Consumer Attitudes and Acceptability toward Edible New Zealand Native Plants

Abstract

This study aimed to investigate consumers’ perceptions, emotions, and acceptability of selected edible New Zealand native plants. A survey-type methodology was employed, recruiting participants voluntarily through email invitations. A total of N = 100 participants, ranging in age from 18 to 70 and with diverse ethnic backgrounds, were asked to answer questions regarding six specific edible New Zealand species and edible native plants in general. Results showed that participants had varying levels of familiarity with the specific plants, with a majority feeling “calm”, “happy”, and “interested” when presented with them. Factors deemed most important when thinking about the six selected plants included edibility and safety. When considering native plants in general, participants rated factors such as general nutrition, safety, and sustainability as important. The study found that a significant proportion of participants expressed a positive intention to consume native plants in the future, but the levels of interest varied depending on the demographic distribution. The study provides insights into consumer attitudes toward edible native plants and highlights the potential for these food ingredients to be included in mainstream diets.

1. Introduction

Millions of years ago, hunting animals and gathering plants were the main early human activities to obtain food. For most of their existence, humans have relied on edible wild plants, as well as a diverse assortment of insects, birds, fish, animals, and other derived food products. Between 20% and 30% of the plants on the globe (about 280,000 documented species), and probably 30% to 50% of mushroom species contain sections that can be consumed or are thought to be edible (e.g., providing nutrients and generally assumed to be safe for consumption) [1]. Today, consumers may readily have access to vegetables and meats in the supermarket, but the relationship between humans and food has always been complex throughout history.

With the increasing number of environmental problems over the past century, researchers have found strong connections between current food production systems and their negative effects on the environment. An evident example lies in the increasing consumer demand for meat, which has prompted farmers to intensify the production of livestock. This, in turn, has led to the increased release of methane through ruminants’ metabolic processes, amplifying carbon emissions—a significant contributor to global warming and a catalyst of associated environmental challenges. Moreover, climate change does not only negatively affect the environment but also people’s dietary choices and nutritional intake [2,3].

Therefore, researchers have looked for alternative production systems that can decrease the effects of mass-produced foods [4]. Agricultural scientists have been actively looking for ways to reduce the negative effects on the environment to conserve valuable resources such as energy, land, and water. One alternative to mitigate the effects of current food systems is the use of edible native plants (plants that have developed over a long time in a particular region or ecosystem) [5]. Unfortunately, in the past hundred years, the invasion of non-native species (or alien species) has not decreased but has intensified in several countries. Alien species cost the world an estimated 1.4 trillion USD annually, which means that about 5% of the global economy is affected by this segment [6]. At the same time, native plants in various countries have been severely threatened, and local soil microorganisms, species structures, and biodiversity are all being seriously impacted [7]. The introduction of alien species has emerged as a prominent factor influencing the decrease in utilization of native plants, not only in New Zealand but also in various other regions worldwide. In the specific case of New Zealand, the impacts of colonization and the subsequent introduction of alien species have contributed to a decline in the indigenous fauna and flora [7]. Consumption of edible native plants, traditionally and in the modern day, is a topic of interest due to the possible connections between these plants and nutrition/health. Furthermore, interest in these plants has grown due to the increasing concerns about the continued loss of biodiversity caused by human activity [8]. It is argued that it is urgent to document the indigenous knowledge of wild edible plants to conserve the genetic and cultural diversity [9].

Biodiversity plays an important role in ensuring sustainability and resilience in food systems. Previous studies have shown that the incorporation of wild native species can increase the nutrient content of monotonous diets, contribute to food security, and improve nutrition [10]. Moreover, the utilization of these plants can positively impact food security policies around the world [11]. For instance, traditional foods (including native wild plants) have been found to be perceived as healthy and tasty by local consumers in Guasaganda, central Ecuador [12]. These findings suggest that native plants can play a significant role in contributing to the nutrition and sustainability of local communities globally.

The conservation of native plants is critical in a nation with unique fauna and flora, such as New Zealand. New Zealand Customs has been committed to preventing the introduction of alien species, and it passed the most stringent national law, the ‘Biosecurity Act’, in 1993. The introduction of alien species after the law’s implementation has decreased significantly compared to previous years [13]. Meanwhile, the scientific community has started to pay more attention to native plants and their properties. However, most of the research on native plants has been focused on the fields of biology, environmental sciences, and economy [5]. The use of native plants in food production contributes to sustainable agriculture practices, enhances global food production diversity, and improves conventional crops through back-to-nature breeding [5]. Local native edible plants, serving as staple food for indigenous communities and supplementary food for others, play a vital role in ensuring global food security, maintaining traditional agro-ecosystems, and preserving cultural heritage [14]. Previous research highlighted the versatile applications of native plants worldwide, including culinary uses, while their cultivation mitigates ecological damage and preserves natural biodiversity [15].

Many factors influence consumers’ choices of foods including appearances, textures, smells, tastes, flavors, food values, previous experiences, and availability [16]. Expectations of consumers are created by extrinsic factors of the product, which include label information, country of origin, provenance, and others [17]. In general, products are successful in the marketplace when expectations can match consumers’ perceptions [18]. Consumers are expecting not only foods of higher quality, but also a greater variety of options, including year-round exotic foods (organic or conventional; local or imported; value-added, or traditional) [19]. Understanding and evaluating consumers’ motivations, perceptions, and preferences are critical steps for the food industry and governments.

Despite the perceived benefits of consuming edible native plants (such as nutrition, health, and environmental factors), the incorporation of these foods can also lead to resistance or rejection among consumers [8]. When attempting to be healthier and more sustainable, individuals are more inclined to make changes in their lives if they believe it would be relatively simple to do so. Typically, these behaviors are associated with increased personal wellbeing, ethical purchasing, and household actions (such as saving water at home, eating healthy foods, choosing products with less packaging, and buying from responsible brands) [20]. In fact, sustainable household consumption practices related to food, energy, and water can reduce the pressure on natural resources and carbon emissions [21].

Consumers are now looking for local ingredients due to increased environmental and ecological concerns [22]. Some of these ingredients incorporate root vegetables (including roots and subterranean storage organs such as bulbs, corms, tubers, and rhizomes), edible greens (leaves, stems, and shoots, including sea algae), fleshy fruits (berries, pomes, and drupes), grains, seeds, and nuts, which are all from edible native plants. Many of these foods are abundant and prolific, as well as very nutritious, tasty, and simple to gather [1]. The use of native plants could potentially contribute to support different food sustainable models but their perception as food needs to be studied. Thus, the objective of this research was to evaluate the consumers’ perceptions, emotions, and acceptability toward selected edible New Zealand native plants using a survey-type methodology. There were two mains research hypotheses in this study:

H1. 

The familiarity of participants with specific edible New Zealand native plants can be correlated with their perceptions and different emotions.

H2. 

The intention of participants to consume native plants in the future can be influenced by behavioral and demographic factors.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Stimuli

Preliminary screening by our research group identified 12 potential known edible New Zealand native plants (

Table 1. Pool of edible New Zealand native plants selected by preliminary trials.

Type	Typically Known	Scientific Name
Ferns	Shining spleenwort fern	Asplenium oblongifolium
	Kiokio fern	Parablechnum novae-zelandiae
	Pikopiko fern	Asplenium bulbiferum
Tree/shrubs	Tarata lemonwood	Pittosporum eugenioides
	Kanono	Coprosma grandifolia
	Rangiora bushman’s friend	Brachyglottis repanda
	Red matipo	Myrsine australis
	Kawakawa	Macropiper excelsum
Herbs	Sea celery	Apium prostratum
	Harakeke	Phormium tenax
	Ice plant	Disphyma austral
Others	Beach spinach	Tetragonia trigyna

) to be included in this study. These plants included three ferns, five trees/shrubs, three herbs, and one other not classified, all of which were edible. A total of n = 6 edible New Zealand native plants were selected (tarata lemonwood, kawakawa, kiokio, red matipo, pikopiko, and kanono) to be shown to participants in the survey. The selection criteria were their availability all year round (for sensory trials), and their potential to offer distinctive sensory properties (a parallel and preliminary sensory trial was run to evaluate the sensory differences of these plants). Kawakawa (Macropiper excelsum) stands out as the preeminent native plant species in New Zealand, enjoying widespread recognition. Kanono (Coprosma grandifolia) and red matipo (Myrsine australis) have both demonstrated utilization in traditional medicinal practices. Ferns such as pikopiko (Asplenium bulbiferum) and kiokio (Parablechnum novae-zelandiae) have also found diverse culinary applications. Lastly, lemonwood (Pittosporum eugenioides) is renowned for its distinctive citrus fragrance and notable sensory attributes.

2.2. Online Survey

The project evaluation protocol was approved by the Human Ethics Committee (HEC) of Lincoln University, New Zealand (ID 2020-22). An online survey of native plants was conducted. For this study, participants were recruited voluntarily via email invitations. Qualtrics (Qualtrics^®, Provo, UT, USA) was used to collect the responses from the online survey. Participants (N = 100) were asked to answer different questions regarding native plants, as well as some demographic/attitudinal questions [23]. The questionnaire took approximately 30 min (average time) to be completed by each participant. The survey consisted of three main sections (1. attitudes toward the selected six edible native plants, 2. attitudes toward native plants in general, and 3. demographic questions).

For Section 1, six edible native plants were shown to participants. The information they received was a photo of the plant and a brief description of its properties (

Table 2. Selected edible native plants included in the online survey (photo + description).

Native Plant	Photo *	Brief Description *
Tarata lemonwood		Tarata lemonwood is a species of New Zealand native evergreen tree. It has a strong lemony smell when the leaves are crushed. Thus, the Māori people used to chew sliced lemon tree bark mixed with its leaves as chewing gum.
Kawakawa		Kawakawa is a traditional medicinal plant of the Māori. It is used for bladder problems, boils, bruises, to relieve pain or toothache, or as a general tonic. Kawakawa berries are always used in salads, add in chutney, eat them fresh, or make them into tea.
Kiokio		One of the most commonly seen ferns all over NZ. Kiokio are edible, raw or cooked. Māori used to wrap food with kiokio to add flavor in a Hangi.
Red matipo		Red matipo grows naturally in coastal areas. Red matipo is often used to make a tea—its flavor is minty and tart. Red matipo contains embelin, a compound that helps treat skin diseases, intestinal worms, and general tonic. Its leaves also contain rutin, which is used to treat blood vessel problems, and glucuronide, which is used to relieve pain caused by arthritis and toothache. Red matipo is a health tonic known for removing plaque from the walls of blood vessels, helping to lower cholesterol and blood pressure.
Pikopiko		Pikopiko fern is truly native to New Zealand and grows in moist, shady places. Its young shoots are edible and taste a bit like green beans or asparagus. Peeled and steamed, boiled, or fried represent the most common cooking methods. Once the leaves have unfurled, the plant is not edible.
Kanono		Kanono is a native forest shrub of New Zealand. Kanono is found at the mountains across the North and South Islands. It has large leaves. The ripe berries are sweet and juicy with a slightly bitter aftertaste, and they are orange in color. Their ripening season is late summer to autumn.

* Photos were obtained from Wikimedia [24], and descriptions were obtained from Crowe [25].

). For this section, participants were asked about their familiarity with these plants (using a five-point scale: 1 = not familiar at all, 2 = slightly familiar, 3 = moderately familiar, 4 = very familiar, 5 = extremely familiar), the emotions that they felt with these plants (using the EsSense Profile^® and applying the check-all-that-apply (CATA) method with a list of 25 emotional terms: “active”, “adventurous”, “aggressive”, “bored”, “calm”, “disgusted”, “enthusiastic”, “free”, “good”, “good natured”, “guilty”, “happy”, “interested”, “joyful”, “loving”, “mild”, “nostalgic”, “pleasant”, “satisfied”, “secure”, “tame”, “understanding”, “warm”, “wild”, and “worried”), and the factors that they consider important when thinking about these plants (using the CATA method with the terms “unfamiliar”, “environmentally friendly”, “poisonous”, “sustainable”, “healthy”, ”familiar”, “common”, “edible”, “unique”, “freshness”, “nutrition”, and “taste”).

For Section 2, a general question about native plants was asked. Participants rated the importance of several factors when selecting edible New Zealand native plants for consumption using a nine-point Likert scale (1 = not at all important to 9 = extremely important). The factors that were rated included “general nutrition”, “health”, “familiarity”, “safety”, “environmentally friendly”, “natural”, “organic”, “edible”, “sustainable”, “freshness”, “general appearance”, “presentation”, “taste”, “uniqueness”, and “easy to prepare/cook”. Furthermore, a consumption intention question was asked to participants (“Do you intend to consume New Zealand plants in the future?”) using a nine-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 9 = strongly agree).

For Section 3, questions about the demographics and attitudinal characteristics of participants were asked. Demographic questions included gender, age, ethnicity, and income level. The behavioral characteristics included “familiarity with edible New Zealand native plants”, “belief that edible New Zealand native plants are safe”, and “whether they consumed edible New Zealand native plants in the past”. These were asked using a binomial scale (yes/no) type of question.

2.3. Preliminary Sensory Test of the Edible New Zealand Native Plants

A preliminary sensory test based on aroma was conducted with the six selected New Zealand plants (Table 2). A group of N = 10 panelists (nine females and one male), with previous experiences in sensory methods, split into two groups (five panelists each), participated in the test. The global Napping procedure [26] was used to evaluate the sensory properties (aroma) of the edible New Zealand native plants. A brief orientation (10 min) was provided to the participants. Then, a 43 cm × 56 cm white sheet paper and the six selected New Zealand plants were presented to them. The plants were washed, blended, and boiled for 10 min before the test. Samples (about 10 g at room temperature, 21 °C) were placed into plastic containers with lids. As per the global Napping procedure, participants were asked to smell the samples in any order. Upon smelling all samples, participants were instructed to arrange the sample on the paper sheet according to their sensory characteristics (aroma). They were instructed to place the most similar samples close together, and the most different samples further apart. After doing this, participants were asked to write down the sensory descriptors that they used to differentiate the samples.

2.4. Statistical Analysis

Data were analyzed using a significance level of α = 0.05, employing the XLSTAT Statistical Software (version 2019.4.2, Addinsoft, New York, NY, USA). The analysis of variance (ANOVA) and the post hoc Tukey honest significant difference (HSD) test were used to evaluate the significant variation in the familiarity levels of each plant and the factors influencing their consumption. For the CATA data, multivariate data analysis (correspondence analysis (CA) and principal coordinate analysis (PCoA)) [17] were applied. Standardized coefficients of the different importance factors for predicting the intention to consume edible New Zealand native plants were obtained from the linear regression analysis. The agglomerative hierarchical clustering (AHC) technique was used to classify participants according to their responses toward New Zealand native plants. The dissimilarity measure of proximity was used for the clustering criterion. Ward’s method of agglomeration was used for the clustering separation [27]. The center/reduce option was applied to avoid having cluster generation affected by scaling effects. The AHC yielded two groups that were then characterized according to their demographic and attitudinal characteristics.

For the global Napping, the X- and Y-coordinates of each sample of each participant (paper sheet) were measured using the lower left corner as the (0, 0) coordinate. Then, the factor mapping using the multiple factor analysis (MFA) was conducted according to Pagès [27] and analyzed using the FactoMineR (R version 4.0.3) statistical software package. Parametric bootstrapping was performed on the factor scores of each plant sample to produce 95% confidence ellipses [27]. Then, a principal component analysis (PCA) of the attributes, obtained in the Napping experiment regarding the edible native plants, was generated using the coordinates data.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Familiarity, Emotions, and Attitudes toward the Edible New Zealand Native Plants

In this research, N = 100 participants (64% female, age range 18–70, 33% white/Caucasian, 32% New Zealand European, and 23% Asian, all of them living/residing in New Zealand) answered the different questions regarding the native New Zealand plants.

Table 3. Least square means and standard error values * of familiarity levels ** for each edible New Zealand (NZ) plant.

NZ Native Plants **	LS Means ***
Tarata	2.52 ± 0.11 ab
Kawakawa	2.71 ± 0.11 a
Kiokio	2.31 ± 0.11 abc
Red matipo	1.89 ± 0.11 cd
Pikopiko	2.10 ± 0.11 bc
Kanono	1.52 ± 0.11 d

* Mean and standard error values of N = 100 participants. ** Familiarity with the NZ native plants was measured using a five-point Likert scale (1 = not familiar at all to 5 = extremely familiar). *** LS = least square. ^a–d Least square means with different superscripts in the LS means column indicate significant differences (p < 0.05) within the statements or claims groups using the post hoc Tukey honest significant difference (HSD) test.

shows the means and standard error values of the familiarity levels (five-point scale: 5 = extremely familiar) for each selected edible New Zealand native plant. In general, kawakawa (2.71), tarata (2.52), and kiokio (2.31) were the plants with the highest familiarity levels among participants. On the other hand, red matipo (1.89) and kanono (1.52) were the most unfamiliar plants of the set. Previous research has shown that familiarity plays a significant role in determining consumer acceptability of food products [28]. Familiarity has been found to provide a sense of security and reduce uncertainty about the food being consumed, which in turn can lead to a reduction in anxiety and doubts [28,29]. Furthermore, familiarity can make consumers feel more comfortable and open to trying new products. Among the six selected plants for this study, kawakawa has been the most extensively studied New Zealand native plant in terms of its potential as a food ingredient. The composition and safety of kawakawa were evaluated, and no adverse effects were found [30]. Additionally, the sensory properties of kombucha infused with kawakawa were also investigated [31], indicating that kawakawa is beginning to be utilized as a food ingredient in New Zealand. A Mintel Global New Products Database search yielded around 30 commercial food products with kawakawa appearing in the New Zealand market since 2009, mostly recently including tea blends and other beverages, seasonings and marinades, and meat and vegetarian products.

For the emotions toward the edible New Zealand native plants, the CA-PCA (Figure 1a) accounted for 69.65% of the total variability in the biplot (PC1 = 41.81% and PC2 = 27.84%). The PCA showed that pikopiko and tarata were associated with positive emotions such as “free”, “joyful”, “pleasant”, and “happy”. On the other hand, kawakawa, red matipo, and kiokio were clustered together opposite to pikopiko and tarata. Kawakawa and red matipo were related to positive and high-arousal emotions such as “wild” and “active”. However, kiokio was related to more neutral and low-arousal emotions such as “bored”, “calm”, and “good”. Conversely, kanono was not associated with any other plant, being related to “worried” and, to a lesser extent, the “disgusted” emotion. The PCoA (Figure 1b) showed that the overall familiarity of the plants was associated with the positive emotion “good-natured”, the negative emotion “worried”, and the neutral low-arousal emotion “nostalgic”. On the other hand, familiarity was negatively related to “interested”, “satisfied”, “free”, “active”, and “aggressive”.

The influence of emotions on food product evaluations is a significant aspect of consumer behaviors. Previous findings revealed that consumers tend to exhibit more favorable emotions toward familiar foods compared to unfamiliar products [28,32]. In the present study, the highest levels of familiarity were observed for kawakawa and tarata, which elicited positive emotions among participants. Additionally, kawakawa elicited high-arousal emotions such as “wild” and “active”, suggesting a heightened interest in this plant. This result confirms H1 and aligns with prior research indicating that high-density vegetation can lead to more positive emotions [33]. Conversely, food neophobia, or the fear of trying new food products, has been shown to negatively impact the perceptions of less familiar plant-based products [28]. Despite the fact that native plants may not be completely unfamiliar, their consumption may still be perceived as unconventional or uncommon by regular consumers.

In terms of the factors that participants consider important when thinking about edible New Zealand native plants, the CA-PCA (Figure 2) accounted for 74.44% of the total variability (PC1 = 47.93%, and PC2 = 26.52%). Kanono was related to “poisonous” and “unfamiliar”. Red matipo was associated with “edible”, “nutrition”, “taste”, and “unique”. Kawakawa was related to “healthy”. Kiokio and tarata were associated with “freshness”, “environment”, “sustainable”, “familiar”, and “common”. On the other hand, pikopiko was not related to any other plant nor factor.

The participants in the study associated kawakawa and red matipo with edibility and healthiness. However, the perceptions of other plants were based on a range of factors, including environmental friendliness, sustainability, taste, and edibility. A previous study by Mahwasane et al. [34] in South Africa found that consumers considered the quality of the plant (total appearance, health, and attractiveness), suitability, and longevity as the most important factors when choosing native plants for consumption. The present study results indicated that participants might have a different perception of native plants compared to conventional foods, as the familiar plant kawakawa was associated with “healthiness”. Consuming edible native plants can potentially have several benefits: (1) these plants are adapted to the local environment and, thus, typically require fewer resources, such as water and pesticides, for growth [35], (2) native plants provide food and habitat for native wildlife, promoting biodiversity, (3) consuming native plants can support local agriculture and contribute to food sovereignty by preserving traditional knowledge and cultural practices, and (4) these plants might offer unique flavors, textures, and nutritional properties, providing a diverse and sustainable food source.

3.2. Factors Affecting the Selection of Edible New Zealand Native Plants

Table 4. Least square means and standard error values * of importance levels ** regarding the factors influencing the selection of New Zealand (NZ) plants for consumption.

Factors **	LS Means ***
General nutrition	6.03 ± 0.21 de
Healthy	6.85 ± 0.21 cd
Familiarity	5.06 ± 0.21 ef
Safety	8.15 ± 0.21 ab
Environmentally friendly	6.66 ± 0.21 cd
Natural	6.00 ± 0.21 de
Organic	5.10 ± 0.22 ef
Edible	8.25 ± 0.21 a
Sustainable	7.21 ± 0.21 bc
Freshness	6.63 ± 0.21 cd
General appearance	5.32 ± 0.21 ef
Presentation	5.54 ± 0.21 ef
Taste	7.55 ± 0.21 abc
Uniqueness	4.97 ± 0.22 f
Easy to prepare/cook	5.99 ± 0.21 de

* Mean and standard error values of N = 100 participants. ** The importance of each factor was measured using a nine-point Likert scale (1 = not at all important to 9 = extremely important). *** LS = least square. ^a–f Least square means with different superscripts in the column indicate significant differences (p < 0.05), using the post hoc Tukey honest significant difference (HSD) test.

shows the means and standard error values of the importance levels (nine-point scale: 9 = extremely important) of the factors regarding the selection of New Zealand native plants for consumption. The factors including “edible” (8.25), “safety” (8.15), and “taste” (7.55) showed the highest scores regarding the level of importance. On the other hand, the factors “presentation” (5.54), “general appearance” (5.32), “organic” (5.10), “familiarity” (5.06), and “uniqueness” (4.97) showed the lowest scores. The linear regression analysis (Figure 3) for predicting the intention to consume edible New Zealand native plants showed comparable results to the ANOVA (Table 4). “Edible” and “healthy” had significant and positive effects on the intention to consume edible New Zealand native plants. On the other hand, the “easy to prepare/cook” factor had a negative effect on the same response.

Participants indicated that nutrition was considered to be only a relatively important factor when selecting edible New Zealand native plants. Instead, the primary concerns for participants were edibility and safety. This aligns with previous research, which has found that consumers tend to prioritize safety when dealing with unfamiliar products and technologies [36,37]. In addition to safety, the taste of native plants was found to be an important factor for participants in this study. It is well established that intrinsic factors such as taste, flavor, and texture can have a greater impact on consumer acceptability compared to extrinsic factors such as product information (including the sustainability of the production system) [23]. However, the relationship between product information and taste should not be overlooked, as it may have significant implications for the perception of edible New Zealand plants. Future research should focus on the interplay between intrinsic and extrinsic factors in determining consumer acceptability of native plants. By addressing the edibility, taste, and the impact of product information on consumer behaviors, wider adoption and consumption of these products might be possible in the future.

3.3. Participants Segmentation Regarding the Attitudes and Behaviors toward Edible New Zealand Native Plants

The AHC produced two distinct segments or classes, labeled as class 1 (58%) and class 2 (42%) (Figure 4). The demographic profile of these clusters is presented in

Table 5. Demographic and behavioral information of the two classes *.

Demographic/Behavior		Class *
		1	2
Gender	Male	32%	34%
	Female	66%	62%
	Prefer not to say	2%	4%
Age	18–24	2%	21%
	25–34	32%	17%
	35–44	27%	7%
	45–54	15%	28%
	55–64	22%	24%
	65 or older	2%	3%
Ethnicity	Native American	2%	0%
	Asian	24%	21%
	Latin American	10%	0%
	Māori	3%	7%
	NZ European	29%	38%
	White/Caucasian	32%	34%
Income	<20,000 NZD	5%	7%
	20,000–34,900 NZD	14%	7%
	35,000–49,900 NZD	10%	10%
	50,000–74,900 NZD	20%	17%
	75,000–99,900 NZD	29%	28%
	>100,000 NZD	22%	31%
Familiar with NZ plants (yes)		61%	62%
Believe NZ plants are safe (yes)		85%	86%
Consumption before (yes)		56%	45%

* Class groups were obtained from the hierarchical cluster analysis (AHC; Figure 4). Two class groups were obtained: class 1 (58%), class 2 (42%).

. The female-to-male ratio in both groups was similar, with a range of 62–66% females and 32–34% males. However, the age distribution between the two groups was different, with class 2 having a higher proportion (55%) of older participants (45 years and above) compared to class 1 (39%). On the other hand, class 1 had a higher proportion (21%) of young participants (18–24 years) compared to class 2 (2%). In terms of ethnicity, class 2 had a higher proportion of New Zealand European participants (38%) compared to class 1 (29%). The income distribution for both groups was comparable, with the majority of participants reporting an income of 50,000–100,000 NZD. Both groups had similar levels of familiarity with edible New Zealand native plants (61–62%) and perceived these plants to be safe for consumption (85–86%). An interesting finding was that class 1 had a higher proportion (56%) of participants who reported past consumption of these plants compared to class 2 (45%).

The importance factor scores for the selection of edible New Zealand native plants, when participants were segmented according to the cluster analysis, are shown in

Table 6. Centroids of the four classes * according to the importance factors for the selection of New Zealand (NZ) native plants.

Factors **	Class *
	1	2
General nutrition	6.34 ± 0.28 a	6.07 ± 0.32 a
Healthy	7.37 ± 0.23 a	6.24 ± 0.28 b
Familiarity	5.44 ± 0.36 a	4.76 ± 0.43 a
Safety	8.56 ± 0.20 a	7.66 ± 0.24 b
Environment	7.10 ± 0.32 a	6.21 ± 0.38 a
Natural	7.10 ± 0.32 a	5.24 ± 0.38 b
Organic	6.39 ± 0.31 a	3.59 ± 0.37 b
Edible	8.73 ± 0.20 a	7.76 ± 0.24 b
Sustainable	7.66 ± 0.28 a	6.48 ± 0.33 b
Freshness	7.22 ± 0.27 a	6.00 ± 0.32 b
Appearance	6.02 ± 0.31 a	4.66 ± 0.36 b
Presentation	6.27 ± 0.29 a	4.72 ± 0.34 b
Taste	7.98 ± 0.22 a	7.24 ± 0.27 b
Uniqueness	5.76 ± 0.37 a	4.38 ± 0.44 b
Easy to prepare/cook	6.85 ± 0.29 a	5.52 ± 0.35 b
Intention to eat NZ plants **	7.17 ± 0.26 a	5.10 ± 0.31 b

* Class groups were obtained from the hierarchical cluster analysis (AHC; Figure 4). Two class groups were obtained: class 1 (58%), class 2 (42%). ** The importance of each factor was measured using a nine-point Likert scale (1 = not at all important to 9 = extremely important). For the intention question, a nine-point Likert agreement scale was used (1 = strongly disagree to 9 = strongly agree). ^a,b Least square means with different superscripts in the row indicate significant differences (p < 0.05) for each factor, using the post hoc Tukey honest significant difference (HSD) test.

(Percentage values for all participants in this study can be seen in Table S1). Both groups demonstrated a similar trend to that reported in Table 4, with “edible”, “safety”, and “taste” being the factors with the highest scores in terms of importance. However, class 2 had consistently lower scores compared to class 1. For instance, the intention to eat edible New Zealand native plants was lower in class 2 (5.10) compared to class 1 (7.17). This suggests that class 1 participants, with a higher proportion indicating past consumption, foreign ethnicity, and being relatively younger, may have had a higher level of interest in consuming edible New Zealand native plants compared to class 2 participants.

The findings of this study offer significant insights into the potential consumer segments for edible New Zealand native plants and highlight the value of targeted marketing strategies (confirming H2). For instance, previous research has shown that female consumers and those residing in urban areas tend to have a higher inclination toward purchasing plant-based products [38]. Considerations for sustainability and animal welfare play a significant role in driving the purchasing behaviors of consumers. However, the segmentation of consumers is highly affected by the product category, and it can vary on the basis of the intrinsic and extrinsic characteristics of the product [23]. This emphasizes the importance of conducting a segmentation analysis as it is a crucial step in understanding the market to cater to the unique needs and preferences of different groups. By doing so, industries can improve the effectiveness of their marketing efforts, thus increasing their chances of success in the market.

The findings of the present study showed that individuals belonging to class 1 had a greater inclination toward edible New Zealand native plants compared to class 2. This might be explained by the relatively higher prevalence of younger individuals with a history of consuming native plants within this group. Previous research has established that demographic variations can have a significant effect on individuals’ perceptions and acceptance of various foods and ingredients [23]. Furthermore, the lack of familiarity with certain foods can negatively affect consumers’ interest and acceptance [28]. Given that knowledge about the properties and benefits of these plants could influence their perception, it is crucial to continue conducting further studies about the effects of information on the acceptability of native plants.

3.4. Preliminary Sensory Test of the Edible New Zealand Native Plants

A factor map with 95% confidence ellipses was produced for the selected edible New Zealand native plants that were tested using the Napping methodology (Figure 5a). The first two dimensions of the MFA explained 63.21% of the total variability (PC1 = 32.98% and PC2 = 30.23%). Four groups of plants can be discriminated against according to the confidence ellipses: group 1 (lemonwood/tarata and kanono), group 2 (kawakawa), group 3 (red matipo), and group 4 (kiokio and pikopiko). The PCA (Figure 5b) accounted for 66.87% of the total variability in the biplot (PC1 = 41.37% and PC2 = 25.50%). The PCA showed that pikopiko and kiokio were associated with sensory terms such as “fishy” and “algae/seaweed”, as well as the negative term “spoiled food”. Red matipo was associated with “broccoli”, “artichoke”, and “oregano”. Tarata/lemonwood was related to “citrus”, kawakawa was related to “vanilla/sweet” and “fruity”, and kanono was associated with “eucalyptus”, “parsley”, and “vinegar”.

The sensory characteristics of edible New Zealand native plants remain largely unknown. Previous studies have provided some insight into the sensory characteristics of specific native plants, such as kawakawa in kombucha [31], which was described as having a sour and bitter taste in this product. Similarly, Streit et al. [39] evaluated the sensory characteristics of erva-mate (Ilex paraguariensis St. Hil.) and found that the sensory notes were influenced by the method of production. Given the importance of sensory properties for consumer acceptance, a further characterization of New Zealand plants’ aromas and flavors is needed in future studies. Our research group is conducting additional evaluations to gain a full understanding of these plants’ unique sensory characteristics. This information will be useful for the food industry in New Zealand, as it has the potential to add value to their products and meet the demands of consumers for native plants.

Summarizing, the results of this study indicated that emotions, sensory appeal, price, and familiarity play a significant role in shaping consumer attitudes toward New Zealand native plants. Personal factors, such as age and familiarity, also have a significant impact on consumer behaviors, as they are intricately linked to lifestyle. In the present study, participants had mostly positive views on the consumption of edible New Zealand native plants, with edible and safety being the primary concerns. Subsequently, taste and sustainability were also considered important factors. However, the lack of familiarity with native plants and the uncertainty surrounding their safety limited their interest to consume them in the future. It is worth noting that the participants felt that consuming native plants would positively impact the environment, and that New Zealand consumers are increasingly concerned about sustainability. The results of this study support similar findings from other studies conducted worldwide, albeit with a focus on the New Zealand context and limited generalizability [40]. The results also highlight the complexity of consumer attitudes and preferences toward native plants, as they are influenced by a range of motivational and attitudinal factors. To fully understand consumer acceptance of native plants, it is necessary to consider both sensory and non-sensory factors. Further research is needed to fully understand the consumer preferences toward edible New Zealand native plants.

One potential limitation of this study was the sample size, which consisted of N = 100 participants. Nonetheless, this sample size is in line with previous studies conducted by our research group [23,28] and other international groups [41]. The findings of the present study aimed to establish a baseline for future studies in this field. Subsequent studies can further focus on a more rigorous comparison of specific demographics groups, in which larger samples sizes will be needed. Another potential constraint of this study is the limited number of selected plants that were evaluated. Future studies can focus on a broader range of native plants, as they may exhibit different properties. The current study serves as a valuable reference for these future investigations.

4. Conclusions

In conclusion, this study explored the familiarity, emotions, and attitudes toward edible native plants among participants. In general, the selected native plants in this study had varying levels of familiarity. Kawakawa, tarata, and kiokio were the most familiar plants, while red matipo and kanono were the least familiar. The correspondence analyses showed that kanono was related to “loving”, “adventurous”, and “good natured” emotions, kawakawa, red matipo, and kiokio were related to “wild”, “active”, and “understing” emotions, and pikopiko and tarata were related to positive emotions such as “joyful” and “pleasant”. In general, familiarity was associated with positive and low-arousal emotions, but negatively related to high-arousal emotions. Participants considered factors such as edibility, healthiness, environmental friendliness, sustainability, and taste when thinking about native plants. Consumer segmentation analysis revealed two distinct classes: class 1 (58%) and class 2 (42%). Class 1 exhibited a higher inclination toward consuming edible New Zealand native plants, which could be attributed to a higher proportion of younger participants, past consumption experience, and non-European ethnicity. Overall, the results of the present study indicated that familiar plants tend to elicit more positive emotions, but other factors such as taste perceptions might have a significant effect on their acceptability. Moreover, this study provides a proof of concept for using consumer analytical tools to understand perceptions of native edible plants. Future research on exploring a wide variety of native plants with comparisons of more specific demographic levels are needed to complement the results showed in the present study.