Exploring Changes in Epistemological Beliefs and Beliefs about Teaching and Learning: A Mix-Method Study among Chinese Teachers in Transnational Higher Education Institutions

Abstract

When teachers engage in transnational higher education, exposure can challenge their existing beliefs and expand their understanding of effective pedagogical approaches. Collaborative teaching can influence teachers’ beliefs through collaboration and interactions. Thus, this study investigated changes in Chinese university teachers’ epistemological beliefs and beliefs about teaching and learning by addressing the following research questions: Are there any changes across time in beliefs about epistemology, learning, and teaching among teaching faculty members working in transnational higher education (TNHE)? To what extent do epistemological beliefs and beliefs about teaching change among teaching faculty members working in TNHE? Both qualitative and quantitative methods were used during the 2018–2022 academic years. A paired sample t-test revealed significant improvements in constructivist teaching (CT), innate ability (IA), and authority knowledge (AK). The semi-structured group interviews provided supporting evidence. The findings demonstrate that sharing and collaboration can promote changes in teachers’ epistemological beliefs and their beliefs about teaching and learning. Chinese teachers tend to develop more constructivist and student-centered beliefs after working with foreign colleagues. Transnational faculty collaboration promotes professional growth and diverse thoughts. By using mix-method examination of teachers’ epistemological and pedagogical beliefs within the TNHE context, this study provides empirical evidence supporting the development of tailored professional development opportunities.

1. Introduction

Collaborative teaching is a pedagogical innovation that allows local teaching faculties to collaboratively teach alongside foreign teaching faculty members in transnational higher education (TNHE). Through collaborative teaching, students acquire cross-cultural experiences in varying academic learning contexts, academic faculty members enhance their professional development, and transnational education maintains quality assurance. In this study, collaborative teaching in TNHE refers to a teaching approach in which both local and foreign teaching faculty members work together to deliver a program and facilitate student learning. This approach involves collaborative planning, instruction, and assessment, in which faculty members share their knowledge and skills to provide a more comprehensive and effective learning experience for students [1]. In TNHE, collaborative teaching builds a “glocal” curriculum for sustainable development [2]. This “glocal” curriculum involves a critical examination of values and power across different contexts, from local to national as well as global levels. It not only enhances resource exchange, but also influences beliefs that conflict or integrate at the individual and organizational levels.

Epistemological beliefs refer to beliefs about the nature of knowledge and how it can be acquired, verified, and justified [3]. Epistemological beliefs are defined as a set of personal values that filter individuals’ behaviors, decisions, and knowledge acquisition [4]. There has been increasing interest in epistemological beliefs. Researchers believe that teachers hold distinct epistemological beliefs about different dimensions of knowledge, such as their ability to teach, their professionalism, and whether knowledge is static or evolving [5,6,7]. Moreover, numerous studies have confirmed teachers’ beliefs in relation to their experience and educational background, such as through belief assessment [8,9,10,11].

However, studies on beliefs about the nature of knowledge and knowledge acquisition in the context of TNHE are insufficient. This study seeks to address the abovementioned changes among TNHE teaching faculty members. This study was conducted to answer the following research question: How do Chinese teaching faculty members’ epistemological beliefs and beliefs about learning and teaching change after acquiring TNHE working experience?

2. Literature Review

2.1. Theoretical Framework of Epistemological Beliefs

In this study, our theoretical framework of epistemological beliefs was based on the work of Chan and Elliott, who adapted Schommer’s scales to investigate the epistemological beliefs of pre-service teachers in a Confucian culture [10,12]. This theoretical framework (

Table 1. Dimensions of epistemological beliefs labeled as IA, EFP, AK, and CK.

Dimensions	Descriptions
	Sophisticated	Naive
Innate/Fixed Ability	Ability is not inborn but obtained and developed.	Ability is instinctive and predetermined.
Learning Effort and Process	Learning is a process that requires hard work.	Learning is either quick or does not occur at all, and effort does not significantly impact the outcome.
Authority of Knowledge	The primary origin of knowledge is mainly from self-creation.	The primary origin of knowledge is mainly from authority or experts.
Certainty of Knowledge	Knowledge is tentative and evolving.	Knowledge is fixed and unchanging.

) includes four dimensions of teachers’ epistemological beliefs: innate ability (IA), learning effort and process (EFP), authority of knowledge (AK), and certainty of knowledge (CK).

2.2. Theoretical Frameworks of Beliefs about Teaching and Learning

Various studies have defined beliefs about teaching and learning. The beliefs that teachers adhere to in the assumptions, views, and values they teach and impart on the students they educate are important [13]. Pedagogical beliefs are correlated with a set of teaching and learning strategies. Teachers’ beliefs about teaching and knowledge guide curriculum implementation and pedagogical methods, including their decisions regarding knowledge transfer and creation [14]. They are generally categorized as traditional or constructivist teaching (CT) [15]. Traditional teaching (TT) and learning beliefs are teacher-centered [16]. This model defines teachers as the origins of knowledge and students as the passive recipients. The teacher-centered model highlights knowledge transmission and receipt of information [17], particularly from experts and textbooks, to help students interpret and learn well-defined concepts. Student-centered teaching beliefs are aligned with constructivist beliefs [16], which emphasize students’ activeness and self-reflection. In a student-centered context, teaching and learning are critical and engaging processes, meaning that both teachers and students are knowledge enablers. The constructivist model emphasizes the creation of an interactive learning environment that motivates critical thinking, self-discovery, and collaboration [18]. In this study, the authors considered Battista’s view that traditional and constructivist teaching and learning beliefs are the two major beliefs about teaching and learning. This categorization was adopted to facilitate data collection and analysis in this study [15].

2.3. Changes in Beliefs in the Context of TNHE

Teachers’ beliefs are comparatively stable. However, these can and often do change with experience [19,20]. Whether and to what extent teachers’ beliefs change is related to the initial beliefs that most teachers have when they are educated in university and the teaching experience they acquire from their work context [21,22]. Owing to the nature of belief constructs, people adopt more innate/fixed or learned abilities related to the acquisition or teaching of knowledge [23]. Interaction or collaboration is a theme related to the source of teaching knowledge and refers to co-construction through knowledge sharing and collaboration [24]. Moreover, learning to teach from colleagues or experts is related to the source of teaching knowledge [25]. Beliefs can change with collaborative teaching experience, as teachers who work in TNHE institutions are socialized within an international context [26].

Teaching and learning in the context of TNHE are influenced by the involved partners’ epistemological perspectives and beliefs regarding knowledge acquisition. It is crucial to learn that teachers enter the classroom cross-nationally with a similar motive, that is, a desire to create knowledge with their students [27,28,29]. However, teachers’ beliefs and pedagogies vary [30]. For example, inquiry-oriented beliefs are more popular in American mathematics instruction; accordingly, educational institutions recommend teaching practices that actively construct students’ reasoning and creativity [31]. By contrast, teachers in Asian countries, where a high-distance culture dominates, believe in authority as a source of knowledge and tend to apply traditional teaching beliefs in pedagogy [32]. In transnational and collaborative exchanges, teachers build their capacities and have the opportunity to learn from each other [33,34]. Li examined the teaching beliefs of preschool teachers in China regarding teaching mathematics after observing mathematics lessons conducted in the United States [35]. Collaborative teaching builds an advantageous curriculum, pedagogy, and culture that capitalizes on the knowledge and expertise of collaborative teaching teams [36,37]. For example, Chen investigated the teacher self-efficacy and cultural competence of university faculty members working in a TNHE [38]. However, few studies have explored epistemological beliefs or beliefs about teaching through transnational teaching experiences.

2.4. Overview of TNHE Institutions and Programs in China

The Chinese Ministry of Education reported that by 2022, there were 2332 TNHE programs and TNHE institutions approved (https://www.crs.jsj.edu.cn (accessed on 7 April 2023)). Of these, 1230 were for undergraduate degrees or higher. These collaborations involve universities and higher education institutions in the United Kingdom, United States, France, Israel, and others. The combined enrollment of students in these TNHE programs and institutions exceeded 300,000 students at the undergraduate level or above. The areas with the most significant concentrations of TNHE programs and institutions were Beijing, Shanghai, and Jiangsu, with Beijing alone hosting 59 TNHE programs by 2022 (https://www.crs.jsj.edu.cn (accessed on 7 April 2023)).

Table 2. Samples of course catalogue from TNHE.

TNHE Institutions	Sample Course	Learning and Teaching Principles	Learning Contents	Learning Hours	Assessment Methods
University of Nottingham Ningbo China	Introduction to Business & Management	Students’ existing knowledge can either facilitate or impede the learning process. To achieve learning objectives, effective teaching requires the adoption of suitable teaching roles that provide the necessary support.	This module offers an overview of management and organizational behavior topics, strategic decision-making, and the case study method of learning.	150 h	Team presentation (30%); Forum participation (10%); Exam (60%).
Southampton International College in Dalian Polytechnic University	English for Art and Design	Self-directed learning refers to students’ ability to observe and adapt their learning methods. Effective teaching includes continuously acquiring knowledge about students and utilizing that information to shape course design and classroom instruction.	The purpose of this module is to enable students to develop English communication skills necessary to gain knowledge and cultivate an understanding and appreciation of art and design with regard to historical and contemporary cultures.	146 h	Oral presentation (25%); Essay (25%); Listening and reading exam (50%).

presents the samples of the TNHE institutions and programs in China.

Although TNHE institutions and programs have developed rapidly in China, few studies have focused on changes in beliefs among Chinese teachers. Thus, this study fills the research gap in understanding how beliefs change following Chinese teachers’ engagement in TNHE practices related to collaborative teaching.

3. Materials and Methods

This study adopted a mixed research method in which qualitative data were emphasized and analyzed to explain the quantitative results. In the quantitative phase, a survey was conducted with the participants, adapting the framework developed by Chan and Elliott [10]. Principal component factor analysis (PCA) was used to determine epistemological beliefs and beliefs about teaching and learning [39]. Because the qualitative research design included a longitudinal survey, a comparison of the pre- and post-TNHE working scales was conducted at the beginning of the first academic year and at the end of the fourth academic year. The questionnaires were collected anonymously to encourage honest responses.

Sometimes, teachers are tempted to respond according to what they believe that they are supposed to think or behave, instead of what they actually believe. One possible explanation for the inconsistencies between teachers’ responses and actual beliefs could also be explained in part by the teachers’ belief measurement used [40]. To minimize such inconsistencies, qualitative data were used to create a comprehensive and detailed description of teachers’ beliefs. A semi-structured interview design was selected because it could reveal and further recognize participants’ true beliefs and attitudes. In semi-structured interviews, researchers can directly interact with the participants to observe their frankness or hesitation. Furthermore, they could process dilemmas to encourage participants to be open to sharing. Moreover, they are able to control the interview flow rather than use a rigid script. Thus, they could maximize their communication with the respondents. Thus, based on the survey results, the researchers of this study created a list of open-ended, semi-structured interview questions in connection with the following research question: How do Chinese teaching faculty members’ epistemological beliefs and beliefs about learning and teaching change after acquiring TNHE working experience?

3.1. Participants

Participants were selected from the following eight TNHE institutions in China based on their geographical distribution: Southampton International College at Dalian Polytechnic University, Houston International Institute at Dalian Maritime University, TDU at Beijing University of Technology, Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications–Queen Mary University of London Joint Degree Programme, Shanghai Jiao Tong University SJTU-UM Joint Institute, Shanghai University of Finance and Economics, University of Central Lancashire Joint Programme, University of Nottingham Ningbo China, Missouri Institute at Xiamen University of Technology, and Institute of Creativity and Innovation at Xiamen University. The number of teachers working in these TNHE institutions over the last four years was 362. Considering the disciplinary distribution and partnership institution countries, 300 participants were randomly selected, and data collection from these participants initially resulted in 280 questionnaires. These participants completed the first questionnaire during the first week of September 2018. They completed the same questionnaire again in June 2022. However, some participants did not complete both the pre- and post-surveys, and some changed jobs during the study. In total, 224 participants met the inclusion criteria.

Table 3. Demographic variable analysis.

Items	Categories	Count	Column N %	Mean	SD
Gender	Men	49	21.9%
	Women	175	78.1%
Degree	Master’s degree	94	42.0%
	Doctorate degree	130	58.0%
Age				38	3
Working years				7	2
Disciplines	STEM	84	37.5%
	Art and design	62	27.7%
	Language	52	23.2%
	Finance and management	26	11.6%

presents the descriptive statistics of the variables under study, showing an average age of 38 years (SD = 3) and an average work experience of seven years; 58% of the participants had a doctorate degree, and 175 teachers were women.

In TNHE institutions and programs, teaching faculties from different nations must cooperate in lesson delivery, teaching material preparation, and assessment. Collaboration emphasizes critical thinking training and academic knowledge [41]. Owing to the quality assurance system of joint programs and joint management mechanisms, the general emphasis on pedagogical orientation in TNHE tends to be constructivist. However, as collaborative programs are administered by the Chinese Education Ministry, it is uncertain how constructivist beliefs apply to lesson delivery and curriculum design.

3.2. Instrument Development

To design a survey that precisely measured Chinese teachers’ belief changes, the researchers selected questionnaire items from the study by Chan and Elliott [10]. Because the participants interacted with others in English in the working scenario and were proficient in English, the questionnaire items were modified for the TNHE context and the English version was retained. All scales were pilot tested in previous studies [42,43].

Table 4. Components, factors, and items used in the questionnaires.

Component	Factor	Items
Component 1: Epistemological beliefs	Innate/Fixed Ability (IA)	8
	Learning Effort and Process (EFP)	11
	Authority of Knowledge (AK)	6
	Certainty of Knowledge (CK)	5
Component 2: Beliefs about teaching and learning	Traditional Teaching (TT)	9
	Constructivist Teaching (CT)	5

lists the six factors used in the PCA. Based on the literature review, the six factors were grouped into two belief components for further discussion (Table 3): beliefs about knowledge (IA, EFP, AK, and CK) and beliefs about teaching and learning (CT and TT).

The survey instrument comprised Questionnaires 1 and 2 and a demographic section asking participants to provide their demographic data before completing the questionnaires. Questionnaire 1 was designed to examine TNHE Chinese teachers’ epistemological beliefs. Questionnaire 2 was designed to examine beliefs regarding teaching and learning using the same sample. The questionnaire items were rated on a Likert scale ranging from 1 (totally disagree) to 6 (totally agree) [44].

4. Results

4.1. Quantitative Analysis

4.1.1. PCA Analysis

To evaluate the construct validity of the scales employed in this study, a principal component analysis (PCA) was conducted to assess epistemological beliefs and beliefs about teaching and learning.

Table 5. PCA of epistemological beliefs.

Items	Factors
	1	2	3	4
IA 1. There is not much you can do to make yourself smarter as your ability is fixed at birth.	−0.086	0.826	−0.040	−0.151
IA 2. Intelligence is fixed at birth and cannot be developed further.	0.021	0.815	0.001	−0.007
IA 3. One’s cultural background affects his ability to achieve academic success in TNHE.	−0.098	0.839	0.023	−0.065
IA 4. Some people are simply born with extraordinary capacity for learning than others.	0.055	0.826	−0.078	−0.098
IA 5. Some students are naturally better suited to succeed in TNHE than others.	0.008	0.844	−0.040	−0.073
IA 6. Academic success is innate/inborn rather than dependent on hard work.	−0.072	0.809	−0.111	−0.096
IA 7. Students who begin study in TNHE with “average” ability remain “average” throughout four-year higher education.	0.044	0.823	−0.061	−0.011
IA 8. The better performing students in TNHE do not have to work hard to do well in studies.	0.001	0.817	−0.038	−0.004
EFP1. If you cannot understand something right away, you need to keep on studying for continuous improvement.	0.842	−0.002	0.007	0.056
EFP2. Knowing how to learn is more important than the acquired facts.	0.866	0.046	−0.022	−0.037
EFP3. Collaboration and group work are important for success in TNHE.	0.855	−0.018	−0.023	0.040
EFP4. Cultural background influences students’ preferred learning style in TNHE.	0.849	0.004	−0.042	0.060
EFP5. Everyone needs to learn how to learn.	0.845	−0.042	0.051	0.072
EFP 6. Students will learn better if they focus more on the process of understanding, rather than the facts to be acquired.	0.834	0.049	−0.010	0.021
EFP 7. Academic success is determined by the amount of effort put into learning.	0.822	0.024	−0.010	−0.074
EFP 8. How much you benefit from your learning depends mostly on your practice and dedication to improve your learning skills.	0.823	−0.088	0.007	0.073
EFP 9. Advancing ahead requires much work.	0.817	−0.004	0.075	−0.012
EFP 10. If one endeavors sincerely, then one will understand the course material.	0.816	−0.051	−0.039	0.004
EFP 11. Wisdom is not knowing the answers but knowing how to find the answers.	0.829	−0.065	−0.028	0.023
AK 1. Sometimes, I do not believe the knowledge in textbooks or journals written by professors and experts.	−0.037	0.045	0.872	0.001
AK 2. Even knowledge claims from authority figures in my field of study should be questioned sometimes.	−0.066	−0.050	0.804	0.089
AK 3. I believe knowledge is culturally specific and shaped by context in TNHE.	−0.009	0.012	0.798	0.127
AK 4. I am aware that teachers/lecturers know much more than I do and therefore, I agree with what they say is important rather than rely on my own judgment.	0.024	−0.074	0.792	0.025
AK 5. I believe that personal experience and critical thinking are as authoritative as academic literature and research in TNHE.	0.036	−0.084	0.780	0.046
AK 6. Knowledge claims should be based on evidence and data rather than on authorities.	0.023	−0.136	0.819	−0.001
CK 1. Scientists will ultimately discover the truth if they keep searching for it.	0.012	−0.093	0.049	0.856
CK 2. Cultural conditions and personal experience are equal knowledge in TNHE.	0.042	−0.065	0.062	0.759
CK 3. There are absolute truths in the field of your study.	0.049	−0.033	0.031	0.821
CK 4. I believe there should exist a teaching method applicable to all learning situations.	0.009	−0.082	0.007	0.775
CK 5. Knowledge in TNHE is certain and not subject to change depending on cultural context.	0.023	−0.097	0.104	0.670
Total Var. Expl.	8.687	5.390	4.531	3.370
% Var. Expl.	28.956	17.966	15.103	11.233

and

Table 6. PCA of beliefs on teaching and learning.

Items	Factors
	1	2
CT 1. Every student is unique or special and deserves an education tailored to his or her needs, considering their cultural background and prior knowledge.	0.866	0.012
CT 2. Efficient teachers always make their students feel important, regardless of their cultural background, language proficiency, or academic ability.	0.815	−0.057
CT 3. Teachers should facilitate cross-cultural communication and exchange of ideas among students.	0.851	−0.039
CT 4. Efficient teachers always encourage students to think critically and independently.	0.816	−0.016
CT 5. The ideas of students are important and should be carefully considered, particularly in a TNHE teaching context where diverse perspectives are valuable.	0.867	−0.046
CT 6. Different objectives and expectations in learning should be applied to different students, considering their academic goals.	0.828	−0.048
CT 7. It is important that a teacher understands the feelings of the students.	0.879	−0.047
CT 8. Instruction should be sufficiently flexible to accommodate individual differences among students, including differences in language proficiency and prior knowledge.	0.872	−0.017
CT 9. Learning means students respect and appreciate the diverse perspectives of others.	0.863	−0.018
TT 1. It is the responsibility of teachers to address any learning misconception or misunderstanding of students immediately.	−0.076	0.884
TT 2. During the lecture, it is important to keep the students confined to the textbook and desks.	0.032	0.873
TT 3. Teaching is simply conveying information through speaking, presenting, or explaining the subject matter.	−0.039	0.873
TT 4. The traditional teaching method is superior because it covers greater amount of information and knowledge.	0.027	0.821
TT 5. Teaching is to provide students with accurate and complete knowledge rather than encourage them to discover and appreciate diverse perspectives of thinking.	−0.102	0.835
Total Var. Expl.	5.074	3.893
% Var. Expl.	36.243	27.809

present the outcomes of the post-test PCA along with the item loading values.

In the principal component analysis, the eigenvalues were greater than 1, and the factor loadings were above 0.5, as shown in both Table 5 and Table 6, indicating convergent validity [45]. Four factors were identified (Table 4), and the variance explanation rates of these four factors after rotation were 28.956%, 17.966%, 15.103%, and 11.233%, respectively. These four factors jointly explained approximately 73.258% of the cumulative variance after rotation.

Two factors were extracted, as presented in Table 6, which together explained approximately 64.052% of the cumulative variance. All item loadings in Table 6 are greater than 0.50, demonstrating convergent validity [46]. Based on the test results, all six factors were considered valid.

4.1.2. Reliability Analysis

Convergent validity was assessed using composite reliability (CR) and average variance extracted (AVE) [47]. The acceptable AVE value was 0.5, and the acceptable CR value was 0.7 [46].

Table 7. Index of the reliability of all scales.

Factors	AVE	CR
CT	0.691	0.953
TT	0.671	0.911
IA	0.642	0.935
EFP	0.67	0.957
AK	0.597	0.899
CK	0.527	0.846

presents the average variance extracted for the six factors used in this study; all factor scales consistently demonstrated satisfactory convergent validity. As indicated in the Materials and Methods section, these six factors were grouped into two distinct belief categories, epistemological beliefs (IA, EFP, AK, and CK) and beliefs about teaching and learning (CT and TT), to facilitate further discussion.

4.1.3. Descriptive Analysis and Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test Results

Because the questionnaire was answered in the form of a 6-point ordinal scale used by the participants to rate the degree to which they agreed or disagreed with the statements, non-parametric tests were used for data analysis. To demonstrate whether there was a significant difference in the responses before and after the survey in regard to epistemological beliefs and beliefs about learning and teaching since working in a TNHE setting, a Wilcoxon signed-rank test for paired samples was conducted (Table 7). As presented in Table 7, six sets of paired data are statistically significant (p < 0.05). This finding confirms that collaboration in teaching experiences can elicit teachers’ beliefs, supporting Smith and Winn’s conclusion that this relationship is reciprocal [48].

The results of the Wilcoxon signed-rank test for paired samples indicated a significant positive change in the teachers’ beliefs about CT from the pre-survey (M = 4.067, SD = 1.206) to the post-survey scores (M = 5.286, SD = 0.919). The Wilcoxon test results in

Table 8. Comparison between pre- and post-test results.

Factors	Pre-Test		Post-Test
	Mean	S.D.	Mean	S.D.	Z	p	Sig.
CT	4.067	1.206	5.286	0.919	−9.501	<0.001	**
TT	3.807	1.488	3.538	1.320	2.592	0.01	*
IA	3.523	1.339	3.830	1.291	−2.613	0.009	**
EFP	5.252	1.134	5.022	1.026	3.483	<0.001	**
AK	4.542	1.298	3.112	1.341	9.236	<0.001	**
CK	4.231	1.267	3.839	1.183	3.502	<0.001	**

* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01.

showed a Z value of −9.501 with p < 0.001, which indicated a significant difference in scores between the pre- and post-survey for the CT variable [49]. The mean TT score showed the most significant negative change, decreasing by 0.269 points. The significant changes between the pre- and post-survey scores in beliefs about CT and TT demonstrated that the teachers formed much more positive beliefs about the constructivist teaching model after working in a TNHE setting. Moreover, the result echoed the goals of the education policies in TNHE. The mean IA score demonstrated a mean increase of 0.31 point at post-survey and the Z value was −2.613, indicating that the participants focused more on fixed abilities. In conclusion, based on the Wilcoxon test, it can be concluded that there are differences in scores between the pre- and post-survey for the CT, TT, IA, LELP, AK, and CK variables, indicating a significant impact of TNHE working experience on these factors.

4.2. Qualitative Analysis

Capturing an accurate understanding of individuals’ belief systems can be challenging because some teachers are unaware of their own beliefs [50]. Consequently, when exploring participants’ beliefs, combining quantitative and qualitative research methods may enhance the reliability of the findings [51]. For these reasons, semi-structured interviews were conducted concerning the participants’ beliefs about epistemology, teaching, and learning, focusing on their practical experiences. Participants (N = 10) with an increase of more than one point were categorized into the positive group for semi-structured interviews. The second group included participants (N = 10) who demonstrated a change within one point or no change from the pre- to post-survey. Participants (N = 10) with scores decreasing by more than one point were grouped into the negative change category. The semi-structured interview analysis corroborated the quantitative results, showing changes in beliefs about epistemology, teaching, and learning.

The semi-structured interview protocol probed the core issues of epistemological beliefs and beliefs about teaching and learning. It was developed based on the existing literature [51,52] and the results of the quantitative analysis. We raised broad questions targeting belief changes, such as asking the participants to identify distinct mindsets and experiences and comparing differences and similarities in their beliefs at pre- and post-test. We thought that having participants share their ideas and experiences in detail would help us explore answers to the research question. The first three interview questions asked about changes in epistemological beliefs, and the fourth and fifth questions addressed changes in beliefs about learning and teaching. The interview questions were as follows:

• (Epistemological belief) When you are learning new knowledge, what proportion will you attribute to your innate ability and to your learning effort/learning process since you taught in a TNHE institution? Why?
• (Epistemological belief) Do you believe that insistence can tackle difficulties in learning since you taught in a TNHE institution?
• (Epistemological belief) Do you think knowledge can change since you taught in the TNHE institution?
• (Beliefs on teaching and learning) In your opinion, what is the role of teachers in the classroom?
• (Beliefs on teaching and learning) What is the best teaching strategy you have used in your instruction since you taught at the TNHE institution? Why?

We conducted 15 min semi-structured interviews online or in person in a one-to-one interview setting. The interviews were conducted with one author in English and audio recordings. The text data comprised 31,012 words from the transcription. After data collection, we undertook an “intensive reading” approach [53] to transcribe and analyze, constructing the codes and extracting the main themes and subthemes from the data. To ensure the reliability and validity of the qualitative research, we placed considerable emphasis on the “indigenous concept” [54] and excluded it from data coding. We asked the two coders to review and validate the major themes extracted from the interviews.

Table 9. Samples of coding analysis.

Description	Categorization	Analytic codes	Examples
Teaching differences	Beliefs on teaching and learning	Reasons for changes	I did not realize how different is teaching and delivery, and how much I need to know about how to collaborate with foreign teachers
Questions and interest valuation	Beliefs on teaching and learning	Constructivist concept belief	I encourage students’ question pursuit and I value their interest.
Instruction and frustration	Beliefs on teaching and learning	Traditional concept belief	I usually give students some instructions in case of frustrations.
Academic ability and effort	Epistemological beliefs (IA)	Growth mindset	I think students could grow their academic abilities through effort and persistence.
Knowledge acquisition	Epistemological beliefs (EFP)	Learning process	Previously, I believed that acquiring knowledge is important for students. However, now I believe knowing how to learn is more important.
Learning and new knowledge	Epistemological beliefs (AK)	Facilitator in students’ learning	I don’t think students must value learning what I’m teaching. They need to be critical about the new knowledge.
Knowledge changes	Epistemological beliefs (CK)	Knowledge production	The more I teach, the more I believe that knowledge changes because it is driven by changes in society and individual characteristics.

presents the results of the thematic coding analysis.

4.2.1. Two Themes Emerging from the Semi-Structured Interviews—Constructivist Belief or Traditional Belief

The above analyses of the mean differences (CT = 1.219, TT = −0.269) in the TNHE teachers’ teaching and learning beliefs revealed that, after working in the TNHE institutions, most teachers reported more constructionist epistemological beliefs. This developmental trend was consistent with the findings of Mansour et al. [55].

The interviews confirmed that international collaboration increased constructivist beliefs. As Interviewee 10 said, “It was a tremendous culture shock… I had no idea about how to interact with students and guide them to think independently, or how to teach it”. Interviewee 11 agreed and said, “I did not realize how different is teaching and delivery, and how much I need to know about how to collaborate with foreign teachers”. The change toward a constructivist model was related to collaborative teaching experiences at the beginning of the TNHE program, during which they were faced with conflicts and ambiguities in their new role as cooperative partners, for example, the all-round ability requirement from the joint program specifications (Interviewee 1), dullness reported by students because of traditional input (Interviewee 10), and negative feedback on lack of interaction or student involvement from external quality examiners (Interviewee 16).

When asked the question, “What is the best teaching strategy you used in your class?”, most interviewees stated that the constructivist method was the best for student development, and observed that students were more motivated and active after self-exploration and independent study. Moreover, they admitted that their foreign colleagues could encourage students to be more confident and fruitful by explaining concepts through activities or experimental learning methods.

Teaching collaboration raises pedagogical awareness in student-centered instruction. Some interviewees emphasized critical thinking and self-study abilities in academic knowledge acquisition, and they tended to become more constructivist after collaborating with foreign peers. For example, Interviewee 7 said, “There is an old Chinese saying that the master leads you to the door, but the rest is up to you”. Critical thinking and self-study are important in university education, as mentioned by an interview: “My foreign colleagues would incorporate critical thinking training in brief and assessment, and I need to practice students’ critical thinking capacity accordingly. They are the foundation for students’ academic development and research capability. I always encourage my students to read and research, and I support them in creating new ideas from the foundation”.

Interestingly, seven interviewees revealed that they tended to hold both CT and TT beliefs about their teaching strategies, which cater to the varying needs of students at different levels of study. These interviewees believed that sometimes, one-way input is better for low-performance students because they are passive (Interviewee 13). Activities and group research are a waste of time in class because students cannot understand basic concepts (Interviewee 24). These interviewees tended to be more supportive of IA, indicating that study capacity is an inherent ability. Teachers should provide direct instruction to those who are less talented. Once students have mastered their basic knowledge, they can guide them in developing and engaging in exploration and inquiry activities. These interviewees respected the patience and devotion of their foreign colleagues; however, they believed that it was useless for some students and that the didactic approach was a better method. Moreover, because Chinese culture emphasizes harmony and collectivism, they seldom express this belief to their foreign peers when criticizing inequality [56].

4.2.2. Four Themes Emerging from the Semi-Structured Interviews—IA, EFP, AK, and CK

The first theme (IA), which investigated changes in beliefs about learning and teaching, demonstrated a slight increase from the pre-test score (M = 3.523) to the post-test score (M = 3.830) (p < 0.005). This minor increase in the mean value indicated that collaborative teachers continued to hold negative beliefs about inborn or fixed abilities and believed that learning abilities could grow or be acquired. However, they tend to hold more naïve beliefs about this component after acquiring collaborative work experience. The interview results also echoed the quantitative data. When answering the question, “When you are learning new knowledge, what proportion will you attribute to your innate ability and to your learning effort/learning process?” 21 of the 30 interviewees selected more than 50% of the EFP, indicating that learning effort was more important than fixed ability when acquiring new knowledge. However, some interviewees emphasized their innate abilities: “Previously, I believed hard work was the most important capability, however, I observed that although some students are very hard working, they cannot achieve better scores. I believe people have advantages in certain subjects and disadvantages in others”. (Interviewees 17, 20, 21). Interviewee 4 expressed this juxtaposition: “I believe it is something you cannot really know until you join the collaborative teaching, however, once you become more experienced in collaboration, you will make it and I can use everything I have learned from other collaborative teachers”.

The second theme (EFP), which dealt with changes in beliefs about the learning effort/learning process, demonstrated a slight decrease from the pre-test score (M = 5.252) to the post-test score (M = 5.022) (p < 0.005). This also echoed the first interview question’s response: the interviewees attached more importance to their innate abilities. In Confucian culture, Chinese would place great value on effort and work. This was statistically supported by the high pre-test mean value (5.252). For example, Interviewee 6 indicated that poor performance in study was related to not only intelligence but also learning behaviors. However, work experience in collaborative teaching appeared to lower the importance of hard work as an attribute of academic achievement. When asked “Do you believe that insistence can tackle with difficulties in learning?” some interviewees shared their collaborative teaching experiences. Interviewee 9 expressed that he had the ability, readiness, and responsibility to adopt student-centered strategies. However, he failed to adopt a less traditional model in class. He said, “I believe in arousing student interest and organizing interactive activities in class. However, when I attempted to do so, I failed. My teaching continues to be teacher centered. I believe I do not have that ability. Foreign peers appear to be born with interactive skills. That is also what I believe about my students. I found that although some students study and do research every day, they cannot achieve a better score. I believe they do not have innate ability in certain disciplines”.

The interview question that deeply explored the third theme (AK) asked about participants’ expectations of authority. When asked whether they believe what experts say or write is correct, the teachers’ decreased belief indicated less significance being on the belief in authority, as demonstrated in the surveys as well as in the interviews. The interviewees indicated that collaboration decreased their belief in experts. Interviewee 2 also supported this belief change with her personal experience, “I believe I have learned much from working in a TNHE institution. Moreover, I believe I asked more questions instead of understanding what needs to be done. I realized I cannot have all the students learn everything they need. However, I am more confident now because I have some experience from my collaborative colleagues and know how to guide students to self-explore”. However, most interviewees continued to respect the authority and experts, as mentioned by one interview: “I believe we can doubt, however, experts and textbooks continue to be always right”. This echoed the post-test mean score in AK, which was 3.112, indicating that the teachers expected the authorities and experts to hand down knowledge. This originated in Confucianism, which requires Chinese students to respect teachers and seldom doubt them. However, after the Chinese teachers were exposed to both Chinese and Western cultures in TNHE, they did not abide by experts as strongly as before.

The fourth theme (CK), which dealt with changes in beliefs about the certainty of knowledge, demonstrated a decrease in the mean from pre-test (4.231) to post-test (3.839). This enormous increase in the awareness of knowledge tentativeness aligned with the findings of the semi-structured interviews. When asked the question, “Do you think knowledge can change?” Interviewee 8 provided examples of teaching materials to illustrate his perspective: “It was tremendous pressure to update teaching materials, particularly at the beginning of this programme. There was much pressure on me, and I am not sure whether I delivered the correct knowledge to my students, because collaborative team revised the teaching materials every academic year to maintain the academic frontier”. Moreover, different quality assurance mechanisms drive Chinese teaching faculties’ awareness of their responsibility and capability to meet the requirements of an external expert panel. For Interviewee 22, collaboration in teaching increased quality awareness, which in turn increased concerns about responsibility, curriculum design, and lesson delivery: “It was more of a concern that I may not be fully equipped to teach in a TNHE institution. External experts report was important for me to implement change in teaching knowledge and academic knowledge”.

5. Discussion

This study aimed to investigate whether Chinese teachers’ beliefs changed after acquiring TNHE work experience. Many Chinese teachers expressed high acceptance of constructivist beliefs after collaborating with their foreign peers. Both the qualitative and quantitative results showed positive overall changes in epistemological, teaching, and learning beliefs in the current research.

5.1. Changes in Epistemological Beliefs

An important finding regarding teachers’ epistemological beliefs was that most teachers shifted to the constructivist model. Teaching knowledge is an international collaborative effort between teachers and learners in TNHE institutions. From this perspective, teaching should be more about facilitating learning opportunities and promoting critical thinking rather than simply transmitting information. TNHE often embraces this view by incorporating project-based learning and other collaborative activities.

Furthermore, some of the teachers had co-existing epistemological beliefs. They believed in the constructivist model and simultaneously had naïve beliefs that certain academic knowledge is an inborn ability and that learning effort is not the most influential factor in student achievement. Some participants believed that students with lower intellectual abilities would benefit more from structured, teacher-centered instruction, whereas those with higher intellectual abilities would thrive with less structured and more complex instruction. Ma’s research on epistemological beliefs explains this mixed belief. He defines epistemological beliefs as cognitive activities rather than a coherent system of knowledge resources, suggesting that different contextual conditions may produce different cognitive activities [57]. An alternative explanation is provided by the theoretical framework proposed by Woods and Cakir [28]; teachers may have various competing epistemological beliefs produced by multiple contextual patterns.

Initially, when working in a TNHE institution, the teaching faculty members assumed the role of teachers and, therefore, indicated a less constructivist outlook as they completed the first questionnaire. By the end of the fourth academic year, they reflected on their own performance and gradually changed to a constructivist model; for example, critical thinking and self-exploration became the criteria in students’ summative assessment. Learning through inquiry and interaction was advocated in the TNHE program specifications, tackling students’ misbehaviors without knowing much about the collaborative learning that might have been developed. The Chinese teachers encouraged students to participate in these activities. The change in beliefs indicated that after working in TNHE, most teachers paid less attention to students’ obedience in the classroom and developed more confidence in knowledge co-construction with students. Thus, it could be concluded that they became more student-centered after working in TNHE. Therefore, collaboration is a source of change in teachers’ beliefs. However, the participants who failed the inquiry tasks blamed the students for not engaging and demonstrated less confidence in their learning abilities. This indicates that teachers remained powerful in their classes. This finding echoes Hofstede’s cultural dimension suggesting a high power distance between people in Asian cultures [58].

Thus, we can conclude from the above inconsistency between epistemological beliefs and beliefs about teaching and learning that during the transitional period, teachers may struggle with belief issues. As collaborative teaching brings forth provisional selves, it is imperative for teachers to explore and evaluate them, ultimately determining which beliefs align with their teaching philosophy.

5.2. Changes in Beliefs on Learning and Teaching

With regard to teaching and learning beliefs, there has been a remarkable change in knowledge authority. This belief change stems from Western epistemology, which states that knowledge evolves and changes [59]. Foreign peers often emphasize the importance of innovation and creativity in thinking and problem solving. Therefore, authority figures and experts are always questioned, and teachers are inclined to self-construct and not transmit knowledge.

Subtle variations were observed in learning efforts, indicating a difference between pre- and post-collaborative teaching work in TNHE institutions. The participants always considered learning efforts and processes as important. This finding is consistent with the research conducted by Leon-Carillo and Ma in the context of Confucian culture [57,60]. For example, in China, student teachers were found to emphasize learning efforts and processes, and to lean toward viewing innate ability as important [57,61]. According to Lima and Hsieh, the cultural influence of Chinese Confucianism may be the driving force behind the development of similar beliefs about learning efforts [1,62]. However, teachers also de-emphasize learning efforts by tagging students with low capabilities. The qualitative analysis verified that TNHE teachers faced comparable circumstances. These comparable circumstances led them to adopt the conviction that a lack of inherent ability diminishes the impact of exerting effort in the learning process. This confirms that the correlation between epistemological beliefs and beliefs about teaching and learning is complex [63,64]. Constructivist beliefs do not contradict naïve beliefs about teaching and learning. Strengthening teachers’ student-centered beliefs does not mean that their naïve beliefs have decreased.

In TNHE, knowledge is not tied to a specific culture or location but is a global and shared resource. This belief is reflected in the increasing mean value of certain knowledge, which promotes knowledge creation and exchange through TNHE programs. TNHE often includes interdisciplinary courses that encourage learners to explore new fields and ideas. As novices to teaching, teachers may be inclined toward the emergence of new knowledge and changes in a global society [65]. They are also aware that effective instruction goes beyond a teacher’s background and prior knowledge; it must also be responsive to the unique needs of students and consider various related factors, program specifications, and the social environment.

This study explored changes in beliefs regarding constructivist-oriented teaching. The finding supports the idea that teachers with teaching experience in TNHE institutions may be inclined toward sophisticated and co-existing epistemological beliefs. However, it is noteworthy that the participants in the present study with mixed epistemological beliefs tended to have a co-existing model of teaching, and some inconsistencies were found in the IA, EFP, AK, and CK components. This inconsistency indicates a small shift in opinion when working in TNHE. This implies that the teachers in this study did not change their rooting beliefs [66]. They had conflicts between their original beliefs about knowledge and teaching and their transnational work experience. This inconsistency suggests that Chinese teachers working in TNHE continue to transition from naïve to sophisticated beliefs. In this situation, they struggle with the gap between their beliefs and collaborative teaching practices.

5.3. Collaboration in Belief Changes

Collaborative teaching in TNHE resulted in an intervention that significantly increased the teachers’ growth mindset regarding their personal responsibility toward students’ learning needs, along with a significant decrease in their fixed mindset. This shift in mindset was compelling at the beginning because collaborative teaching had set different teaching content, learning outcomes, and assessment criteria, and yet was modified to be even more supportive of student growth. However, after working in TNHE for some time, there was an increase in the teachers’ mindset regarding professional development and their personal responsibility in teaching, along with a significant decrease in their fixed mindset. Teachers’ teaching skills and epistemological knowledge can be enhanced when it takes place in collaborative environments. Thus, the TNHE working experience is an effective mindset intervention that targets teachers’ belief systems related to epistemology, learning, and teaching [67].

Collaborative teaching in TNHE also brings some conflict and tension resulting from the conflicting belief systems among different partners. These conflicts show that teachers who are teaching knowledge learners in TNHE institutions have frequent opportunities to learn from foreign peers and engage in diverse educational interactions with colleagues. Different ideological positions in education can help teachers develop diverse perspectives [68]. This diversity in beliefs spurs conversations and reflections among TNHE teachers.

These conflicts would provide a transitional period from one-way delivery pedagogy to continuing professional development, cooperative influences from TNHE practice engagement, and collaborative teaching experiences. Through transnational teaching practice, this stage encourages teachers to move away from a rigid and controlled instructional style and embrace a more exploratory approach that values and respects students’ involvement in meaningful learning tasks [69].

6. Conclusions

As previously discussed, the changes observed in this study were both contextual and transitional. This longitudinal mixed-method study adds value to research on the sustainability of belief changes. It is important to further investigate cross-sectional and contextual designs to explore teaching faculties’ epistemology and pedagogical belief development patterns in TNHE to create tailored professional development activities for such emerging teaching teams.

Further investigation is required to explore the evolution of teachers’ beliefs regarding their professional journeys. To gain a clearer understanding of these issues, it is crucial to conduct further longitudinal research involving collaboration between multiple parties. As teaching faculty members become more experienced in dealing with the requirements of collaborative teaching, they become increasingly ambitious in practicing the constructivist ideas introduced during TNHE.

The consistency and inconsistency between epistemological beliefs and beliefs about teaching and learning indicate that changes in beliefs vary among teachers [70]. It is possible that TNHE teaching faculty members revert to traditional teaching practices after working for a period. Further research should focus on facilitating teachers’ development of their teaching beliefs while they transition from naïve to sophisticated beliefs.

Overall, this study provides empirical evidence that supports the development of tailored and sustainable professional opportunities for teachers. This indicates that epistemological and teaching perspectives play a crucial role in shaping teaching and learning experiences in TNHE, impacting teachers’ future development. Continuous development of teaching beliefs is essential for educators to adapt to changing educational contexts, stay abreast of research and best practices, and ultimately provide effective instruction to their students. The sustainability of changes regarding teacher beliefs about epistemology, teaching, and learning can be achieved through transnational teaching experiences.