples, including on both sides of Bubbling Well Road. This trend also spread to both sides of other roads in the western district of the International Settlement, making it increasingly prosperous.

3.1.4. Repositioning towards the Urban Center (1900–1940s)

Between 1908 and 1922, the Shanghai Tramway Co., Ltd. and Chinese businessman Dong Xingsheng successively opened Shanghai’s first tram line and the first public bus route. These routes all had Jing’an Temple as a station, with the former connecting the central and western areas of the International Settlement while the latter formed a north–south loop within the western area of the International Settlement [25]. The establishment of these two bus routes officially established Bubbling Well Road as the transportation hub of the western district of the International Settlement, further driving the urbanization development of surrounding areas. In the 1930s, with the continuous outbreak of war, a large number of residents and businesses from Chinese-controlled districts flooded into the area around Jing’an Temple. The booming real estate industry, driven by rapid population growth and abundant funds, brought about significant changes to the urban layout of the Jing’an Temple area in the International Settlement. It evolved from initially occupying large areas with private residences and garden buildings to more compact and high-density lane-style housing and apartment buildings. The business format was also gradually shifted from public entertainment to modern commercial circles (Figure 7).

3.2. Evolution in Private Gardens along Bubbling Well Road

3.2.1. Dynamics of Profit-Oriented Private Gardens

The first profit-oriented private garden in Shanghai, known as Shen Garden, was established in the western corner of Jing’an Temple. This garden was remodeled on the basis of the original Western-style garden villa and opened in 1882, becoming an ideal choice for literati and scholars to visit during the “Jing’an Tour” at that time. With a concentration of trendy entertainment projects in Shanghai, Shen Garden quickly attracted numerous visitors and generated substantial profits (Figure 8). Encouraged by this economic benefit, merchants began to raise funds successively to build West Garden on the east side of Jing’an Temple (1887) and Yu Garden (1888). Among them, although Xi Garden had a Western-style design as its foundation, it initially attracted literati and scholars under the name “The West Garden Gathering (西园雅集)”, while Yu Garden showcased classical Chinese garden features with its emphasis on traditional Chinese garden styles.

In 1885, Zhang Shuhe operated Weichun Garden (commonly known as Zhang Garden) following the trend of entertainment and leisure, becoming the first private garden in Shanghai to be transformed from a private residence into a profit-oriented private garden (Figure 9). At the same time, Xu Dishan’s Shuangqing Villa (commonly known as Xu Garden), located in Tangjia Lane of Suhe Creek (苏河湾), also opened to the public and became another popular public entertainment venue. Xu Garden later relocated to Konnaught Road (康脑脱路) within the boundaries of the western district of the International Settlement, continuing its original charm (see details in Supplementary Note S5, Supplementary Materials). The transformation of these two private gardens marked a period of vigorous development for the profit-oriented private gardens in Shanghai during the 1880s–1890s. These private gardens not only attracted the elderly and emerging literati in Shanghai but also hosted various outdoor activities and gatherings for groups and corporations, driving the trend of modern holiday leisure in Shanghai and injecting a large amount of popularity into the area around Jing’an Temple. However, with the emergence of new-generation public entertainment venues such as the “New World” (新世界) and the “Great World”, as well as rising land prices affecting public spaces, profit-oriented private gardens gradually declined in the 1920s and eventually closed down one after the other. The profit-oriented private gardens around Jing’an Temple were finally replaced by Lilong Residences [31].

3.2.2. From Private Gardens to Public-Affiliated Gardens

Adjacent to the north side of Bubbling Well Road, there was a famous Buddhist Garden called Jue Garden (觉园) on Avenue Road. Jue Garden was once a part of the South Garden, built by brothers Jian Zhaonan and Jian Yujie around 1916 [32]. Due to their enthusiasm for meditation and Buddhist beliefs, they prioritized selling it to Buddhist laypeople for residential construction when the land southeast to the South Garden was divided for sale.

In 1919, the Jian brothers converted to Buddhism under Master Yin Guang and renamed South Garden Jue Garden. To correspond with the new name, renovations were made inside Jue Garden. The original cottage was transformed into a Buddhist Hall, creating a temple layout, and a release pond was also built within the garden. In 1922, the Jian brothers were invited to become directors of the Shanghai Buddhist Purification Society. The following year, Jian Zhaonan passed away, and Jian Yujie donated a portion of Jue Garden to the Shanghai Buddhist Purification Society. In 1926, the Shanghai Buddhist Purification Society relocated to Jue Garden and constructed a two-story building on the foundation of the original Buddhist temple, including the Buddhist chanting hall and the scripture lecture meeting place. As a result, Jue Garden became a renowned Buddhist Garden for carrying out daily affairs and preaching activities of Buddhism in Shanghai.

At the intersection of Bubbling Well Road and Gordon Road, there was a Western-style garden residence built by the Yangwu (洋务局) Bureau and under the supervision of the Shanghai Daoshu (上海道署) in the late 19th century. During the Xinhai Revolution, this garden was sold to British businessman George McBain and became known as McBain Garden. In 1924, McBain Garden became an affiliated garden of the Majestic Hotel (大华饭店) and was opened to the public, renamed Dahua Garden (大华花园), as a venue for high society social activities (Figure 10). The main building in the garden demonstrated three-and-a-half-story European neoclassical architecture with a large banquet hall and dance floor on the ground floor. The overall landscape presented a Western formal garden style with large cement fountains and lawns surrounded by trees, replacing traditional music with Western music and also featuring pavilions and pools. In 1925, the Majestic Hotel opened an outdoor cinema in the garden, regularly screening movies during the summer and becoming a famous garden movie theater in Shanghai. In 1930, after a major fire broke out at the Majestic Hotel, it closed down, and the hotel building was demolished. The garden was abandoned and gradually replaced by buildings constructed along the street.

3.2.3. Revealing or Concealed Private Residential Gardens

There were several private residential gardens around Bubbling Well Road. The most famous one was the Aili Garden, built in 1903 by British Jewish tycoon Silas Aaron Hardoon and his wife Liza Ruo. Originally covering over a hundred acres, the Aili Garden gradually expanded and reached its peak with a garden area of over 13.34 ha in 1907 [33]. The Aili Garden combined Chinese, Japanese, and Western elements to create diverse architectural styles and landscapes, earning it the reputation as the “Grand View Garden in Shanghai” (Figure 11). The Aili Garden was divided into two parts, connected by different themes that linked various scenic areas together. Despite being a private residential garden, Mr. Hardoon was enthusiastic about socializing with the celebrities and politicians of his time; he invited well-known figures such as Sun Yat-sen, Cai Yuanpei, Zhang Taiyan, and Cai E to be his guests at the Aili Garden during the Republican era. Additionally, Mr. Hardoon organized four disaster relief events in the garden for public ticket sales. Therefore, the Aili Garden was not just a private residence garden but also a social venue that reflected the societal situation of that time.

Compared to the widely acclaimed Aili Garden, Xi’s Family Garden embodied more of a private and reserved character. The owner of this private residential garden was Xi Exian, the second son of Xie Runru: a prominent paint industry tycoon in Shanghai. Xi Exian was very active in public welfare and charitable donations, which earned his family a high reputation and influence in Shanghai. Information regarding Xi’s Family Garden has mainly appeared in the Biography of Mr. Xi Exian. In the garden, there were pavilions, flowers and trees, bamboo, stones, fish, and birds, as well as collections of antique tripods, ritual vessels, and books that the owner liked. As a place for entertaining guests and friends and collecting antiques, Xi’s Family Garden was an important space to showcase the owner’s taste and elegance.

Xin’s Family Garden, located at the intersection of Medhurst Road, was first built in the late Qing Dynasty. The original owner, Xin Zhongqing, was a renowned scholar in Jinling. Due to business failures, he sold most of the garden’s properties to Sheng Xuanhuai. In 1914, Kang Youwei leased the southern half of the garden and gradually constructed various garden buildings, such as pavilions and halls within it. He also transformed some open spaces into flower beds and orchards. Rare animals like turtles and kangaroos were raised in the garden, giving it a touch of the Shanghai style. After Kang Youwei moved out of the garden, the property remained under Sheng’s ownership. Due to Mrs. Sheng’s religious beliefs, a family temple was built in the northern part of the garden, which later became Qingliang Temple after being donated to Buddhism. The southern part of the garden’s land was developed into a residential area (Figure 12).

4. Discussion

4.1. The Typical Stage of the Relationship between City and Garden in the Area around Bubbling Well Road

By using private gardens as a “subdivision layer” to examine the urbanization and urban landscape changes in the Bubbling Well Road area, the relationship between city and garden can be summarized into four stages (

Table 2. The typical stage characteristics of the interactive development between private gardens and the urban environment in the vicinity of Bubbling Well Road in early modern times, Shanghai.

Typical State	Time	Urban Environmental Characteristics	Main Anchor Points	Minor Anchor Point	Typical Stage Characteristics
State 1	Before 1862	Rivers crisscrossed farmlands and villages, presenting the picturesque scenery of rural areas in Jiangnan.	Jing’an Temple		A suburban tourist attraction has been centered around Jing’an Temple
State 2	1862–1899	Five military roads were constructed, along with the completion of Bubbling Well Road. Large garden villas and private residential gardens emerged on both sides, while the urban backdrop still maintained a natural countryside theme.	Shen Garden, West Garden, Zhang Garden, Yu Garden, Country Club	Jing’an Temple, represented by the residences and garden villas of Shao Youlian and Sheng Xuanhuai.	The profit-oriented private gardens built around Jing’an Temple have become new suburban attractions. Bubbling Well Road has strengthened the closeness between the Jing’an Temple area and the central district of the International Settlement.
State 3	1900–1920s	Bus routes were set up, and the area around Bubbling Well Road became a transportation hub.	The cluster of the public entertainment industry were represented by profit-oriented private gardens (Zhang Garden, Yu Garden, Xu Garden, Dahua Garden); private residential gardens were represented by Aili Garden, (Aili Garden, Xi Garden)	The Buddhist cluster represented by Jing’an Temple (including Jing’an Temple, Jue Garden, and the Xin’s Family Garden).	By means of a well-developed transportation network, the area around Bubbling Well Road has become the “backyard garden” of the central district in the International Settlement.
State 4	1920–1940s	Peak of urbanization	Amusement parks and department stores	Jing’an Temple, Aili Garden, the Xi’s Family Garden, Jue Garden, Xu Garden	The emerging entertainment industry, represented by amusement parks and department stores, formed. Profit-oriented private gardens declined. The area around Bubbling Well Road completed its transformation from the entertainment industry to modern commerce.

).

4.1.1. The First Stage: Suburban Areas and Places of Leisure (before 1862)

In the first stage, before 1862, the landscape around Jing’an Temple was characterized by a dense network of rivers in the style of Jiangnan countryside. As a famous tourist attraction in Shanghai and a national center for Buddhist activities, Jing’an Temple was an important landmark in the area at that time [24] (p. 478). During the Qing Jiaqing period, the Bathing Buddha Festival had already been formed, and during this festival, villagers would proceed to Jing’an Temple to burn incense and also bring agricultural products, handmade textiles, and local specialties for trading, thus forming scattered street stalls. In addition, the area around Jing’an Temple provided a place for weekend relaxation and outings for foreign workers living in the Concessions. There was a description of their leisurely life: “Either planting roses and tulips around the buildings or wandering around Jing’an Temple to enjoy rural scenery” [34]. It could be said that in this first stage, as a place for worshiping Buddha and visiting suburban attractions, Jing’an Temple attracted and gathered a group of tourists (Figure 13a).

4.1.2. The Second Stage: Urban Road Construction and the Establishment of Profit-Oriented Private Gardens (1862–1899)

In the second stage, from the construction of roads in 1862 to the second expansion of the International Settlement in 1899, the construction of Bubbling Well Road connected the western suburbs where Jing’an Temple was located with the urbanized central district of the International Settlement. Although the area around Jing’an Temple was still a rural area in western Shanghai, the convenient transportation between the International Settlement and this area not only injected new elements into the lives of local villagers but also generated new leisure demands between these two areas [24] (p. 487). However, apart from Jing’an Temple, there were hardly any other places for people to stay and relax in Shanghai’s western suburbs at that time. Therefore, during the second half of the 19th century, privately funded profit-oriented gardens began to emerge. Within just ten years, six profit-oriented gardens were completed and opened in Shanghai, with four located around Bubbling Well Road. These profit-oriented gardens created a trend of modern holiday relaxation in Shanghai and became popular destinations for recreational activities among its residents along with Jing’an Temple [35]. On both sides of Bubbling Well Road, there were Country Club (英国乡村俱乐部) and Western-style residential houses for Westerners to enjoy their weekends and holidays. Among them, the mansion and garden of Shanghai’s governor Shao Youlian, and the famous industrialist Sheng Xuanhuai were the most visually striking buildings in this area at that time. During this period, garden villas and entertainment venues along Bubbling Well Road presented beautiful landscapes that complemented well with their natural countryside backdrop (Figure 13b).

4.1.3. The Third Stage: Urbanization and the Formation of “Backyard Garden” in Concession (1900–1920s)

In the third stage, from the early 20th century to the 1920s, Bubbling Well Road underwent a series of renovations, repairs, and widening. Tree-lined sidewalks were planted on both sides of the road, water pipes were laid for running water, and streetlights were installed to modernize transportation. In 1899, the Bubbling Well Road area was included in the International Settlement and attracted an increasing population. Consequently, land on both sides of the road was eagerly purchased by real estate developers [24] (p. 490). Although, at this time, the Bubbling Well Road area was relatively quiet compared to the bustling Concession zone, its proximity and relatively low land prices attracted many Chinese and foreigners to build houses and settle there. With the population gathering, shops, workshops, factories, and entertainment venues were also established one after another, revealing the initial appearance of a commercial market on Bubbling Well Road.

In this period, profit-oriented gardens passed the rapid development stage of their early days. Aftermarket elimination and reshuffling, only Yu Garden and Zhang Garden emerged as outstanding survivors among Shanghai’s profit-oriented gardens in the early 20th century on Bubbling Well Road. Following the second expansion of the International Settlement at the end of the 19th century, land development resulted in escalated property prices, thereby transforming tranquil areas into noisy ones. As a result, Xu Garden relocated from Tangjia Lane to Konnaught Road due to its more affordable real estate and serene surroundings. Since then, the top three ranked profit-oriented gardens in Shanghai gathered in the western area of the International Settlement, creating a cluster effect that shifted the center for Shanghai’s garden and tourism from the Mid-lake pavilion (湖心亭) in Yuyuan Garden (豫园) of the Chinese City to the area of Jing’an Temple [36] (Figure 13c).

4.1.4. The Fourth Stage: Peak of Urbanization and Transition from “Backyard Garden” to Commercialization (1920s–1940s)

The fourth stage spanned from the 1920s to the 1940s. Since the establishment of the “New World” and Shanghai’s first independent large-scale amusement park at the eastern end of Bubbling Well Road in 1915, the entertainment industry in Shanghai began to gather and develop around the intersection of the central and western districts of the International Settlement. By the 1930s, centered around the “Great World”, theaters, dance halls, pawnshops, hotels, and restaurants were gradually built in its vicinity. During this period, transportation between Bubbling Well Road and the central district of the International Settlement became more convenient due to multiple bus routes being established. Meanwhile, the speed of urbanization and commercialization in the vicinity of Bubbling Well Road gradually moved toward the central district (see details in Supplementary Note S6, Supplementary Materials). The original large gardens, private residential gardens, and open spaces on both sides of the road were gradually replaced by new villages and apartment buildings. The ground floors of many apartments were converted into shops [24] (p. 499). In 1932, a high-end entertainment venue called “Paramount Hall” opened at Yuyuan Road junction with Jessfield Road near the Jing’an Temple, which promoted surrounding business development and laid down an initial foundation for a commercial network along the Bubbling Well Road [24] (p. 519).

After the War of Resistance Against Japanese Aggression, the Concessions became the “safe zone” and experienced a population increase from four to five times. This influx of resources and wealth led to abnormal prosperity in Concession areas. Due to its location within the International Settlement, the Jing’an Temple area became an ideal residential and commercial investment destination during the turbulent period in the late 1930s. According to the 2016 edition of “Guide to Old Shanghai”, there were very few private gardens left in the western district of the International Settlement, along with most land being replaced by Lilongs, shops, and foreign companies in 1947. The Bubbling Well Road area had developed into a transportation hub and a consumer center in the western part of Shanghai. As a result, Bubbling Well Road shifted from its previous image as a livable “backyard garden” with garden villas and private gardens to a commercial consumer destination (Figure 13d).

4.2. The Logic of Layering Process of Private Gardens and Urban Environment in Modern Shanghai

First, the area around Bubbling Well Road transformed from a rural suburb into a bustling city center, with its increasing popularity being the primary driving force behind this (see details in Supplementary Note S7, Supplementary Materials). When examining the entire development cycle of this district, there are four main reasons that contributed to the gathering of its popularity. (1) The ancient temple scenic spot is situated on the outskirts, rendering it an appealing destination for recreational outings. It is precisely because of the presence of the tranquil ancient temple that a consistent stream of visitors came and burned incense, worshipping Buddha. The temple held fairs regularly, which gave rise to the primary business mold of bartering and further promoted the gathering of people. (2) Road construction projects drove urban development into the area. The construction of Bubbling Well Road and improvements to the road infrastructure significantly facilitated travel between the central and western districts of the International Settlement. At the same time, these new roads laid a foundation for the secondary expansion of the International Settlement, leading to an increased influx of people into Bubbling Well Road after it was incorporated into the jurisdiction of the Concession. (3) Private gardens created new hotspots. The profit-oriented private gardens and private residential gardens around Jing’an Temple and Bubbling Well Road attracted a large number of visitors, transforming the area of Jing’an Temple from a traditional town dominated by agriculture and handicrafts into a “backyard garden” of Concession dominated by the entertainment industry. (4) The outbreak of war attracted a large amount of manpower and capital to the area around Bubbling Well Road, laying the foundation for its transformation into a commercialized district.

Second, according to the original trajectory, the Jing’an Temple area could have developed into a traditional market town. However, there are three factors that directly influenced its urban development. First and foremost, the construction of five military roads essentially established the future road framework for the Jing’an Temple area. Among them, Bubbling Well Road, as a typical representative, connected Jing’an Temple in the west and Nanjing Road in the east, tightly linking the rural Jing’an Temple area with the central district of Shanghai’s International Settlement. Influenced by the rapid urbanization process in this central district, the remote outskirts of Jing’an Temple gradually deviated from their traditional market town route as they continued to receive inflows of people and goods. Furthermore, private gardens, the main focus of this article, were initially designed as garden villas and later renovated into profit-oriented private gardens for public leisure and entertainment needs in the Jing’an area. With the emergence of an increasing number of profit-oriented private gardens, the Jing’an Temple area gradually developed a business layout that was oriented towards entertainment and leisure, distinct from traditional market towns. Moreover, the Jing’an Temple area is encompassed within the Concession, and it has successfully embraced the trend of developing the Concession to the West through rapid advancements in modern entertainment, commerce, and real estate. This transformation has led to the reshaping of urban style and business forms.

Finally, the interconnection between various elements in the Historic Urban Landscape is closely intertwined. This can be clearly seen in the urbanization and transformation of the cityscape along Bubbling Well Road, where the relationship between city and garden is displayed. In the early stages of urban development, private gardens served as both contributors to the landscape’s environment and attractions for tourists in this area. Subsequently, benefiting from improved road infrastructure and entertainment trends among citizens, profit-oriented private gardens flourished along Bubbling Well Road. The clustering effect of these private gardens during their heyday exerted a profound impact on the urban character and commercial dynamics of this region. However, with the establishment of the transportation hub status in the Jing’an Temple area in the 1920s and continuous outbreaks of warfare in the 1940s, these private gardens gradually gave way to Lilongs and apartment buildings due to space constraints caused by rising land prices. Furthermore, the entertainment functions of these profit-oriented private gardens were replaced by more specialized modern entertainment venues such as amusement parks, dance halls, cinemas, and shopping malls along Bubbling Well Road. These cumulative processes involving various elements ultimately led to a commercial transformation from a Concession’s “backyard garden” to a “consumption circle”. Therefore, as a “subdivision layer” of the city, private gardens indeed played a positive role in shaping the urban environment surrounding Bubbling Well Road. This contribution was achieved through synergistic effects with other layers of the city.

5. Conclusions

By taking the changing process of private gardens around Jing’an Temple in early modern times Shanghai as a starting point, we elucidated the interweaving relationship between these gardens and other layers of the city, emphasizing their value as diverse cultural resources and heritage. As an important part of urban public space, green spaces with leisure and recreational functions are crucial to gathering popularity and improving residents’ well-being. Therefore, in the current process of new-type urbanization, government departments need to comprehensively coordinate and ensure that business forms are orderly and guided while maintaining their urban context. Sufficient space should be allocated for landscape gardens to fully leverage their positive role in enhancing the urban landscape and environment, thereby creating improved living environments. Furthermore, the HUL layering method has been employed to systematically comb, analyze, and summarize the intricate dynamics between private gardens and urban environments in the area around Bubbling Well Road, in which the layering logic and symbiotic mechanism are elucidated. At the same time, we also discussed the significance of private gardens on the macro level in terms of the temporal change in urban environmental structure and the evolution of the spatial organization mode, which provides a new perspective for the overall cognition of the heritage value of modern Shanghai private gardens. Nonetheless, it should be noted that there is ample room to promote the coordinated development of urban construction and the continuation of the cultural context during the era of built-up area redevelopment. Specifically, in our future endeavors, we aim to conduct a comprehensive evaluation of the current protection system to facilitate the contemporary preservation and active utilization of private gardens in modern Shanghai.