Environmental and Health Consequences of E-Waste Dumping and Recycling Carried out by Selected Countries in Asia and Latin America

Abstract

The volume of e-waste generated worldwide is surging, and it is set to escalate further due to continuing technological innovation and the early obsolescence of most electrical and electronic equipment (EEE). Even though there are many studies on e-waste management, the environmental and health consequences of e-waste regarding direct exposure during informal recycling and indirect exposure through environmental contamination are poorly studied. This study analyses the environmental and health consequences of e-waste dumping and informal recycling practices in selected countries such as Brazil, China, India, Mexico, and Pakistan. Several databases, such as Science Direct, ProQuest, Web of Science, and Emerald, were used to analyse studies from 2005 to 2022. Based on the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) protocol, 179 journal articles were evaluated. This study found that the majority of e-waste is poorly managed in terms of ecological safety and soundness. This study also found that illegal dumping, acid leaching, and open burning, which are practices that harm the environment and the well-being of e-waste workers, are still being performed by the selected countries. This study provides several practical suggestions for addressing the environmental and health consequences of e-waste dumping and recycling.

1. Introduction

E-waste is increasingly becoming a major global environmental and public health concern due to the illegal, unregulated, and inappropriate management and disposal practices followed in many countries, particularly developing countries. A blend of increasing ownership, technological innovation, reduced lifespan, and increased sales of electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) has led to rapid growth in the quantities of EEE manufactured and, consequently, an increase in the volume of e-waste generated [1,2,3,4]. Zuo et al. [5] pointed out that the inability to embrace proper management and disposal practices for e-waste could bring about health concerns for humans and environmental disasters due to the existence of toxic substances in e-waste.

Worldwide, the mounting quantity of e-waste is threatening local communities and the environment, as e-waste that is improperly disposed of results in the release of life-threatening toxic chemicals into the environment [6,7,8,9]. A study conducted by the World Health Organization (WHO) [10] found that about 57.4 million tonnes (Mt) of e-waste was generated globally in 2021. The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) [11] reported that the quantities of e-waste generated worldwide will surpass 74 Mt by 2030. Meanwhile, the level of recycling is not coping with the pace of e-waste generation, as the bulk of e-waste produced globally is diverted to landfills for the dumping of e-waste [12,13].

Even though there are many studies on the impacts of e-waste on the environment and health, there is a lack of research on the environmental and health consequences of e-waste resulting from inappropriate dumping and informal recycling practices. Moreover, there have not been any studies conducted in countries such as Brazil, China, India, Mexico, and Pakistan (i.e., the studies analysed herein), which are some of the largest destinations of e-waste exports in the world [6].

Therefore, this study aims to analyse the environmental and health consequences of e-waste resulting from the inappropriate dumping and informal recycling practices followed in the countries noted above. This study proposes two research questions:

• What are the environmental and health consequences of e-waste dumping and informal recycling practices in selected countries in Asia and Latin America?
• What actions are taken by governments and international organizations toward reducing environmental and public health concerns precipitated by e-waste in these selected countries in Asia and Latin America?

In line with the aim of this study, studies from 2005 to 2022 were collected from various databases and analysed. Based on the findings of this research, several practical suggestions are provided for addressing the environmental and health consequences of e-waste dumping and recycling.

In what follows, Section 2 presents the materials and methods used to conduct the study. Section 3 describes the results and provides a discussion on e-waste dumping and informal recycling practices. Section 4 presents the conclusions of the study and provides some recommendations.

2. Materials and Methods

This study utilised secondary data obtained through a systematic literature review of articles on e-waste management from 2005–2022. Four well-known databases, namely, Science Direct, ProQuest, Web of Science, and Emerald, were used in this study. These databases were selected because of their coverage and representativeness with respect to publishing leading academic papers on e-waste in the selected countries. To guarantee extensive coverage of the articles in these databases, a number of keywords, namely, “electronic waste” OR “e-waste” AND “e-waste management” OR “e-waste disposal” OR “e-waste recycling” AND “environmental impacts” OR “health impacts” AND “Asia” OR “Latin America”, were used in the search. Several criteria, e.g., (a) the document types had to be academic journals, book chapters, conference papers, and other institutional reports; (b) publication dates had to range from 2005 to 2022; and (c) the documents had to be written in the English, were used to establish the boundaries of the included studies. Figure 1 provides a summary of the research strategy and selection criteria.

Initially, 414 articles were retrieved using the pre-defined search keywords noted above. This initial search process enabled us to acquire a broader understanding of e-waste topics. Then, well-defined inclusion and exclusion criteria were determined to control the number of search results.

Table 1. Inclusion and exclusion criteria adopted in this study.

Inclusion Criteria	Exclusion Criteria
- Articles must focus on e-waste management, informal e-waste recycling, environmental impacts, and health impacts - Articles must be based on countries in Asia and Latin America	- Articles that do not focus on e-waste management, informal recycling, environmental impacts, or health impacts - Articles that are not within the publication range set in this study
- Articles must have been published between 2005 and 2022	- Articles from non-reputable sources - Articles that are not written in English - Articles published as editorials or dissertations
- Articles must be published in academic journals, book chapters, peer-reviewed conference papers, or other established reports from WHO and UN
- Articles must be published in English and constitute a full-text article

shows the inclusion/exclusion criteria applied in this research. The search was only limited to the titles and the abstracts, while the titles and abstracts of all initial articles were screened and scrutinised for their relevance to e-waste. This led to the identification of 236 relevant articles. Duplicate articles were then removed, and the remaining 179 articles were left for further review.

Overall, the distribution of the selected articles based on publication year indicates that there was an increasing level of interest in e-waste research from 2005 to 2022. Figure 2 presented below shows the procedure for identifying, screening, validating, and including/excluding articles using the PRISMA flow diagram.

3. Results and Discussion

The use of EEE for both domestic and commercial purposes has increased substantially in recent years [14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23]. E-waste consists of a varied and complex blend of substances such as metals, cables, plastics, printed circuit boards, computer monitors, and a combination of metal–plastic mixtures [6,9,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34]. According to Mmereki et al. [35], when compared to household e-waste, e-waste from the information technology (IT) and telecom sectors generally contains metals of higher economic value. Generally, these metals are classified into valuable and hazardous metals. The worth of the valuable metals in e-waste has been assessed to be around USD 14 bn, and examples include gold, silver, nickel, aluminium, iron, copper, platinum, and so on. However, more than 50% of these metals are often not recovered and end up in landfills [6,9,36]. The toxic metals in e-waste include lead, barium, mercury cadmium, chromium, etc. [6,37,38,39,40,41]. The mix of valuable and hazardous metals present in e-waste makes it problematic to manage and dispose of and renders it distinct from other streams of waste [1,38,42,43,44,45,46,47].

The problem of e-waste is an environmental issue affecting many regions of the world, including Asia and Latin America [6]. This study selected five countries from Asia and Latin America for analysis: Brazil, China, India, Mexico, and Pakistan. Interestingly, all the selected countries (except Brazil and Pakistan) have appropriate legislation in place for e-waste management. However, we believe that studying these countries will help us to better understand e-waste management practices as well as the environmental and health consequences associated with these practices.

Table 2. E-waste key statistics of selected countries in 2019.

Country	Region	E-Waste Generated (Kilotons) (kt)	E-Waste Generated (Kilograms) (kg) per Capita	E-Waste Documented to be Collected and Recycled (Kilotons) (kt)	National Legislation/Policy or Regulations in Place	E-Waste Legislation	Year
Brazil	Americas	2143	10.2	0.14	Yes	Brazilian National Policy on Solid Waste (batteries)—Law No.12305	2010
China	Asia	10,129	7.2	1546	Yes	Notification on Importation of the Seventh Category of Wastes	2000
India	Asia	3230	2.4	30	Yes	E-waste Management and Handling Rules	2011
Mexico	Americas	1220	9.7	n/a	Yes	NOM-161-SEMARNAT-2011	2011
Pakistan	Asia	433	2.1	n/a	No	The Pakistan Environmental Protection Act 1997 and Trade Policy	1997, 2006

Developed for this study (data adapted from Forti et al. [6], Ottoni et al. [48], Wang et al. [49], MoEF [50], Saldana-Duran et al. [51], and Sajid et al. [52]).

provides the e-waste key statistics of the selected countries.

3.1. Current E-Waste Management Situation in Selected Countries

3.1.1. Brazil

Brazil is one of the Latin American countries generating the highest amount of e-waste. In 2019, Brazil generated 2143 tons of e-waste. As a result, there is a great demand for sustainable and efficient solutions for limiting e-waste generated internally and that illegally imported into the country [6]. According to Azevedo et al. [53] and Souza [54], these e-wastes are exported from the UK and USA, although some are from other European countries. Ottoni et al. [48] stated that about 85% of Brazilians keep their broken or obsolete appliances at home rather than taking them to e-waste collection points. Moreover, some of the discarded EEE is disposed of alongside other municipal wastes. Consequently, most e-waste ends up alongside other municipal waste in landfills, open waste dumps, and rivers, thus wasting valuable metals and generating health and environmental concerns [54,55].

The biggest open dump in Latin America is located in Brasilia, Brazil. This open dump has been used as an area for the indiscriminate disposal of municipal waste (including e-waste) since the 1960s. Current statistics show that the dumpsite receives more than 1500 tons of municipal and other kinds of waste per day [56,57]. On a daily basis, scavengers and waste pickers, including women and children, collect recyclable materials, e-waste scraps, and plastics at the dump site. Brazilians with a low socioeconomic standard of living and residing in vulnerable areas often work at this open dumpsite sorting waste under inadequate and unhygienic conditions and are exposed to various health risks. Crude techniques such as cable burning and acid leaching are mostly used for extracting valuable substances, and such techniques are unsafe for human health and the environment [48,57].

While few formal recycling services exist in Brazil, consumers are charged special collection fees to have their e-waste collected. As a result, most e-waste is channelled to the informal sector [54]. As with other selected countries, the majority of the e-waste generated in Brazil is controlled by the informal sector, which includes individual waste pickers, scavengers, and unlicensed organizations [56,58]. Due to the social and economic problems in Brazil, unregistered associations also participate in informal e-waste recycling and have become an important part of the informal recycling system [55]. Informal recycling is a challenge in Brazil because most of the informal actors are untraceable. These informal groups buy e-waste from informal markets that often use unauthorised export channels. Abbondanza et al. [59] and Xavier et al. [60] state that e-waste management in Brazil could be enhanced through (a) the implementation of a well-defined recycling framework, (b) the establishment of a re-use market, (c) the establishment of registered companies to perform formal e-waste recycling, and (d) the development of workable e-waste policies and legislation.

3.1.2. China

China numbers among the top manufacturers of EEE, and the country is currently facing a remarkable increase in e-waste generation from both international and local sources [9,33,61]. In 2020, China generated about 15.5 Mt of e-waste, and this amount is expected to almost double to 27.2 Mt by 2030 [6,62]. The two significant e-waste regulations currently prevailing in China are as follows: (a) the legislation on the management, recycling, and disposal of e-waste, and (b) the legislation for the control of pollution caused by e-waste [63,64]. Chinese government agencies control formal e-waste management, and e-waste regulation in China is based on the PP, EPR, and 3Rs (reduce, reuse, and recycle) principles [62,65]. However, due to the absence of functional legislation in China, the recovery and reuse of e-waste are often carried out informally. Licensed testing and certification organizations for second-hand EEE recycling do not exist; consequently, the informal recycling of e-waste is largely uncontrolled [33,64]. It is common that individual recyclers and unauthorised dismantling companies often conduct informal e-waste recycling, where they buy discarded items and either disassemble or fix them for the second-hand market.

According to Shi et al. [66] and Wang et al. [49], informal e-waste recycling activities at the Guiyu dumpsite began in the late 1980s, when a group of local farmers engaged in informal recycling as a means of obtaining income. Guiyu comprises four small villages and is popularly known as “the e-waste capital of the world”. The Guiyu dumpsite employs more than 150,000 informal workers who come from the four villages to dismantle and recover precious metals from old computers that can be reused or resold. The dumpsite represents a typical e-waste-recycling operation in China’s informal sector and is known for radically polluting the environment owing to its massive informal e-waste activities [64]. Guiyu is viewed as a centre for recycling all types of EEE. At the dumpsite, some workers specialize in the process of removing valuable parts from electronic devices, and it is very common to find cables, huge tangles of wires, and computer parts scattered around the dumpsite, streets, and riverbanks [49,67]. Li and Achal [64] claimed that various segments and yards involved in informal e-waste recycling in Guiyu process about 1.5 Mt of e-waste and earn around USD 75 million per annum. This is not astonishing considering that around 130,000 computers are discarded every day by the US alone alongside more than 100 million mobile phones annually [67]. Approximately 75% of the e-waste in Guiyu is imported from North American countries, including the USA [64]. Due to the enormity of these informal recycling activities, most e-waste workers travel from distant villages to work in Guiyu and earn approximately USD 7 to USD 10 daily. While this is considered a welcome change from unemployment and redundancy, the adverse consequences on both human health and ecosystems cannot be overlooked. These workers use traditional methods, such as (a) acid stripping to extract gold from circuit boards, (b) plucking micro-chips from circuit boards with their bare hands, and (c) burning plastics to determine the type of material used in the production of such plastics, without using protective equipment [49,64]. Numerous Chinese citizens earn their livelihoods through this informal recycling process that causes severe environmental and health complications. The low-cost labour in China and the country’s manufacturing abilities have also contributed to e-waste generation, and e-waste’s appropriate management and disposal have remained a persistent problem [9,64,65].

3.1.3. India

India is among the 10 leading countries worldwide in terms of e-waste generation, for which it ranks behind US and China. In 2020, around 3.2 Mt of e-waste was generated, while 5.0 Mt was generated in 2021 [50]. The “Confederation of Indian Industries” (CII) reported that the market value for the electronics industry in India was about USD 65 billion as of 2013 and reached USD 400 billion in 2020 [68,69]. India generates around 400,000 tons of e-waste domestically every year [70]. At the end of 2021, around 152 million units of computers became outdated in India [50], resulting in severe management challenges and environmental and health concerns.

The Deonar open dump is one of India’s largest and oldest dumping grounds. The dumpsite has been in use since 1927 and is located in Shivaji Nagar, an eastern suburb of the city of Mumbai. The dumpsite currently holds more than 16.0 Mt of municipal waste (including e-waste), with at least 2000 tons added on a daily basis [50]. Scavengers and waste pickers often collect recyclable materials. These materials are sold and, subsequently, recycled informally. The decomposing wastes from the Deonar open dump release harmful gases such as methane, hydrogen sulphide, carbon monoxide and other hydrocarbons into the atmosphere. In 2016, the dump site was caught in the path of a large fire that continued burning for several months and led to smoke pollution that covered most parts of Mumbai. India’s pollution regulator, the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), reported that smoke from the dumpsite accounted for 11% of the airborne particulate matter detected in Mumbai, which is the major cause of air pollution in the city [68,70].

For many years, India’s e-waste-recycling industry has been dominated by the informal sector [70,71,72]. The informal sector illegally recycles around 90% of the e-waste locally produced and imported into India and often involves diverse groups including women and children [73,74]. India’s national environmental regulator, the “Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF)”, is accountable for formulating regulations on the management of e-waste and environmental protection [70,75]. The country’s e-waste management legislations are as follows: the 2004 Municipal Solid Waste Management Rules, the 2008 Hazardous and Waste Management Rules, and the 2010 E-waste Management and Handling Rules [76,77]. Even though there are regulations on e-waste management, these regulations have not adequately addressed the e-waste problems in India [78,79].

Even though EPR was a key policy approach with respect to formulating both the E-waste Management and Handling Rules of 2011 and 2016, they have not been successfully implemented due to certain peculiarities in the e-waste management system in India [50,75,80]. For instance, instead of obeying the principles of EPR, Indian e-waste consumers are willing to sell their outdated EEE to door-to-door e-scrap collectors generally known as “kawariwalas” due to financial incentives. This behaviour is entirely different from that of most developed nations, where the manufacturers pay through an “EPR framework” or consumers pay a “Recycling/Disposal Fee” [81].

3.1.4. Mexico

Mexico is one of the Latin American countries with a high percentage of e-waste generation. It is the second greatest producer of e-waste in Latin America, following just behind Brazil [6]. In recent years, environmental pollution resulting from informal e-waste recycling has led to undesirable consequences for public health and the environment in Mexico [51]. These e-waste management challenges include (a) the massive presence of an informal market, (b) the uncontrolled importation of e-waste, (c) insufficient e-waste processing capacity, (d) uncontrolled dumping and open burning, and (e) a lack of appropriate infrastructure for formal e-waste recycling [51,82].

In Mexico, each state has its own method for the use of technologies, production and sale, legal and prohibited importation, management programs, and environmental legislation for e-waste. In 2019, Mexico generated 1220 Mt of e-waste, approximately 10% of which was recycled; 40% was stored in households, residential homes, and offices; and the remaining 50% ended up in uncontrolled dumpsites [51]. The Neza III dump is one of the largest dumpsites in Mexico. This 74-acre dumpsite receives about 1200 tons of solid waste (including e-waste) a day. Scavengers, including women and children, earn a living by searching for recyclable materials such as e-waste parts, cardboard, plastics, and glass at the dumpsite [51,83].

The legislation for the Prevention and Management of Waste in Mexico refers to e-waste as waste that requires special handling and not as perilous waste [82]. Consequently, this regulation provides each state with the obligation to deal with e-waste by adopting various management plans [51]. Furthermore, of the 32 states, only 19 states have policies and legislation on e-waste management [83]. While Mexican regulations stipulate management plans for e-waste disposal, when EEE reaches its end-of-life (EoL) stage, it becomes e-waste and end up in landfills, open dumps, incinerators, or unknown destinations [51,82]. This practice demonstrates a high level of ignorance of the health and environmental damage caused by inappropriate disposal and of the loss of economic benefits from the recovery and recycling of valuable materials from e-waste [51].

3.1.5. Pakistan

Due to its growing population and degree of technological innovation, there is an increasing demand for EEE in Pakistan, particularly for home appliances, IT equipment, and computers [52,84]. In many cases, all major components of EEE used in Pakistan are either imported or smuggled from developed countries and assembled in Pakistan, which means the electrical and electronics industry depends on imported e-waste. This has led to an increase in the sale and importation of discarded EEE and the intensified generation of e-waste [52]. In 2019, Pakistan generated 433 tons of e-waste, most of which was processed by the informal sector [6]. E-waste management in Pakistan has become even more challenging due to the increasing volumes of e-waste imported from developed nations [85,86].

The major e-waste dumpsite in Pakistan is located in Karachi. According to Sohoo et al. [87], Karachi is facing major environmental challenges due to overflowing drainage systems, rain canals blocked with trash, streets and roadsides impinged upon by e-waste dumps, and air pollution [88]. Karachi is located in the southern part of Pakistan and has a projected population of approximately 15 million people. Rapid industrialization led to the urbanization of the city, which precipitated environmental and ecological issues [87].

Presently, Pakistan has no formal e-waste recycling infrastructure, and the total e-waste generated and imported into the country is recycled through informal practices [52]. In Karachi, there is a seaport that collects the containers of e-waste from developed nations across the world [84]. Immediately after clearance from the port, these containers are directed to designated warehouses for sale to scrapers who buy the items by weight [52,84]. Depending on their composition, these e-wastes are often dismantled, burned, or dumped. Many informal workers, including women and teenage children, obtain their income by dismantling and extracting precious metals such as copper and aluminium from e-waste [52]. The unwanted parts are either landfilled or dumped into Karachi’s Lyari River, which flows by the side of the Lyari district [84]. Recent research has shown that the Lyari River is highly polluted with metals stemming from informal e-waste recycling [52]. The metals and plastics extracted from computer monitors and other devices are either sold to local e-waste brokers or goldsmiths [52]. Thus, Karachi’s situation is similar to the story of Guiyu. However, in contrast with Guiyu, Karachi is a massive scrap market that brings workers together from neighbouring countries, including Afghanistan, but similar to Guiyu, workers have specialised in different areas of the extraction of reusable parts of discarded EEE.

Informal recycling at the Karachi dumpsite is carried out by unregistered, informal groups seeking to recover valuable parts from e-waste. These informal recycling practices are typically conducted in small workshops with poor air circulation using techniques such as acid baths, physical dismantling, and open burning [52,86]. Workers with no protective equipment dismantle all types of EEE to recover valuable materials. The burning of e-waste presents a threat to recycling workers, who become susceptible to the poisonous emissions from such precarious practices [86]. The communities and informal workers residing in e-waste-recycling towns are often not adequately educated with respect to the dangers linked with informal recycling [52,86]. With little or no regulatory authority in Pakistan, informal workers often overlook the impending perils because this activity represents a vital source of income [84].

3.2. Hazardous Effects of Informal E-waste Recycling

According to Forti et al. [6], the number of environmental contaminants present in e-waste is determined by the category of the EEE that has been discarded and the period in which the device was manufactured. E-waste can contaminate soil, water sources, and food supply chains, and this is particularly common in relation to older products that constitute the majority of today’s e-waste [89]. In recent times, owing to the growing demand for EEE, huge quantities of e-waste have been produced. If recycled correctly, valuable metals can be extracted efficiently and reused [89]. The recycling of these valuable metals has turned into a form of livelihood, particularly in the informal sector of developing nations and predominantly in the countries selected in this study [64]. However, informal recycling techniques such as burning plastic casings to remove precious metals, melting lead in open pots, and dissolving circuit boards in acid expose informal workers to numerous toxic substances [89]. Accordingly, these informal practices employed in many developing countries (particularly in the selected countries) pose both environmental and public health challenges. The environmental and health concerns related to informal e-waste recycling precipitate various detrimental effects, such as surface and groundwater contamination, toxic fume inhalation, and exposure to radiation from ash, dust, and smoke from dumpsites [64,90].

A number of harmful substances resulting from direct or indirect exposure to informal e-waste-recycling practices stem from e-waste or are created and released through insecure recycling practices [64]. Direct exposure includes the inhalation of fine particles, the ingestion of contaminated dust and fumes, and skin contact with harmful substances [91]. Informal recycling workers that directly engage in e-waste recycling activities with no appropriate protection employed are subjected to direct occupational exposure [64]. These informal and perilous recycling practices, with the aim of extracting valuable constituents from e-waste, increase the risk of hazardous exposure [92]. When these hazardous substances are ingested into the human body, they are stored in the fatty tissues, which can cause health problems for residents who live nearby informal e-waste communities [64,89]. Moreover, the perceived enduring build-up of pollutants can pose secondary exposure risks in rural and remote areas [6]. While workers are indirectly exposed to hazardous substances when processing e-waste, occupational exposure is the most common form in regions engaging in the informal recycling of e-waste. For example, remote communities near informal e-waste-recycling sites inhale contaminated fumes and clouds of dust, and children wander over heaps of e-waste barefooted [64]. If unchecked, informal e-waste recycling spots in these nearby communities tend to trigger pollution, leading to hazardous consequences for the health of the overall population [62].

Table 3. Health and environmental impact of informal e-waste recycling.

Sources of Exposure	Description and Examples
Community exposure	Exposure to pollutants: - Caused by exposure to contaminated water, food, and air - Workshops are located in homes and other informal e-waste-processing sites
Environmental contamination	Dumping of acid, used to remove valuable substances, into rivers: - Leaching of hazardous substances from landfills/dumpsites or stored electronics - Release of particulate matter, dioxins, and furans emanating from the dismantling of electronics - Contaminants flowing through water and food systems and contaminating fish, livestock, and crops
Occupational exposure	Ingesting fumes emanating from burning wires and circuit boards: - Pregnant women engaging in recycling
Children exposure	Inhalation of contaminated dust on surfaces: - Children playing with dismantled electronic devices - Children working as collectors, dismantlers, and informal recyclers

Developed for this study; data adapted from Forti et al. [6].

provides a summary of the sources of health and environmental impacts triggered by informal e-waste recycling.

Various heavy metals, such as chromium, are present in computer circuit boards; cadmium is contained in lead batteries; barium and lead oxide are used in tube lights, cables, and plastic casings; and copper is coated with PVC. Additionally, plastic hardware produces enormous amounts of dioxins and furans. According to Li and Achal [64], a used and discarded computer is made up of plastics (23.3%), metal (43.7%), glass (15%), and electronic components (17.3%). Washing machines and refrigerators, which are heavy e-waste items, are largely composed of steel, and often contain fewer potential environmental pollutants than lighter e-waste items, such as laptop computers and iPads, which may contain higher quantities of flame retardants and heavy metals [64].

Almost all types of e-waste contain precious metals, especially aluminium, gold, steel, and copper. These metals are significant because they provide a motivation for formally recycling e-waste, which is a practice that is mostly carried out in developed countries [93]. Cesaro et al. [94] reported that the valuable metal concentrations found in printed circuit boards are ten times higher than those in commercially mined minerals. Thus, some governmental and non-governmental organizations are working on collecting data associated with these issues that could be used to effectively control these hazardous materials [95].

Furthermore, in many countries (particularly developing countries), women and teenage children make up around 40% of the entire labour force in the informal e-waste recycling industry. The findings from previous studies [64,96,97] have reported intensifications in unplanned miscarriages, reduced birth weights, and gestation periods as well as premature births linked with exposure to e-waste among young women. As the chemical compounds found in e-waste are carcinogenic, toxic substances are often present in the bloodstreams of informal workers at dumpsites where open burning is carried out to extract metals [97].

Currently, the total number of individuals who work informally in the global e-waste sector (particularly in the selected countries) is unknown [6]. While it is critical to upgrade and formalize the e-waste-recycling industry in order to provide a safe working environment for the workers, the impact of used and discarded EEE on climate change is also worth considering [3]. Every electronic device produced has a carbon footprint and contributes to global warming [96]. Recent studies show that one laptop manufactured can potentially emit about 10 tons of carbon dioxide (CO₂₎. When the CO₂ released throughout a device’s lifetime is considered, this can assist in lowering carbon processes and inputs during the manufacturing stage and across a product’s lifetime, constituting a key determinant of overall environmental impact [64].

3.2.1. Adverse Environmental Impacts Associated with E-Waste

Environmental contamination due to informal e-waste recycling and unlawful disposal activities leads to direct and indirect exposure through the air, dust, soil, and water around e-waste-recycling sites [6,93]. Informal recycling activities release large amounts of toxins into the atmosphere and subject local recycling workers to health concerns [6,64]. Earlier studies by Sajid et al. [52] and Liu et al. [89] reported elevated levels of heavy metals and halogenated compounds in informal e-waste-recycling areas. A number of the toxins and hazardous substances in e-waste are linked to serious environmental pollution. These harmful contaminants can be dispersed in the air, groundwater, and soil near the recycling regions. In some instances, e-waste is discarded straight into soil or rivers, where the resulting draining of toxins pollutes the soil and impacts natural aquatic life [64].

Table 4. Hazardous impacts of e-waste pollutants on human health and the environment.

E-Waste Pollutant	Source/Route of Exposure	Hazardous Impacts on Human Health	Hazardous Impacts on the Environment
Heavy metals
Mercury (Hg)	Ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact	Leads to behavioural and nervous disorders such as headaches, insomnia, memory loss, and emotional instability. Stunted foetus growth; contaminants are absorbed in mother’s milk. Upsets the kidneys, immune system, and central nervous system. Mercury can contaminate the human food chain through, soil, ground, and surface water	Contaminates air, dust, soil, plants, and surface and groundwater
Lead (Pb)	Ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact	Harms the reproductive organs, central nervous system, and respiratory system and damages the kidneys and lungs. Can have adverse impacts on the development of the brains of children; damaged the circulatory system; and hinders the performance of enzymes in the human body	Contaminates air and dust; causes soil acidification; and leaches into ground and surface water
Cadmium (Cd)	Inhalation and ingestion	Causes irreparable toxic effects on human health; can accumulate in the kidneys and liver and leads to neural damage; causes cancer, softness of the bones, and severe pain in the spine and joints.	Contaminates air, dust, water, soil, and plants (particularly rice and vegetables)
Arsenic (As)	Ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact	Extended exposure to arsenic causes skin diseases, lung cancer, and damage to the nervous system. Also causes skin alterations and leads to an increased risk of diabetes.	Contaminates air, soil, water, and plants
Zinc (Zn)	Ingestion and inhalation	Leads to cramps in the stomach, skin irritations, nausea, and anaemia, and can severely damage the pancreas.	Contaminates air, dust, soil, and surface and groundwater
Lithium (Li)	Ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact	Causes kidney disease, coughing, and burning sensation; Difficulty breathing, shortness of breath, sore throat, redness of the skin, skin burns, pain, blisters, and redness in the eyes.	Contaminates air, dust, water, soil, and plants
Beryllium (Be)	Ingestion and inhalation	Causes lung cancer, which can destroy other organs, including the heart. Also causes pneumonia.	Contaminates air, soil, water, and plants
Chromium (Cr)	Ingestion and inhalation	Leads to asthmatic bronchitis and liver and kidney disease and can cause lung cancer.	Contaminates air, soil, water, and plants
Nickel (Ni)	Ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact	Causes carcinogenic lung embolism, respiratory failure, birth defects, and asthma and chronic bronchitis Also leads to skin allergies.	Contaminates air, soil, water, and plants
Barium (Ba)	Ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact	Causes elevated blood pressure, stomach irritation, changes in heart rhythm, weakness of the muscles, nerve reflex changes, and swelling in the brain, liver, and kidney.	Contaminates air, dust, and water
Aluminium (Al)	Ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact	Causes poor metabolism and has impacts on the nervous system and foetal development.	Contaminates air, dust, water, and soil
Cobalt (Co)	Ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact	Causes vomiting and nausea, asthma and pneumonia, vision problems, heart issues, thyroid damage, and hair loss.	Contaminates air, dust, water, soil, and plants
Bismuth (Bi)	Ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact	Damages kidneys and causes severe ulcerative stomatitis, feelings of bodily discomfort, excessive secretion of albumin and other protein substances in the urine, diarrhea, skin irritation, and serious exodermatitis.	Contaminates air, dust, water, and soil
Antimony (Sb)	Ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact	Exposure can cause damage to the lungs, heart, liver, and kidneys. Also causes eye irritation and hair loss.	Contaminates air, dust, water, and soil
Gallium (Ga)	Ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact	Prolonged exposure to gallium chloride can lead to throat inflammation, breathing difficulties, and chest pain.	Contaminates air and water and produces toxic fumes
Indium (In)	Ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact	Damages the heart, liver, and kidneys and can lead to cancer.	Contaminates air, dust, water, and soil
Copper (Cu)	Ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact	Causes irritation of the eyes, nose, mouth, and throat. It also leads to severe dizziness, headaches, migraines, stomach aches, vomiting, and diarrhea.	Contaminates air, dust, water, and soil
Germanium (Ge)	Ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact	Causes severe cough, abdominal cramps, burning sensations, redness of the eyes and skin, and body pain.	Contaminates air and dust
Selenium (Se)	Ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact	Causes hair loss and nail brittleness. It also causes cardiovascular, renal, and neurological abnormalities.	Contaminates air, dust, water, and soil
Iron (Fe)	Ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact	Excess exposure or ingestion can damage the liver.	Contaminates air, dust, water, and soil
Molybdenum (Mo)	Ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact	Exposure can cause liver dysfunction and pain and swelling in the joint areas.	Contaminates air, dust, water, and soil
Tin (Sn)	Ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact	Causes severe headaches, eye and skin irritations, dizziness, stomach aches, severe internal sweating, shortness of breath, and frequent urination.	Contaminates air, dust, water, and soil
Dioxins
Polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)	Ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact	Exposure causes cancer. Mutagenicity and teratogenicity can also occur.	Are often released as combustion by-products into the air, dust, soil, and plants
Brominated flame retardants (BFRs)	Ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact	Affects thyroid function and causes cancer in humans. Also affects the reproductive and immune systems and disrupts functions of the endocrine system.	BFRs can leach into landfills. They are organic pollutants in the air and sources of dioxins and furans in the environment
Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins (PCDDs) and Polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs)	Ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact	Affects the reproductive system, nervous system, and immune development.	Contaminate air, dust, water, soil, plants, and vapor
Organic contaminants
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)	Ingestion, inhalation, dermal contact, and trans-placental exposure	Carcinogenic to the liver, kidneys, and thyroid gland. Affects the immune system and reproductive and neurobehavioral development.	Pollute the soil and affect vegetation and aquatic species. Accumulate in crops and cause harm
Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) Polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs) Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs)	Ingestion, inhalation, and trans-placental exposure	Causes thyroid problems and impaired function of the nervous system, reproductive system, and hormonal imbalance.	Contaminate air, dust, water, plants, and soil

Developed for this study; data adapted from WHO, [10] Forti et al. [6] Li and Achal, [64] Zhang et al. [98], and Robinson [23].

summarizes the hazardous effects of e-waste pollutants on human health and the environment and the potential routes of human exposure.

A review of the literature reveals that large amounts of toxins were found in soils and plants close to informal e-waste-recycling areas in the selected countries. For example, Shen et al. [99] collected 17 types of PCDD/Fs, 36 types of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and 16 types of polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from soils near an informal e-waste-recycling site in Guiyu, China, and found high amounts of these toxins in each of the soils, with higher concentrations of Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs) in e-waste dumping sites. Likewise, an investigation of the metal quantities on the surface of the soil of a typical informal e-waste-recycling site in Brazil revealed contamination with copper, zinc, and lead [100]. Furthermore, soils at an e-waste-recycling site in Bangalore, India, contained high concentrations of cadmium, selenium, mercury, and lead [101]. These concentrations were greater than those present in a neighbouring control site in the same city. An examination of rice samples from a town in Zhejiang province, namely, an e-waste-processing town in Eastern China, revealed concentrations of lead and cadmium in polished rice that were 2–4 times in excess of 0.2 mg/kg, i.e., the maximum permissible concentration of these elements in harvests in China [97,98].

E-waste disposed of in landfills is often described as a toxic time bomb because it releases toxic metals and gases through natural processes into the environment after several months of disposal [6,102]. Likewise, the leaching of batteries from e-waste also occurs, which releases harmful acids and heavy metals such as lead, mercury, nickel, and cadmium. Moreover, electronic circuits from discarded EEE contain lead, zinc, nickel, copper, mercury, and cadmium, which can also be released when e-waste is disposed of in landfills. These harmful acids and heavy metals often flow and mix with land water and ecosystems in streams, rivers, and lakes and are then transferred to animals and humans, generating severe health concerns [64,102]. Li and Achal [64] found that e-waste contaminants can enter ground and surface water through leaching and diffusion processes from EEE dumping sites or other e-waste disposal areas. Wang and Guo [103] found up to 0.4 mg/L of lead contaminating the water flowing downstream of the recycling site in Guiyu, which far exceeds the healthy drinking water threshold (0.05 mg/L) specified by the local government. In addition, Wong et al. [104] reported elevated levels of various heavy metals, including antimony, lithium, silver, chromium, molybdenum, and selenium, around the streams close to the Lianjiang River near Guiyu town. According to Leverett et al. [105] and Deng et al. [106], the most noteworthy and serious contaminants of surface and groundwater around most informal e-waste-recycling areas are cadmium, mercury, lead, and copper.

The majority of e-waste pollutants are dispersed into the air through dust, and this has remained a primary exposure route for humans through ingestion, inhalation, and skin absorption [64]. A review of the literature indicated that there are higher concentrations of heavy metals and toxic halogenated compounds in regions of the selected countries impacted by informal e-waste recycling. Leung et al. [107] found increased quantities of suspended particles and particulate matter in the environment around the Guiyu e-waste site. The concentrations of chromium, copper, and zinc in the particulate matter were observed to be in the range of four percent and were several times the quantities usually predictable in other areas of China. Dust collections from the e-waste-recycling site also revealed lead, copper, and zinc concentrations that were five times higher than those in road dust in other areas. Han et al. [108] stated that informal e-waste-recycling workers in Bangalore, India, inhaled dust-laden air that contained cadmium, indium, selenium, barium, lithium, and lead at high concentrations. Zhang et al. [109] and Qin et al. [110] investigated other dumpsites where e-wastes are informally processed and found higher concentrations of particulate matter and heavy metals in the atmosphere; these concentrations threatened the environment and the health of the people in the communities near those sites.

3.2.2. Adverse Health Impacts Associated with E-Waste

Previous studies [62,75,104,111] on the adverse health consequences arising from informal e-waste recycling have constantly highlighted the threats to human health posed by exposure to harmful metals and toxins. These studies have generally reported detrimental health impacts on people, suggesting the widespread movement of contaminants in various exposure sources. Some of the reported health effects include adverse respiratory effects [112], hearing loss [113,114], adverse learning outcomes [115], skin diseases [112], adverse effects on the immune system [116], cancer [114], altered neurodevelopment [116], adverse birth outcomes [114], adverse cardiovascular effects [116], and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) damage [116].

Generally, the communities living in nearby informal e-waste-recycling areas of the selected countries are often unprotected from hazardous substances released and conveyed through natural pathways [42,117]. Chatterjee [117] reported that severe environmental pollution with dioxins at Guiyu led to higher levels of human exposure, namely, 15–56 times the WHO-recommended maximum intake. Chan et al. [118] also reported that increased concentrations of dioxins were present in human milk, hair, and placentas, indicating that humans ingest dioxins through the air, water, or food at concentrations high enough to pose severe health risks. Likewise, the transference of PCBs from e-waste to ground and surface water; agricultural soil; food such as fish, rice, and eggs; and, eventually, humans has been demonstrated in the studies of Zhao et al. [119]. Similarly, Qu et al. [120] found that e-waste workers and other occupants living in Guiyu Town displayed high PBDE levels equal to 126 ng/L and 35 ng/L, respectively, in blood serum samples when compared to residents from a nearby town, who presented levels of just 10 ng/L. Zhao et al. [121] found that samples of human hair from towns close to Guiyu contained PBBs, PBDEs, and PCBs at concentrations up to 58 ng/g, 30 ng/g, and 182 ng/g, respectively. When compared with the formal e-waste-recycling sites in Jiangsu and Shanghai, the e-waste workers from the informal recycling sites in Guiyu had higher potential and manifested levels of severe health risks linked with heavy metals and dioxins.

In many countries (particularly in the selected countries), the absence of effective occupational health and safety regulations and guidelines has led to a growing risk of health problems for the workforce in the informal e-waste-recycling industry [64,122,123]. Many e-waste workers have reported various health issues ranging from dizziness, weakness, stress, and headaches to shortness of breath and chest pain [116]. Some studies have also reported severe impacts on liver function, elevated blood glucose levels, male reproductive and genital disorders, and effects on sperm quality due to exposure to informal e-waste-recycling practices. Table 4 shows the hazardous impacts of e-waste pollutants on human health and the environment.

It has also been found that children who live close to e-waste sites are vulnerable to hazardous organic contaminants. Owing to their vulnerability to environmental toxicants, children have become a significant focus of health effects studies relating to informal e-waste recycling [120,121,122,124,125,126,127,128,129,130]. Children are often exposed through the inhalation of toxic fumes and particulate matter, via skin contact with corrosive chemicals, and by ingesting contaminated food and water [112]. Children can also be exposed through additional routes of exposure and are at higher risk due to their physiology and behaviour. Moreover, several hazardous substances can be transferred from mother to child during pregnancy and breastfeeding. Young children playing outside often put their hands, objects, and soil into their mouths, thus increasing their risk of contamination [112].

Zhao et al. [121] found that due to frequent exposure to high concentrations of toxic compounds (PCBs, and PBDEs), there is a significant increase of such compounds in the serum samples collected from children who live in informal e-waste-recycling areas. The study also reported that the circulation of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) concentrations in their bodies was also impacted considerably. Zheng et al. [122] assessed the hazardous effects of exposure to chromium, nickel, and lead on the functioning of the lungs of 144 school children between the ages of 8–13. The study found a substantial difference between e-waste sites and the control sites regarding lung function, with a reduced forced vital capacity (FVC) among 8–9-year-old male children. Amoabeng et al. [112] have reported links between exposure to informal e-waste-recycling practices and adverse birth outcomes (miscarriages, premature birth, shorter gestational periods, stillbirth, reduced growth, lower birth weight, altered neurodevelopment, adverse learning and behavioural outcomes, and adverse immune system and lung function) with respect to children.

Table 5. Summary of health and environmental impacts of e-waste.

Research Method	Sample	Findings/Outcomes	Location	Reference
Quantitative	A total of 17 types of PCDD/Fs, 36 types of PCBs, and 16 types of PAHs from soils around an informal e-waste-recycling site in Guiyu	Reported higher quantities of these three toxins in each of the soils, with elevated concentrations of PBDEs and PBBs detected in e-waste-dumping sites	China	Shen et al. [99]
Quantitative	Investigated metal quantities in the surfaces of the soil of a typical informal e-waste-recycling site	Results showed contamination with copper, zinc, and lead	Brazil	Fujimori and Takigami [100]
Quantitative	Analysed soils at an informal e-waste-recycling site in Bangalore	Reported concentrations of cadmium, selenium, mercury, and lead in higher concentrations than those at a nearby control site in the same city	India	Borthakur and Govind [101]
Quantitative	Measured concentrations of PBDEs in chicken tissues from Zhejiang province.	Reported elevated levels of PBDEs in chickens, which could pose a threat to human health	China	Liang et al. [98]
Quantitative	Examined sediment samples collected from the Nanyang River	Found high levels of PBDEs in the soil sediment samples examined	China	Luo et al. [103]
Quantitative	Analysed water flow from area downstream of the recycling site in Guiyu	Found up to 0.4 mg/L lead contaminating the water, which far exceeds the healthy drinking water threshold (0.05 mg/L) stipulated by the local government	China	Wang and Guo [104]
Quantitative	A comprehensive study of air pollution caused by informal e-waste recycling at various sites	Results indicated particulate matter, PCDD/Fs, PBDEs, and PCBs in the atmosphere had significantly increased in the e-waste sites when compared with the previous corresponding reports	China	Zhang et al. [110]
Quantitative	Analysed the presence of dioxins in human milk, placentas, and hair from various informal e-waste recycling regions in China	Reported increased concentrations of dioxins in human milk, placentas, and hair, indicating that dioxins are often ingested by humans, through air, water, or food, at levels high enough to pose serious health risks	China	Chan et al. [119]
Quantitative	Analysed blood serum samples from informal e-waste workers and other residents from Guiyu	Results indicated e-waste workers and other residents from Guiyu had high blood serum PBDE concentrations of 126 ng/L and 35 ng/L, respectively, when compared to residents from a nearby town with concentrations of just 10 ng/L	China	Qu et al. [121]
Quantitative	Investigated human hair samples from towns close to Guiyu	Results indicated elevated levels of PBBs, PBDEs, and PCBs at concentrations up to 58 ng/g, 30 ng/g, and 182 ng/g, respectively	China	Zhao et al. [122]
Quantitative	Analysed the harmful effects arising from exposure to chromium, nickel, and lead on lung function among 144 school children between the ages of 8–13	Reported a substantial difference between e-waste sites and controlled sites with respect to lung function, with a reduced forced vital capacity (FVC) in 8–9-year-old boys	China	Zheng et al. [123]
Quantitative	Examined the consequences of e-waste exposure for thyroid function among children	Reported varying results on the effects of e-waste exposure on thyroid function among children	China	Liu et al. [114]
Quantitative	Examined the connection between exposure to informal e-waste-recycling practices and adverse birth outcomes among pregnant women	Found an association between exposure to informal e-waste-recycling practices and adverse birth outcomes including altered neurodevelopment, adverse learning and behavioural outcomes, and worsened immune system and lung function among children	China	Amoabeng et al. [112]

provides a summary of earlier authors’ findings/outcomes regarding the environmental and human health effects of informal e-waste-recycling practices.

3.3. The Efforts of Governments, International Conventions, and Organizations

This section discusses the efforts made by governments, international conventions, and organizations to reduce the ongoing problems with e-waste management and disposal.

3.3.1. Governments

Many governments around the world have developed national policies and legislations to deal with the management and disposal of EEE [131,132,133,134,135,136,137,138]. However, notwithstanding these policies and legislations, e-waste remains poorly managed, as demonstrated by the exceptionally low levels of formal e-waste recycling in many countries, including the selected countries [6,20,65,139,140,141,142,143,144,145,146]. Government legislation on e-waste plays a crucial role because it sets standards for controlling the actions of various stakeholders associated with the management and disposal of e-waste [101,147,148,149,150,151,152,153]. While most government regulations, particularly in developed countries, focus on resource extraction through recycling and other countermeasures, the reduction in the quantities of e-waste and the repair and reuse of EEE have been very limited [8,126,154,155,156,157,158,159,160,161,162,163,164,165,166].

In the last few years, several countries have made some improvements in the legal, institutional, and infrastructural framework for achieving appropriate e-waste management [128,167,168,169,170,171,172,173,174,175]. Confronted with the rising quantities of e-waste generated, a few governments (e.g., those of Germany, South Korea, Japan, and Switzerland) have revised their policies and forced manufacturers to be responsible for the post-consumer phase of EEE [4,6,155]. Manufacturers in these countries are required under the EPR and polluter pays (PP) policies to manage their discarded, used EEE in an environmentally responsible and safe manner [176]. These manufacturers take on the responsibility, financial obligation, and hands-on collection/recycling process through EPR programs. In addition, manufacturers also individually or collectively employ a third-party entity called producer responsibility schemes (PRS), which help producers to handle product takebacks and e-waste recycling [6,177]. Despite the establishment of national regulations and hazardous waste laws in developing countries (including the selected countries), the majority of the e-waste generated is still treated as general waste and is informally recycled. The rising growth of e-waste generated in developing countries has fuelled the enlargement of a pervasive and low-cost informal recycling sector that is inherently hazard-ridden [6,7,178,179,180,181,182,183,184,185].

3.3.2. International Conventions

The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Waste and their Disposal was established in March 1989 [186]. It aims to protect human and environmental health from the effects of e-waste generation and transboundary shipments of harmful waste [4]. The transboundary movement of hazardous and other waste, including e-waste moved to open dumps, is considered unlawful under Article 9 of the Basel Convention [186]. In addition, the Convention is involved in the establishment of regional and sub-regional centres for training and technology transfers with respect to the management of hazardous waste (Article 14). In recent years, more than fourteen centres have been established in these regions [186].

The Bamako Convention is a treaty prohibiting the importation of any hazardous waste into Africa. It was established in 1998 and was deliberated by 12 nations of the African Union, and it has 29 signatories and involves 25 parties [4]. The aims of the Bamako Convention are to (a) reduce and control the transboundary movement of hazardous waste within the African continent, (b) prohibit the importation of all hazardous waste into the African continent, (c) prohibit all ocean- and inland-water-related dumping or incineration of hazardous waste, and (d) ensure that the disposal of waste is conducted in an environmentally safe and sound manner [4].

The Stockholm Convention is an international environmental treaty on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) signed in May 2001 in Stockholm that became effective May 2004. As of December 2021, there are about 185 parties taking part in the convention, encompassing 184 states and the European Union [4]. The convention aims to eradicate or reduce the discharge of POPs and hazardous substances to protect human and environmental health. All countries that endorsed the Stockholm Convention have agreed to take action to eliminate or reduce the environmental discharge of these POPs. POPs are chemical substances that can persist in the environment for prolonged periods and travel vast distances in water and in the atmosphere [4]. These substances accumulate in human bodies and wildlife and are often found in high concentrations in food chains. POPs have been found to be toxic to all living organisms. Examples of POPs include PCBs, PBDEs, PCDDs, and PCDD/Fs [4].

The EU WEEE Directive for e-waste in Europe and its member nations is regulated by the WEEE Directive (2012/19/EU). It is an all-inclusive e-waste management regulation that controls the processes of the collection, recycling, and resource recovery of discarded, used EEE. The directive emphasizes the collection of discarded EEE in a logical and efficient manner that will support and enable progressive recycling, which will result in a greater amount of re-useable e-waste [124]. According to the directive, recycled e-waste must be recorded and documented, and the resulting information must be sent to the National Enforcement Authority (NEA). Each member state is expected to support and encourage the design and manufacture of EEE that can be disassembled and formally recycled for recovery. The WEEE Directive also launched treatment requirements for the various materials and components of e-waste for ensuring environmentally sustainable recycling. The principle of EPR, which allows producers to take responsibility for recycling their used and discarded EEE, is also incorporated into the directive [125].

3.3.3. International Organizations

The World Health Organization (WHO) is a global health organization that coordinates and manages the global response to health emergencies, promotes well-being, prevents and controls disease outbreaks, and expands access to health care. The organization aims to link people, nations, and its partners to scientific discovery and evidence and endeavours to give every person an equal chance to live a safe and healthy life [126]. A recent report by the WHO [187] on e-waste and digital dumpsites called for imperative action on the environmental and health consequences of e-waste. The report also emphasised the importance of protecting millions of children, teenagers, and pregnant women worldwide whose health is threatened by the informal recycling of discarded EEE. Currently, there are around 12.9 million women (with the majority originating from the selected countries) who work in the informal e-waste sector and are potentially exposed to toxic e-waste [187]. Likewise, around 18 million children and teenagers, some as young as 5 years of age, are actively engaged in informal e-waste recycling. Children who are exposed to e-waste are particularly sensitive to toxic chemicals due to their smaller size, less-developed organs, and rate of growth and development. They inhale more contaminants proportionately and are unable to metabolize and/or eradicate poisonous substances from their bodies [10,187].

The United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) is an international agency that develops environmental programs/agendas and supports the implementation of environmentally sustainable development. Headquartered in Nairobi, Kenya, the UNEP works collaboratively with its 193 member states, representatives, and stakeholder groups to address environmental challenges [25]. Through its campaigns and promotions (mainly World Environment Day), the UNEP promotes awareness of workable environmental action on chemicals and waste. The UNEP has provided a number of reports and manuals on how to deal with e-waste. The UNEP’s Chemicals and Health Division leads its activities on e-waste and is the key impetus for rigorous, worldwide action on the ecologically sound and safe management of e-waste [25].

The UN E-Waste Coalition was established to facilitate better collaboration in the area of e-waste management. It is coordinated by the UN Environment Management Group (UNEMG) [188]. The goals of the coalition are to (a) support countries in terms of managing e-waste, (b) increase the awareness and engagement of key e-waste stakeholders, (c) strengthen the capacity of countries to formulate and implement e-waste management policies, (d) prevent the illegal trafficking of e-waste via transboundary movements, (e) support the development of a circular economy of e-products, and (f) promote the provision of opportunities for industries to deal with e-waste problems [188].

The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) is the UN’s dedicated agency for information and communication technologies. Established in 1865, its aim is to enable global connectivity in communications networks. The ITU’s Development Bureau (ITU-D) has a mandate to help developing countries undertake appropriate assessments of their amounts of e-waste and achieve sound e-waste management [189]. The ITU, in conjunction with the United Nations University (UNU), formed the Global E-waste Statistics Partnership (GESP). Its aim is to raise awareness of the importance of compiling e-waste statistics and deliver capacity-building workshops using an internationally recognised and harmonised measurement framework. The GESP initiative provides updates to policymakers, industries, academia, media, and the general public by improving their understanding and interpretation of global e-waste data and their association with the SDGs [189].

The Solving the E-waste Problem (StEP) initiative was established in 2004 as a self-regulating, multi-stakeholder platform for developing strategies for all aspects of EEE. The StEP initiative focuses on the responsible consumption and production of EEE. It also facilitates research, analysis, and discussions among more than 35 members drawn from businesses, international organizations, governments, NGOs, and academic institutions across the world [190]. The StEP initiative is based on (a) assessments of business practices; (b) a comprehensive view of the social, environmental, and economic aspects of the design, production, usage, and final disposal of EEE; and (c) providing support between developed and developing countries with respect to identifying global solutions to managing e-waste [190].

The Basel Action Network (BAN) is a non-profit organization that was established in 1997 [186]. The BAN supports the creation of a sustainable world by transforming society’s discarded EEE. According to the BAN, the recycling of EEE should be performed in both an environmentally and socially responsible manner [191]. Its aim is to enhance global environmental health and justice by terminating toxic trade. The BAN also handles other toxic waste streams covered by the Basel Convention [186].

Based on the results of our systematic review, it is evident that the majority of the e-waste generated and imported in the selected countries is generally not handled in an ecologically safe manner. In all of the selected countries, e-waste is imported from developed nations, and it is disposed in an unregulated manner, with little or no regard for informal workers’ safety and environmental protection [6,51,87,192,193,194,195,196]. Consequently, communities living in these regions are frequently exposed to hazardous substances via direct exposure during the informal recycling processes or indirectly through environmental pollution. In addition, this study found that the informal recycling of e-waste is the main source of income of the workers at the dump sites in the selected countries and that the majority of informal recycling is carried out by women and children with no protective equipment [132]. Furthermore, the results of the analysis show that environmental contamination due to informal e-waste recycling and illegal disposal activities often leads to direct and indirect exposure through soil, air, dust, and water around e-waste-recycling sites [42]. Informal recycling operations release large amounts of toxins into the atmosphere and expose local recycling workers to health risks. A number of the toxins and hazardous substances in e-waste are also linked to serious environmental pollution [64].

We recognize that there are limitations of our research and acknowledge the inability to include other developing countries in this study. While the correctness of some of the analyses in the current study is unavoidably subjective, this study serves as a foundation for additional research into the environmental and health consequences of inappropriate e-waste dumping and informal recycling practices in the selected countries.

4. Conclusions and Recommendations

4.1. Conclusions

This study investigated the environmental and health consequences arising from e-waste-recycling and dumping practices in Brazil, China, India, Mexico, and Pakistan. The study utilised secondary data obtained through a systematic review of articles from previous studies on environmental and health consequences relating to e-waste published from 2005 to 2022. Based on the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) protocol, 179 journal articles were evaluated. The results show that the majority of the internally generated e-waste and that imported into the selected countries is not handled in an ecologically safe manner. As a result, communities residing in these regions are frequently exposed to hazardous substances with severe health consequences.

Informal recycling seems to be the means of livelihood in the e-waste-dumping areas identified in the selected countries. The majority of this informal recycling is conducted by women and children with no protective equipment, leading to negative health impacts. Notwithstanding the various efforts and regulations in place, illegal dumping, acid leaching, and open burning are still being performed by the selected countries, thereby harming the environment and the well-being of e-waste workers.

Thus, the implementation of EPR, PP, and producer takeback schemes has become necessary in view of the current illegal exports of e-waste into the countries studied and the nonexistence of state-of-the-art recycling infrastructure. Changes in (a) the attitude of governments, (b) appropriate and workable legislation, (c) the control of e-waste dumping, and (d) the recycling infrastructure considered appropriate are key issues to be addressed to formally recycle e-waste in the selected countries in order to mitigate the environmental and health effects brought about by informal recycling practices. This study makes a few important contributions to society by (a) examining the environmental and health consequences of e-waste dumping and informal recycling practices in the selected countries; (b) providing a better understanding of the efforts of governments, international conventions, and organizations toward reducing the ongoing problems with illegal practices in handling e-waste; and (c) providing several practical solutions for reducing the environmental and health impacts of informal e-waste recycling.

4.2. Recommendations

Based on the outcomes of this study, several recommendations are provided below to address the e-waste management problem:

• Government agencies need to partner with private firms, NGOs, and local investors through Public Private Partnerships (PPP) to build an effective, workable infrastructure in order to create and enhance an ecologically safe and sound e-waste management scheme that encourages consumers to appropriately dispose of their e-waste. This will encourage formal recycling and help reduce the amount of e-waste that is disposed of at dump sites and landfills.
• Governments should establish a close collaboration with international organizations and investors to implement EPR, PP, and takeback programs in order to manage the reduction in the e-waste burdens in the selected countries.
• It is critical that countries across the globe follow the best practices recommended by the UN and the WHO. The implementation of joint obligatory permits and licenses globally would support and enhance the prescribed systems of e-waste management. This will allow stakeholders to better understand their roles and responsibilities and hence contribute towards environmentally sound e-waste management.
• Manufacturers should be required to provide wide-ranging information about each of their products to consumers upon the product’s composition, and mandates regarding threats of inappropriate disposal; practices of re-use, repair, and refurbishment; the life span of a product, etc., should be implemented to help effect a substantial change in how consumers perceive their contributions to a greener environment. In addition, awareness-based education should be provided for consumers with respect to the consequences of the illegal dumping of e-waste.
• Green policies such as Green Product Identification (GPI) should be made obligatory by making manufacturers accountable for identifying the influences of their product and guaranteeing that each component manufactured can be re-used at the end of its useful life. Enforcing EPR would encourage stakeholders to design products more responsibly and account for the production and processing of recycled e-waste. Such practices can only be rewarding when governments encourage a formal system of e-waste management by providing financial, technological, or expert support.