Environmental and Health Consequences of E-Waste Dumping and Recycling Carried out by Selected Countries in Asia and Latin America
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- What are the environmental and health consequences of e-waste dumping and informal recycling practices in selected countries in Asia and Latin America?
- What actions are taken by governments and international organizations toward reducing environmental and public health concerns precipitated by e-waste in these selected countries in Asia and Latin America?
2. Materials and Methods
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Current E-Waste Management Situation in Selected Countries
3.1.1. Brazil
3.1.2. China
3.1.3. India
3.1.4. Mexico
3.1.5. Pakistan
3.2. Hazardous Effects of Informal E-waste Recycling
3.2.1. Adverse Environmental Impacts Associated with E-Waste
3.2.2. Adverse Health Impacts Associated with E-Waste
3.3. The Efforts of Governments, International Conventions, and Organizations
3.3.1. Governments
3.3.2. International Conventions
3.3.3. International Organizations
4. Conclusions and Recommendations
4.1. Conclusions
4.2. Recommendations
- Government agencies need to partner with private firms, NGOs, and local investors through Public Private Partnerships (PPP) to build an effective, workable infrastructure in order to create and enhance an ecologically safe and sound e-waste management scheme that encourages consumers to appropriately dispose of their e-waste. This will encourage formal recycling and help reduce the amount of e-waste that is disposed of at dump sites and landfills.
- Governments should establish a close collaboration with international organizations and investors to implement EPR, PP, and takeback programs in order to manage the reduction in the e-waste burdens in the selected countries.
- It is critical that countries across the globe follow the best practices recommended by the UN and the WHO. The implementation of joint obligatory permits and licenses globally would support and enhance the prescribed systems of e-waste management. This will allow stakeholders to better understand their roles and responsibilities and hence contribute towards environmentally sound e-waste management.
- Manufacturers should be required to provide wide-ranging information about each of their products to consumers upon the product’s composition, and mandates regarding threats of inappropriate disposal; practices of re-use, repair, and refurbishment; the life span of a product, etc., should be implemented to help effect a substantial change in how consumers perceive their contributions to a greener environment. In addition, awareness-based education should be provided for consumers with respect to the consequences of the illegal dumping of e-waste.
- Green policies such as Green Product Identification (GPI) should be made obligatory by making manufacturers accountable for identifying the influences of their product and guaranteeing that each component manufactured can be re-used at the end of its useful life. Enforcing EPR would encourage stakeholders to design products more responsibly and account for the production and processing of recycled e-waste. Such practices can only be rewarding when governments encourage a formal system of e-waste management by providing financial, technological, or expert support.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Kumar, B.; Bhaskar, K. Electronic waste and sustainability: Reflections on a rising global challenge. Mark. Glob. Dev. Rev. 2016, 1, 5. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Balde, C.P.; Forti, V.; Gray, V.; Kuehr, R.; Stegmann, P. The Global E-Waste Monitor 2015: Quantities, Flows and Resources; United Nations University: Tokyo, Japan, 2015; Available online: http://collections.unu.edu/view/UNU:5654#.WnCl1D4X4rY.mendeley (accessed on 23 April 2022).
- Andeobu, L.; Wibowo, S.; Grandhi, S. An assessment of e-waste generation and environmental management of selected countries in Africa, Europe and North America: A systematic review. Sci. Total Environ. 2021, 792, 148078. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Healthcare or Medical Waste: Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal. 2020. Available online: http://www.basel.int/?tabid=5839 (accessed on 6 April 2022).
- Zuo, L.; Wang, C.; Sun, Q. Sustaining WEEE collection business in China: The case of online to offline (O2O) development strategies. Waste Manag. 2020, 101, 222–230. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Forti, V.; Balde, C.P.; Kuehr, R.; Bel, G. The Global E-Waste Monitor 2020: Quantities, Flows and the Circular Economy Potential; United Nations University (UNU): Bonn, Germany; United Nations Institute for Training and Research (UNITAR): Geneva, Switzerland; International Telecommunication Union (ITU): Geneva, Switzerland; International Solid Waste Association (ISWA): Rotterdam, The Netherlands, 2020. [Google Scholar]
- Khan, A.H.; López-Maldonado, E.A.; Khan, N.A.; Villarreal-Gómez, L.J.; Munshi, F.M.; Alsabhan, A.H.; Perveen, H. Current solid waste management strategies and energy recovery in developing countries—State of art review. Chemosphere 2022, 291, 133088. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Chan, J.K.Y.; Wong, M.H. A review of environmental fate, body burdens, and human health risk assessment of PCDD/Fs at two typical electronic waste recycling sites in China. Sci. Total Environ. 2013, 463, 1111–1123. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Andeobu, L.; Wibowo, S.; Grandhi, S. A systematic review of e-waste generation and environmental management of Asia Pacific countries. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 9051. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- World Health Organization (WHO). Water, Sanitation, Hygiene, and Waste Management for the COVID-19 Virus: Interim Guidance; WHO: Geneva, Switzerland, 2020; Available online: https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/331499/WHO-2019-nCoV-IPC_WASH-2020.2-eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y (accessed on 15 March 2022).
- United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). UN Report: Time to Seize Opportunity, Tackle Challenge of E-Waste. 2019. Available online: https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/press-release/un-report-time-seize-opportunity-tackle-challenge-e-waste (accessed on 16 April 2022).
- Lee, D.; Offenhuber, D.; Duarte, F.; Biderman, A.; Ratti, C. Monitour: Tracking global routes of electronic waste. Waste Manag. 2018, 72, 362–370. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Khan, A.H.; López-Maldonado, E.A.; Alam, S.S.; Khan, N.A.; López, J.R.; Méndez Herrera, P.F.; Abutaleb, A.; Ahmed, S.; Singh, L. Municipal solid waste generation and the current state of waste-to-energy potential: State of art review. Energy Convers. Manag. 2022, 267, 115905. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gao, Y.; Ge, L.; Shi, S.; Sun, Y.; Liu, M.; Wang, B.; Shang, Y.; Wu, J.; Tian, J. Global trends and future prospects of e-waste research: A bibliometric analysis. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2019, 26, 17809–17820. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schumacher, K.A.; Agbemabiese, L. Towards comprehensive e-waste legislation in the United States: Design considerations based on quantitative and qualitative assessments. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2019, 149, 605–621. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, L.; Geng, Y.; Zhong, Y.; Dong, H.; Liu, Z. A bibliometric analysis on waste electrical and electronic equipment research. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2019, 26, 21098–21108. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Abalansa, S.; El-Mahrad, B.; Icely, J.; Newton, A. Electronic waste, an environmental problem exported to developing countries: The GOOD, the BAD and the UGLY. Sustainability 2021, 13, 5302. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schmidt, C.W. Unfair trade: E-waste in Africa. Environ. Health Perspect. 2006, 114, 232–235. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Herat, S.; Pariatamby, A. E-waste: A problem or an opportunity? Review of issues, challenges and solutions in Asian countries. Waste Manag. Res. 2012, 30, 1113–1129. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Murthy, V.; Ramakrishna, S. A review on global e-waste management: Urban mining towards a sustainable future and circular economy. Sustainability 2022, 14, 647. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Waste Atlas Report. The World’s 50 Biggest Dumpsites. 2020. Available online: http://www.atlas.d-waste.com/ (accessed on 22 February 2022).
- Awere, C.; Obeng, P.A.; Bonoli, A.; Obeng, P.A. E-waste recycling and public exposure to organic compounds in developing countries: A review of recycling practices and toxicity levels in Ghana. Environ. Technol. Rev. 2020, 9, 1–19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Robinson, B.H. E-waste: An assessment of global production and environmental impacts. Sci. Total Environ. 2009, 408, 183–191. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cobbing, M. Toxic Tech: Not in Our Backyard—Uncovering the Hidden Flows of E-Waste; Greenpeace International: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2008; Available online: http://www.greenpeace.org/raw/content/belgium/fr/press/reports/toxic-tech.pdf (accessed on 10 March 2022).
- United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). The Growing Footprint of Digitalization. 2021. Available online: https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/37439/FB027.pdf (accessed on 20 April 2022).
- Kitchenham, B.A. Systematic review in software engineering: Where we are and where we should be going. In Proceedings of the 2nd International Workshop on Evidential Assessment of Software Technologies, Lund, Sweden, 19–20 September 2012; pp. 1–2. [Google Scholar]
- Wolfswinkel, J.F.; Furtmueller, E.; Wilderom, P.M. Using grounded theory as a method for rigorously reviewing literature. Eur. J. Inf. Syst. 2013, 22, 45–55. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chu, H. Research methods in library and information science: Content analysis. Libr. Inf. Sci. Res. 2015, 37, 36–41. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bengtsson, M. How to plan and perform a qualitative study using content analysis. NursingPlus Open 2016, 2, 8–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Hennink, M.; Hutter, I.; Bailey, A. Qualitative Research Methods, 2nd ed.; Sage Publications: London, UK, 2000. [Google Scholar]
- Sutton, J.; Austin, Z. Qualitative research: Data collection, analysis, and management. Can. J. Hosp. Pharm. 2015, 68, 226. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Nethaji-Mariappan, V.E.; Karthik, S.; Vineeth, K.S.; Varthamanan, S. E-waste management & assessment—A review. Int. J. Chem. Technol. Res. 2021, 10, 924–936. [Google Scholar]
- Islam, T.; Abdullah, A.B.; Shahir, S.A.; Kalam, M.A.; Masjuki, H.H.; Shumon, R.; Humayun-Rashid, H.A. Public survey on knowledge, awareness, attitude and willingness to pay for WEEE management: Case study in Bangladesh. J. Clean. Prod. 2016, 137, 728–740. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Solving the E-Waste Problem (StEP). Solving the E-Waste Problem (Step) White Paper: One Global Definition of E-Waste; United Nations University: Tokyo, Japan, 2014; Available online: https://collections.unu.edu/view/UNU:6120 (accessed on 20 March 2022).
- Mmereki, D.; Li, B.; Baldwin, A.; Hong, L. The generation, composition, collection, treatment and disposal system and impact of e-waste. In E-Waste in Transition—From Pollution to Resource; Mihai, F.-C., Ed.; IntechOpen: London, UK, 2016; pp. 65–93. [Google Scholar]
- Akenroye, T.O.; Nygard, H.M.; Eyo, A. Towards implementation of sustainable development goals (SDG) in developing nations: A useful funding framework. Int. Area Stud. Rev. 2018, 21, 3–8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Khalid, A.M.; Sharma, S.; Dubey, A.K. Concerns of developing countries and the sustainable development goals: Case for India. Int. J. Sustain. Develop. World Ecol. 2021, 28, 303–315. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pimonenko, T.V.; Lieonov, S.V.; Ibragimov, Z. Green investing for SDGs: EU experience for developing countries. In Proceedings of the 37th International Scientific Conference on Economic and Social Development—Socio Economic Problems of Sustainable Development, Baku, Azerbaijan, 14–15 February 2019. [Google Scholar]
- Wibowo, S.; Grandhi, S. Evaluating the performance of recoverable end-of-life products in the reverse supply chain. Int. J. Networked Distributed Comput. 2017, 5, 71–79. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Alblooshi, B.G.; Ahmad, S.Z.; Hussain, M.; Singh, S.K. Sustainable management of electronic waste: Empirical evidences from a stakeholders’ perspective. Bus. Strategy Environ. 2022, 31, 1856–1874. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kumar, S.; Agarwal, N.; Anand, S.K.; Rajak, B.K. E-waste management in India: A strategy for the attainment of SDGs 2030. Material. Today 2022, 60, 811–814. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Awasthi, A.K.; Zeng, X.; Li, J. Comparative examining and analysis of e-waste recycling in typical developing and developed countries. Procedia Environ. Sci. 2016, 35, 676–680. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Akram, R.; Fahad, S.; Hashmi, M.Z.; Wahid, A.; Adnan, M.; Mubeen, M.; Khan, N.; Rehmani, M.I.; Awais, M.; Abbas, M.; et al. Trends of electronic waste pollution and its impact on the global environment and ecosystem. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2019, 26, 16923–16938. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Arya, S.; Kumar, S. E-waste in India at a glance: Current trends, regulations, challenges and management strategies. J. Clean. Prod. 2020, 271, 122707. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hossain, M.S.; Al-Hamadani, S.M.; Rahman, M.T. E-waste: A challenge for sustainable development. J. Health Pollut. 2015, 5, 3–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Kumar, A.; Holuszko, M.; Espinosa, D.C. E-waste: An overview on generation, collection, legislation and recycling practices. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2017, 122, 32–42. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lu, Y.; Nakicenovic, N.; Visbeck, M.; Stevance, A.S. Policy: Five priorities for the UN sustainable development goals. Nature 2015, 520, 432–433. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Ottoni, M.; Dias, P.; Xavier, L.H. A circular approach to the e-waste valorization through urban mining in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. J. Clean. Prod. 2020, 261, 120990. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, K.; Qian, J.; Liu, L. Understanding environmental pollutions of informal e-waste clustering in global south via multi-scalar regulatory frameworks: A case study of Guiyu Town, China. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 2802. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- MoEF. Guidelines for Environmentally Sound Management of E-Waste (No. 2323/2007-HSMD); Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF): New Delhi, India, 2008; Available online: https://www.yumpu.com/en/document/view/6274477/guidelines-for-environmentally-sound-management-of-e-waste (accessed on 12 March 2022).
- Saldana-Duran, C.E.; Bernache-Perez, G.; Ojeda-Benitez, S.; Cruz-Sotelo, S.E. Environmental pollution of E-waste: Generation, collection, legislation, and recycling practices in Mexico. In Handbook of Electronic Waste Management; Butterworth-Heinemann: Oxford, UK, 2020; pp. 421–442. [Google Scholar]
- Sajid, M.; Syed, J.H.; Iqbal, M.; Abbas, Z.; Hussain, I.; Baig, M.A. Assessing the generation, recycling and disposal practices of electronic/electrical-waste (E-Waste) from major cities in Pakistan. Waste Manag. 2019, 84, 394–401. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Azevedo, L.P.; da Silva Araújo, F.G.; Lagarinhos, C.A.; Tenorio, J.A.; Espinosa, D.C. E-waste management and sustainability: A case study in Brazil. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2017, 24, 25221–25232. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Souza, R.G. E-waste situation and current practices in Brazil. In Handbook of Electronic Waste Management: International Best Practices and Case Studies; Elsevier: New York, NY, USA, 2020; pp. 377–396. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lopes dos Santos, K. The recycling of e-waste in the industrialised Global South: The case of Sao Paulo Macrometropolis. Int. J. Urban Sustain. Dev. 2021, 13, 56–69. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Caiado, N.; Guarnieri, P.; Xavier, L.H.; Chaves, G.L. A characterization of the Brazilian market of reverse logistic credits (RLC) and an analogy with the existing carbon credit market. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2017, 118, 47–59. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bakhiyi, B.; Gravel, S.; Ceballos, D.; Flynn, M.A.; Zayed, J. Has the question of e-waste opened a Pandora’s box? An overview of unpredictable issues and challenges. Environ. Int. 2018, 110, 173–192. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- De Souza, R.G.; Climaco, J.C.; Sant’Anna, A.P.; Rocha, T.B.; de Aragão Bastos do Valle, R.; Quelhas, O.L. Sustainability assessment and prioritisation of e-waste management options in Brazil. Waste Manag. 2016, 57, 46–56. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Abbondanza, M.N.M.; Souza, R.G. Estimating the generation of household e-waste in municipalities using primary data from surveys: A case study of Sao Jose dos Campos, Brazil. Waste Manag. 2019, 85, 374–384. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Xavier, L.H.; Ottoni, M.; Lepawsky, J. Circular economy and e-waste management in the Americas: Brazilian and Canadian frameworks. J. Clean. Prod. 2021, 297, 126570. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lu, C.; Zhang, L.; Zhong, Y.; Ren, W.; Tobias, M.; Mu, Z.; Xue, B. An overview of e-waste management in China. J. Mater. Cycles Waste Manag. 2015, 17, 1–12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zeng, X.; Ali, S.H.; Tian, J.; Li, J. Mapping anthropogenic mineral generation in China and its implications for a circular economy. Nature Commun. 2020, 11, 1544. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Salhofer, S.; Steuer, B.; Ramusch, R.; Beigl, P. WEEE management in Europe and China—A comparison. Waste Manag. 2016, 57, 27–35. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Li, W.; Achal, V. Environmental and health impacts due to e-waste disposal in China—A review. Sci. Total Environ. 2020, 139, 745. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Awasthi, A.K.; Li, J. Management of electrical and electronic waste: A comparative evaluation of China and India. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2017, 76, 434–447. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shi, J.; Xiang, L.; Luan, H.; Wei, Y.; Ren, H.; Chen, P. The health concern of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in a notorious e-waste recycling site. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 2019, 186, 109817. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Awasthi, A.K.; Wang, M.; Awasthi, M.K.; Wang, Z.; Li, J. Environmental pollution and human body burden from improper recycling of e-waste in China: A short-review. Environ. Pollut. 2018, 243, 1310–1316. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Biswas, A.; Singh, S.G. E-Waste Management in India: Challenges and Agenda; Centre for Science and Environment: New Delhi, India, 2020. [Google Scholar]
- Borthakur, A.; Singh, P. The journey from products to waste: A pilot study on perception and discarding of electronic waste in contemporary urban India. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2021, 28, 24511–24520. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Garg, N.; Adhana, D. E-waste management in India: A study of current scenario. Int. J. Manag. Technol. Eng. 2019, 9, 2791–2803. [Google Scholar]
- Song, Q.B.; Li, J.H.; Liu, L.L.; Dong, Q.Y.; Yang, J.; Liang, Y.Y.; Zhang, C. Measuring the generation and management status of waste office equipment in China: A case study of waste printers. J. Clean. Prod. 2016, 112, 4461–4468. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dwivedy, M.; Mittal, R.K. An investigation into e-waste flows in India. J. Clean. Prod. 2012, 37, 229–242. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Niza, S.; Santos, E.; Costa, I.; Ribeiro, P.; Ferrao, P. Extended producer responsibility policy in Portugal: A strategy towards improving waste management performance. J. Clean. Prod. 2014, 64, 277–287. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Agrawal, S.; Singh, R.K.; Murtaza, Q. Forecasting product returns for recycling in Indian electronics industry. J. Adv. Manag. Res. 2014, 11, 102–114. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zeng, X.L.; Li, J.H. Measuring the recyclability of e-waste: An innovative method and its implications. J. Clean. Prod. 2016, 131, 156–162. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sthiannopkao, S.; Wong, M.H. Handling e-waste in developed and developing countries: Initiatives, practices, and consequences. Sci. Total Environ. 2013, 463–464, 1147–1153. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Agoramoorthy, G.; Chakraborty, C. Control electronic waste in India. Nature 2012, 485, 309. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Song, Q.; Li, J. A review on human health consequences of metals exposure to e-waste in China. Environ. Pollut. 2015, 196, 450–461. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pandey, P.; Govind, M. Social repercussions of e-waste management in India: A study of three informal recycling sites in Delhi. Int. J. Environ. Stud. 2014, 71, 241–260. [Google Scholar]
- Yadav, R.; Pathak, G.S. Young consumers’ intention towards buying green products in a developing nation: Extending the theory of planned behaviour. J. Clean Prod. 2016, 135, 732–739. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Heeks, R.; Subramanian, L.; Jones, C. Understanding e-waste management in developing countries: Strategies, determinants, and policy implications in the Indian ICT sector. Inf. Technol. Develop. 2015, 21, 653–667. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cruz-Sotelo, S.E.; Ojeda-Benítez, S.; Jáuregui Sesma, J.; Velázquez-Victorica, K.I.; Santillán-Soto, N.; García-Cueto, O.R.; Alcántara Concepción, C.; Alcántara, C. E-waste supply chain in Mexico: Challenges and opportunities for sustainable management. Sustainability 2017, 9, 503. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Cordova-Pizarro, D.; Aguilar-Barajas, I.; Romero, D.; Rodriguez, C.A. Circular economy in the electronic products sector: Material flow analysis and economic impact of cellphone e-waste in Mexico. Sustainability 2019, 11, 1361. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Iqbal, M.; Breivik, K.; Syed, J.H.; Malik, R.N.; Zhang, G.; Li, J.; Jones, K.C. Emerging issue of e-waste in Pakistan: A review of status, research needs and data gaps. Environ. Pollut. 2015, 207, 308–318. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Wibowo, S.; Deng, H. Multi-criteria group decision making for evaluating the performance of e-waste recycling programs under uncertainty. Waste Manag. 2015, 40, 127–135. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rasheed, R.; Rizwan, A.; Javed, H.; Sharif, F.; Yasar, A.; Tabinda, A.B.; Mahfooz, Y.; Ahmed, S.R.; Su, Y. Analysis of environmental sustainability of e-waste in developing countries—A case study from Pakistan. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2022, 29, 36721–36739. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sohoo, I.; Ritzkowski, M.; Guo, J.; Sohoo, K.; Kuchta, K. Municipal solid waste management through sustainable landfilling: In view of the situation in Karachi, Pakistan. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 773. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Abbasi, H.N.; Lu, X.; Zhao, G. An overview of Karachi solid waste disposal sites and environs. J. Sci. Res. Rep. 2015, 6, 294–303. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liu, G.; Xu, Y.; Tian, T.; Wang, T.; Liu, Y. The impacts of China’s fund policy on waste electrical and electronic equipment utilization. J. Clean. Prod. 2020, 251, 119582. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Peng, Y.; Wu, J.; Luo, X.; Zhang, X.; Giesy, J.P.; Mai, B. Spatial distribution and hazard of halogenated flame retardants and polychlorinated biphenyls to common kingfisher (Alcedo atthis) from a region of South China affected by electronic waste recycling. Environ. Int. 2019, 130, 104952. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chen, A.; Dietrich, K.N.; Huo, X.; Ho, S.M. Developmental neurotoxicants in e-waste: An emerging health concern. Environ. Health Perspect. 2011, 119, 431–438. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Perkins, D.N.; Brune-Drisse, M.; Nxele, T.; Sly, P.D. E-waste: A global hazard. Ann. Glob. Health 2014, 80, 286–295. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Awasthi, A.K.; Li, J.; Koh, L.; Ogunseitan, O.A. Circular economy and electronic waste. Nat. Electron. 2019, 2, 86–89. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Cesaro, A.; Belgiorno, V.; Gorrasi, G.; Viscusi, G.; Vaccari, M.; Vinti, G.; Salhofer, S. A relative risk assessment of the open burning of WEEE. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2019, 26, 11042–11052. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Mary, J.S.; Meenambal, T. Inventorisation of e-waste and developing a policy—Bulk consumer perspective. Proced. Environ. Sci. 2016, 35, 643–655. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, B.; Zhang, T.; Duan, Y.; Zhao, Z.; Huang, X.; Bai, X.; Xie, L.; He, Y.; Ouyang, J.; Yang, Y.; et al. Human exposure to phthalate esters associated with e-waste dismantling: Exposure levels, sources, and risk assessment. Environ. Int. 2019, 124, 1–9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fu, J.; Zhang, H.; Zhang, A.; Jiang, G. E-waste recycling in China: A challenging field. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2018, 52, 6727–6728. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liang, S.X.; Zhao, Q.; Qin, Z.F.; Zhao, X.R.; Yang, Z.Z.; Xu, X.B. Levels and distribution of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in various tissues of foraging hens from an electronic waste recycling area in South China. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 2008, 27, 1279–1283. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Shen, C.; Chen, Y.; Huang, S.; Wang, Z.; Yu, C.; Qiao, M.; Xu, Y.; Setty, K.; Zhang, J.; Zhu, Y.; et al. Dioxin-like compounds in agricultural soils near e-waste recycling sites from Taizhou area, China: Chemical and bioanalytical characterization. Environ. Int. 2009, 35, 50–55. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Fujimori, T.; Takigami, H. Pollution distribution of heavy metals in surface soil at an informal electronic-waste recycling site. Environ. Geochem. Health 2014, 36, 159–168. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Borthakur, A.; Govind, M. How well are we managing e-waste in India: Evidences from the city of Bangalore. Energy Ecol. Environ. 2017, 2, 225–235. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Zhang, K.; Schnoor, J.L.; Zeng, E.Y. E-waste recycling: Where does it go from here? Environ. Sci. Technol. 2012, 46, 10861–10867. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Luo, Q.; Cai, Z.W.; Wong, M.H. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in fish and sediment from river polluted by electronic waste. Sci. Total Environ. 2007, 383, 115–127. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, J.P.; Guo, X.K. Impact of electronic wastes recycling on environmental quality. Biomed. Environ. Sci. 2006, 19, 137–142. [Google Scholar]
- Wong, C.S.; Duzgoren-Aydin, N.S.; Aydin, A.; Wong, M.H. Evidence of excessive releases of metals from primitive e-waste processing in Guiyu, China. Environ. Pollut. 2007, 148, 62–72. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Leverett, D.; Merrington, G.; Crane, M.; Ryan, J.; Wilson, I. Environmental quality standards for diclofenac derived under the European Water Framework Directive: 1. Aquatic organisms. Environ. Sci. Eur. 2021, 33, 133. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Deng, W.J.; Zheng, J.S.; Bi, X.H.; Fu, J.M.; Wong, M.H. Distribution of PBDEs in air particles from an electronic waste recycling site compared with Guangzhou and Hong Kong, South China. Environ. Int. 2007, 33, 1063–1069. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Leung, A.O.; Duzgoren-Aydin, N.S.; Cheung, K.C.; Wong, M.H. Heavy metals concentrations of surface dust from e-waste recycling and its human health implications in southeast China. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2008, 42, 2674–2680. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Han, G.; Ding, G.; Lou, X.; Wang, X.; Han, J.; Shen, H.; Du, L. Correlations of PCBs, DIOXIN, and PBDE with TSH in children’s blood in areas of computer e-waste recycling. Biomed. Environ. Sci. 2011, 24, 112–116. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Zhang, B.; Huo, X.; Xu, L.; Cheng, Z.; Cong, X.; Lu, X.; Xu, X. Elevated lead levels from e-waste exposure are linked to decreased olfactory memory in children. Environ. Pollut. 2017, 231, 1112–1121. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Qin, Q.; Xu, X.; Dai, Q.; Ye, K.; Wang, C.; Huo, X. Air pollution and body burden of persistent organic pollutants at an electronic waste recycling area of China. Environ. Geochem. Health 2019, 41, 93–123. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Amoabeng, A.A.; Arko-Mensah, J.; Botwe, P.K.; Dwomoh, D.; Kwarteng, L.; Takyi, S.A.; Acquah, A.A.; Tettey, P.; Basu, N.; Batterman, S.; et al. Effect of particulate matter exposure on respiratory health of e-waste workers at Agbogbloshie, Accra, Ghana. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 3042. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Xu, L.; Huo, X.; Liu, Y.; Zhang, Y.; Qin, Q.; Xu, X. Hearing loss risk and DNA methylation signatures in preschool children following lead and cadmium exposure from an electronic waste recycling area. Chemosphere 2020, 246, 125829. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liu, Y.; Huo, X.; Xu, L.; Wei, X.; Wu, W.; Wu, X.; Xu, X. Hearing loss in children with e-waste lead and cadmium exposure. Sci. Total Environ. 2018, 624, 621–627. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Soetrisno, F.N.; Delgado-Saborit, J.M. Chronic exposure to heavy metals from informal e-waste recycling plants and children’s attention, executive function and academic performance. Sci. Total Environ. 2020, 717, 137099. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Huo, X.; Wu, Y.; Xu, L.; Zeng, X.; Qin, Q.; Xu, X. Maternal urinary metabolites of PAHs and its association with adverse birth outcomes in an intensive e-waste recycling area. Environ. Pollut. 2019, 245, 453–461. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Alabi, O.A.; Bakare, A.A.; Xu, X.; Li, B.; Zhang, Y.; Huo, X. Comparative evaluation of environmental contamination and DNA damage induced by electronic-waste in Nigeria and China. Sci. Total Environ. 2012, 423, 62–72. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chatterjee, R. E-waste recycling spews dioxins into the air. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2007, 41, 5577. [Google Scholar]
- Chan, J.K.; Xing, G.H.; Xu, Y.; Liang, Y.; Chen, L.X.; Wu, S.C.; Wong, C.K.C.; Leung, C.K.M.; Wong, M.H. Body loadings and health risk assessment of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans at an intensive electronic waste recycling site in China. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2007, 41, 7668–7674. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhao, G.F.; Xu, Y.; Han, G.G.; Ling, B. Biotransfer of persistent organic pollutants from a large site in China used for the disassembly of electronic and electrical waste. Environ. Geochem. Health 2006, 28, 341–351. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Qu, W.; Bi, X.; Sheng, G.; Lu, S.; Fu, J.; Yuan, J.; Li, L. Exposure to polybrominated diphenyl ethers among workers at an electronic waste dismantling region in Guangdong, China. Environ. Int. 2007, 33, 1029–1034. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhao, G.F.; Wang, Z.J.; Dong, M.H.; Rao, K.F.; Luo, J.P.; Wang, D.H.; Zha, J.; Huang, S.; Xu, Y.; Ma, M. PBBs, PBDEs, and PCBs levels in hair of residents around e-waste disassembly sites in Zhejiang Province, China, and their potential sources. Sci. Total Environ. 2008, 397, 46–47. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zheng, G.; Xu, X.; Li, B.; Wu, K.; Yekeen, T.A.; Huo, X. Association between lung function in school children and exposure to three transition metals from an e-waste recycling area. J. Expo. Sci. Environ. Epidemiol. 2013, 23, 67–72. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- EU WEE Directive. Directive 2012/19/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council on waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE). Off. J. Eur. Union 2012, 34, 194–227. [Google Scholar]
- Patil, R.A.; Ramakrishna, S. A comprehensive analysis of e-waste legislation worldwide. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2020, 27, 14412–14431. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Dwivedy, M.; Mittal, R.K. Future trends in computer waste generation in India. Waste Manag. 2010, 30, 2265–2277. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ibrahim, M.F.; Hod, R.; Toha, H.R.; Mohammed Nawi, A.; Idris, I.B.; Mohd Yusoff, H.; Sahani, M. The impacts of illegal toxic waste dumping on children’s health: A review and case study from Pasir Gudang, Malaysia. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 2221. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sepulveda, A.; Schluep, M.; Renaud, F.G.; Streicher, M.; Kuehr, R.; Hagelüken, C.; Gerecke, A.C. A review of the environmental fate and effects of hazardous substances released from electrical and electronic equipments during recycling: Examples from China and India. Environ. Impact Assess. Rev. 2010, 30, 28–41. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bimir, M.N. Revisiting e-waste management practices in selected African countries. J. Air Waste Manag. Assoc. 2020, 70, 659–669. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Sthiannopkao, S. Managing e-waste in developed and developing countries. In Global Risk-Based Management of Chemical Additives II. The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry; Bilitewski, B., Darbra, R., Barceló, D., Eds.; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2012; Volume 23. [Google Scholar]
- Hicks, C.; Dietmar, R.; Eugster, M. The recycling and disposal of electrical and electronic waste in China—Legislative and market responses. Environ. Impact Assess. Rev. 2005, 25, 459–471. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Iqbal, M.; Syed, J.H.; Breivik, K.; Chaudhry, M.J.; Li, J.; Zhang, G.; Malik, R.N. E-waste driven pollution in Pakistan: The first evidence of environmental and human exposure to flame retardants (FRs) in Karachi City. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2017, 51, 13895–13905. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Shamim, A.; Mursheda, A.K.; Rafiq, I. E-waste trading impact on public health and ecosystem services in developing countries. J. Waste Resour. 2015, 5, 4. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Betts, K. Producing usable materials from e-waste. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2008, 42, 6782–6783. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Chancerel, P.; Meskers, C.E.; Hageluken, C.; Rotter, V.S. Assessment of precious metal flows during pre-processing of waste electrical and electronic equipment. J. Ind. Ecol. 2009, 13, 791–810. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Aras, N.; Korugan, A.; Buyukozkan, G.; Serifoglu, F.S.; Erol, I.; Velioglu, M.N. Locating recycling facilities for IT-based electronic waste in Turkey. J. Clean. Prod. 2015, 105, 324–336. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mayers, C.K.; France, C.M.; Cowell, S.J. Extended producer responsibility for waste electronics: An example of printer recycling in the United Kingdom. J. Ind. Ecol. 2005, 9, 169–189. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Huang, C.L.; Bao, L.J.; Luo, P.; Wang, Z.Y.; Li, S.M.; Zeng, E.Y. Potential health risk for residents around a typical e-waste recycling zone via inhalation of size-fractionated particle-bound heavy metals. J. Hazard. Mater. 2016, 317, 449–456. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zagloel, S.S.; Ardi, T.Y.; Suzianti, A. Estimating the amount of electronic waste generated in Indonesia: Population balance model. IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci. 2018, 219, 012006. [Google Scholar]
- Awasthi, A.K.; Li, J. Assessing resident awareness on e-waste management in Bangalore, India: A preliminary case study. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2018, 25, 11163–11172. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bahers, J.B.; Kim, J. Regional approach of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) management in France. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2018, 129, 45–55. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jibiri, N.N.; Isinkaye, M.O.; Momoh, H.A. Assessment of radiation exposure levels at Alaba e-waste dumpsite in comparison with municipal waste dumpsites in southwest Nigeria. J. Radiat. Res. Appl. Sci. 2014, 7, 536–541. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Duan, H.; Hu, J.; Tan, Q.; Liu, L.; Wang, Y.; Li, J. Systematic characterization of generation and management of e-waste in China. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2016, 23, 1929–1943. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nnorom, I.C.; Osibanjo, O. Overview of electronic waste (e-waste) management practices and legislations, and their poor applications in the developing countries. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2008, 52, 843–858. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Landrigan, P.J.; Goldman, L.R. Children’s vulnerability to toxic chemicals: A challenge and opportunity to strengthen health and environmental policy. Health Aff. 2011, 30, 842–850. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Wu, Q.; Leung, J.Y.; Du, Y.; Kong, D.; Shi, Y.; Wang, Y.; Xiao, T. Trace metals in e-waste lead to serious health risk through consumption of rice growing near an abandoned e-waste recycling site: Comparisons with PBDEs and AHFRs. Environ. Pollut. 2019, 247, 46–54. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lu, X.; Xu, X.; Zhang, Y.; Zhang, Y.; Wang, C.; Huo, X. Elevated inflammatory Lp-PLA2 and IL-6 link e-waste Pb toxicity to cardiovascular risk factors in preschool children. Environ. Pollut. 2018, 34, 601–609. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Luo, X.J.; Zhang, X.L.; Liu, J.; Wu, J.P.; Luo, Y.; Chen, S.J.; Mai, B.; Yang, Z. Persistent halogenated compounds in waterbirds from an e-waste recycling region in South China. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2009, 43, 306–311. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ijaiya, H.; Abbas, W.I.; Wuraola, O.T. Re-examining hazardous waste in Nigeria: Practical possibilities within the United Nations system. Afr. J. Int. Comp. Law 2018, 26, 264–282. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ohajinwa, C.; Van Bodegom, P.; Vijver, M.; Peijnenburg, W. Health risks awareness of electronic waste workers in the informal sector in Nigeria. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2017, 14, 911. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Zeng, X.; Duan, H.; Wang, F.; Li, J. Examining environmental management of e-waste: China’s experience and lessons. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2017, 72, 1076–1082. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zeng, Z.; Huo, X.; Zhang, Y.; Xiao, Z.; Zhang, Y.; Xu, X. Lead exposure is associated with risk of impaired coagulation in preschool children from an e-waste recycling area. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2018, 25, 20670–20679. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Grant, K.; Goldizen, F.C.; Sly, P.D.; Brune, M.N.; Neira, M.; van den Berg, M.; Norman, R.E. Health consequences of exposure to e-waste: A systematic review. Lancet Glob. Health 2013, 1, 350–361. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Yang, Z.Z.; Zhao, X.R.; Zhao, Q.; Qin, Z.F.; Qin, X.F.; Xu, X.B.; Jin, Z.X.; Xu, C.X. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in leaves and soil from typical electronic waste polluted area in South China. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 2008, 80, 340–344. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Peeters, J.R.; Vanegas, P.; Van den Bossche, W.; Devoldere, T.; Dewulf, W.; Duflou, J.R. Elastomer-based fastener development to facilitate rapid disassembly for consumer products. J. Clean. Prod. 2015, 94, 177–186. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cong, X.; Xu, X.; Xu, L.; Li, M.; Xu, C.; Qin, Q.; Huo, X. Elevated biomarkers of sympatho-adrenomedullary activity linked to e-waste air pollutant exposure in preschool children. Environ. Int. 2018, 115, 117–126. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Xue, M.; Yang, Y.; Ruan, J.; Xu, Z. Assessment of noise and heavy metals (Cr, Cu, Cd, Pb) in the ambience of the production line for recycling waste printed circuit boards. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2012, 46, 494–499. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gangwar, C.; Choudhari, R.; Chauhan, A.; Kumar, A.; Singh, A. Assessment of air pollution caused by illegal e-waste burning to evaluate the human health risk. Environ. Int. 2019, 125, 191–199. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Suja, F.; Abdul Rahman, R.; Yusof, A.; Masdar, M.S. E-waste management scenarios in Malaysia. J. Waste Manag. 2014, 2014, 609169. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Cucchiella, F.; D’Adamo, I.; Koh, S.L.; Rosa, P. A profitability assessment of European recycling processes treating printed circuit boards from waste electrical and electronic equipments. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2016, 64, 749–760. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Davis, J.M.; Garb, Y. A strong spatial association between e-waste burn sites and childhood lymphoma in the West Bank, Palestine. Int. J. Cancer 2019, 144, 470–475. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Widmer, R.; Oswald-Krapf, H.; Sinha-Khetriwal, D.; Schnellmann, M.B.; Oni, H. Global perspectives on e-waste. Environ. Impact Assess. Rev. 2005, 25, 436–458. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Akpeimeh, G.F.; Fletcher, L.A.; Evans, B.E. Exposure to bioaerosols at open dumpsites: A case study of bioaerosols exposure from activities at Olusosun open dumpsite, Lagos Nigeria. Waste Manag. 2019, 89, 37–47. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dagan, R.; Dubey, B.; Bitton, G.; Townsend, T. Aquatic toxicity of leachates generated from electronic devices. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 2007, 53, 168–173. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fang, W.; Yang, Y.; Xu, Z. PM10 and PM2.5 and health risk assessment for heavymetals in a typical factory for cathode ray tube television recycling. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2013, 47, 12469–12476. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fischer, D.; Seidu, F.; Yang, J.; Felten, M.K.; Garus, C.; Kraus, T.; Fobil, J.N.; Kaifie, A. Health consequences for e-waste workers and bystanders—A comparative cross-sectional study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 1534. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Fu, J.J.; Zhou, Q.F.; Liu, J.M.; Liu, W.; Wang, T.; Zhang, Q.H.; Jiang, G. High levels of heavy metals in rice (Oryza sativa L.) from a typical E-waste recycling area in southeast China and its potential risk to human health. Chemosphere 2008, 71, 1269–1275. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ibanescu, D.; Cailean, D.; Teodosiu, C.; Fiore, S. Assessment of the waste electrical and electronic equipment management systems profile and sustainability in developed and developing European Union countries. Waste Manag. 2018, 73, 39–53. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tehria, S. Commercial E-waste management: Role of industry and Government. Int. J. Appl. Res. 2016, 2, 75–79. [Google Scholar]
- Seith, R.; Arain, A.L.; Nambunmee, K.; Adar, S.D.; Neitzel, R.L. Self-reported health and metal body burden in an electronic waste recycling community in Northeastern Thailand. J. Occup. Environ. Med. 2019, 61, 905–909. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Khetriwal, D.S.; Kraeuchi, P.; Widmer, R. Producer responsibility for e-waste management: Key issues for consideration—Learning from the Swiss experience. J. Environ. Manag. 2009, 90, 153–165. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kaya, M. Recovery of metals and non-metals from electronic waste by physical and chemical recycling processes. Waste Manag. 2016, 57, 64–90. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shaikh, S.; Thomas, K.; Zuhair, S.; Magalini, F. A cost-benefit analysis of the downstream impacts of e-waste recycling in Pakistan. Waste Manag. 2020, 118, 302–312. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Decharat, S.; Kiddee, P. Health problems among workers who recycle electronic waste in southern Thailand. Osong Public Health Res. Perspect. 2020, 11, 34–43. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Sharma, K.D.; Jain, S. Municipal solid waste generation, composition, and management: The global scenario. Soc. Responsib. J. 2020, 16, 917–948. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Garg, C.P. Modelling the e-waste mitigation strategies using Grey-theory and DEMATEL framework. J. Clean. Prod. 2021, 281, 124035. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- World Health Organization. Children’s Health and the Environment: A Global Perspective. A Resource Manual for the Health Sector; Pronczuk de Garbino, J., Ed.; World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland; Basel Action Network (BAN): Seattle, WA, USA, 2004. [Google Scholar]
- Ahmed, S.; Mubarak, S.; Du, J.; Wibowo, S. Forecasting the status of municipal waste in smart bins using deep learning. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 16798. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rautela, R.; Arya, S.; Vishwakarma, S.; Lee, J.; Kim, K.H.; Kumar, S. E-waste management and its effects on the environment and human health. Sci. Total Environ. 2021, 773, 145623. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Andeobu, L.; Wibowo, S.; Grandhi, S. Artificial intelligence applications for sustainable solid waste management practices in Australia: A systematic review. Sci. Total Environ. 2022, 834, 155389. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Parvez, S.M.; Jahan, F.; Brune, M.N.; Gorman, J.F.; Rahman, M.J.; Carpenter, D.; Islam, Z.; Rahman, M.; Aich, N.; Knibbs, L.D.; et al. Health consequences of exposure to e-waste: An updated systematic review. Lancet Planet. Health 2021, 5, e905–e920. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Orisakwe, O.E.; Frazzoli, C.; Ilo, C.E.; Oritsemuelebi, B. Public health burden of e-waste in Africa. J. Health Pollut. 2019, 9, 190610. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Ngo, H.T.; Watchalayann, P.; Nguyen, D.B.; Doan, H.N.; Liang, L. Environmental health risk assessment of heavy metal exposure among children living in an informal e-waste processing village in Viet Nam. Sci. Total Environ. 2021, 763, 142982. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ge, X.; Ma, S.; Zhang, X.; Yang, Y.; Li, G.; Yu, Y. Halogenated and organophosphorous flame retardants in surface soils from an e-waste dismantling park and its surrounding area: Distributions, sources, and human health risks. Environ. Int. 2020, 139, 105741. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Weerasundara, L.; Mahatantila, K.; Vithanage, M. E-waste as a challenge for public and ecosystem health. In Handbook of Electronic Waste Management; Butterworth-Heinemann: Oxford, UK, 2020; pp. 101–117. [Google Scholar]
- Cao, P.; Fujimori, T.; Juhasz, A.; Takaoka, M.; Oshita, K. Bioaccessibility and human health risk assessment of metal(loid)s in soil from an e-waste open burning site in Agbogbloshie, Accra, Ghana. Chemosphere 2020, 240, 124909. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Basel Action Network. Basel Action Network’s Electronic Stewardship Initiative: The Basics of How We Qualify Responsible Electronics Recyclers as Pledge-Signers; King County: Seattle, WA, USA, 2015. [Google Scholar]
- World Health Organisation (WHO). Children and Digital Dumpsites: E-Waste Exposure and Child Health; World Health Organisation: Geneva, Switzerland, 2021; Available online: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240023901 (accessed on 28 April 2022).
- UN Environment Management Group (UNEMG). Developing the E-Waste Coalition EMG Secretariat. 2018. Available online: https://unemg.org/developing-the-global-e-waste-coalition/ (accessed on 21 April 2022).
- International Telecommunication Union (ITU) The ITU New Initiatives Programme; ITU: Geneva, Switzerland. 2006. Available online: https://www.itu.int/osg/spu/ni/about-new-initiatives.pdf (accessed on 21 April 2022).
- López, M.; Reche, C.; Pérez-Albaladejo, E.; Porte, C.; Balasch, A.; Monfort, E.; Eljarrat, E.; Viana, M. E-waste dismantling as a source of personal exposure and environmental release of fine and ultrafine particles. Sci. Total Environ. 2022, 833, 154871. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Solving the E-Waste Problem (StEP). E-Waste Prevention, Take-Back System Design and Policy Approaches; StEP Green Paper Series; Step Initiative; United Nations University: Tokyo, Japan, 2015. [Google Scholar]
- World Bank Group. What a Waste 2.0: A Global Snapshot of Solid Waste Management to 2050—The Urban Development Series; World Bank Group: Washington, DC, USA, 2018; Available online: https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/30317 (accessed on 10 March 2020).
- Borthakur, A. Design, adoption and implementation of electronic waste policies in India. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2022, 30, 8672–8681. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yue, C.; Ma, S.; Liu, R.; Yang, Y.; Li, G.; Yu, Y.; An, T. Pollution profiles and human health risk assessment of atmospheric organophosphorus esters in an e-waste dismantling park and its surrounding area. Sci. Total Environ. 2022, 806, 151206. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Frazzoli, C.; Ruggieri, F.; Battistini, B.; Orisakwe, O.E.; Igbo, J.K.; Bocca, B. E-WASTE threatens health: The scientific solution adopts the one health strategy. Environ. Res. 2022, 212, 113227. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Inclusion Criteria | Exclusion Criteria |
---|---|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
Country | Region | E-Waste Generated (Kilotons) (kt) | E-Waste Generated (Kilograms) (kg) per Capita | E-Waste Documented to be Collected and Recycled (Kilotons) (kt) | National Legislation/Policy or Regulations in Place | E-Waste Legislation | Year |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Brazil | Americas | 2143 | 10.2 | 0.14 | Yes | Brazilian National Policy on Solid Waste (batteries)—Law No.12305 | 2010 |
China | Asia | 10,129 | 7.2 | 1546 | Yes | Notification on Importation of the Seventh Category of Wastes | 2000 |
India | Asia | 3230 | 2.4 | 30 | Yes | E-waste Management and Handling Rules | 2011 |
Mexico | Americas | 1220 | 9.7 | n/a | Yes | NOM-161-SEMARNAT-2011 | 2011 |
Pakistan | Asia | 433 | 2.1 | n/a | No | The Pakistan Environmental Protection Act 1997 and Trade Policy | 1997, 2006 |
Sources of Exposure | Description and Examples |
---|---|
Community exposure | Exposure to pollutants:
|
Environmental contamination | Dumping of acid, used to remove valuable substances, into rivers:
|
Occupational exposure | Ingesting fumes emanating from burning wires and circuit boards:
|
Children exposure | Inhalation of contaminated dust on surfaces:
|
E-Waste Pollutant | Source/Route of Exposure | Hazardous Impacts on Human Health | Hazardous Impacts on the Environment |
---|---|---|---|
Heavy metals | |||
Mercury (Hg) | Ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact | Leads to behavioural and nervous disorders such as headaches, insomnia, memory loss, and emotional instability. Stunted foetus growth; contaminants are absorbed in mother’s milk. Upsets the kidneys, immune system, and central nervous system. Mercury can contaminate the human food chain through, soil, ground, and surface water | Contaminates air, dust, soil, plants, and surface and groundwater |
Lead (Pb) | Ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact | Harms the reproductive organs, central nervous system, and respiratory system and damages the kidneys and lungs. Can have adverse impacts on the development of the brains of children; damaged the circulatory system; and hinders the performance of enzymes in the human body | Contaminates air and dust; causes soil acidification; and leaches into ground and surface water |
Cadmium (Cd) | Inhalation and ingestion | Causes irreparable toxic effects on human health; can accumulate in the kidneys and liver and leads to neural damage; causes cancer, softness of the bones, and severe pain in the spine and joints. | Contaminates air, dust, water, soil, and plants (particularly rice and vegetables) |
Arsenic (As) | Ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact | Extended exposure to arsenic causes skin diseases, lung cancer, and damage to the nervous system. Also causes skin alterations and leads to an increased risk of diabetes. | Contaminates air, soil, water, and plants |
Zinc (Zn) | Ingestion and inhalation | Leads to cramps in the stomach, skin irritations, nausea, and anaemia, and can severely damage the pancreas. | Contaminates air, dust, soil, and surface and groundwater |
Lithium (Li) | Ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact | Causes kidney disease, coughing, and burning sensation; Difficulty breathing, shortness of breath, sore throat, redness of the skin, skin burns, pain, blisters, and redness in the eyes. | Contaminates air, dust, water, soil, and plants |
Beryllium (Be) | Ingestion and inhalation | Causes lung cancer, which can destroy other organs, including the heart. Also causes pneumonia. | Contaminates air, soil, water, and plants |
Chromium (Cr) | Ingestion and inhalation | Leads to asthmatic bronchitis and liver and kidney disease and can cause lung cancer. | Contaminates air, soil, water, and plants |
Nickel (Ni) | Ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact | Causes carcinogenic lung embolism, respiratory failure, birth defects, and asthma and chronic bronchitis Also leads to skin allergies. | Contaminates air, soil, water, and plants |
Barium (Ba) | Ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact | Causes elevated blood pressure, stomach irritation, changes in heart rhythm, weakness of the muscles, nerve reflex changes, and swelling in the brain, liver, and kidney. | Contaminates air, dust, and water |
Aluminium (Al) | Ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact | Causes poor metabolism and has impacts on the nervous system and foetal development. | Contaminates air, dust, water, and soil |
Cobalt (Co) | Ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact | Causes vomiting and nausea, asthma and pneumonia, vision problems, heart issues, thyroid damage, and hair loss. | Contaminates air, dust, water, soil, and plants |
Bismuth (Bi) | Ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact | Damages kidneys and causes severe ulcerative stomatitis, feelings of bodily discomfort, excessive secretion of albumin and other protein substances in the urine, diarrhea, skin irritation, and serious exodermatitis. | Contaminates air, dust, water, and soil |
Antimony (Sb) | Ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact | Exposure can cause damage to the lungs, heart, liver, and kidneys. Also causes eye irritation and hair loss. | Contaminates air, dust, water, and soil |
Gallium (Ga) | Ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact | Prolonged exposure to gallium chloride can lead to throat inflammation, breathing difficulties, and chest pain. | Contaminates air and water and produces toxic fumes |
Indium (In) | Ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact | Damages the heart, liver, and kidneys and can lead to cancer. | Contaminates air, dust, water, and soil |
Copper (Cu) | Ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact | Causes irritation of the eyes, nose, mouth, and throat. It also leads to severe dizziness, headaches, migraines, stomach aches, vomiting, and diarrhea. | Contaminates air, dust, water, and soil |
Germanium (Ge) | Ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact | Causes severe cough, abdominal cramps, burning sensations, redness of the eyes and skin, and body pain. | Contaminates air and dust |
Selenium (Se) | Ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact | Causes hair loss and nail brittleness. It also causes cardiovascular, renal, and neurological abnormalities. | Contaminates air, dust, water, and soil |
Iron (Fe) | Ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact | Excess exposure or ingestion can damage the liver. | Contaminates air, dust, water, and soil |
Molybdenum (Mo) | Ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact | Exposure can cause liver dysfunction and pain and swelling in the joint areas. | Contaminates air, dust, water, and soil |
Tin (Sn) | Ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact | Causes severe headaches, eye and skin irritations, dizziness, stomach aches, severe internal sweating, shortness of breath, and frequent urination. | Contaminates air, dust, water, and soil |
Dioxins | |||
Polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) | Ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact | Exposure causes cancer. Mutagenicity and teratogenicity can also occur. | Are often released as combustion by-products into the air, dust, soil, and plants |
Brominated flame retardants (BFRs) | Ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact | Affects thyroid function and causes cancer in humans. Also affects the reproductive and immune systems and disrupts functions of the endocrine system. | BFRs can leach into landfills. They are organic pollutants in the air and sources of dioxins and furans in the environment |
Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins (PCDDs) and Polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) | Ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact | Affects the reproductive system, nervous system, and immune development. | Contaminate air, dust, water, soil, plants, and vapor |
Organic contaminants | |||
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) | Ingestion, inhalation, dermal contact, and trans-placental exposure | Carcinogenic to the liver, kidneys, and thyroid gland. Affects the immune system and reproductive and neurobehavioral development. | Pollute the soil and affect vegetation and aquatic species. Accumulate in crops and cause harm |
Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) Polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs) Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) | Ingestion, inhalation, and trans-placental exposure | Causes thyroid problems and impaired function of the nervous system, reproductive system, and hormonal imbalance. | Contaminate air, dust, water, plants, and soil |
Research Method | Sample | Findings/Outcomes | Location | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Quantitative | A total of 17 types of PCDD/Fs, 36 types of PCBs, and 16 types of PAHs from soils around an informal e-waste-recycling site in Guiyu | Reported higher quantities of these three toxins in each of the soils, with elevated concentrations of PBDEs and PBBs detected in e-waste-dumping sites | China | Shen et al. [99] |
Quantitative | Investigated metal quantities in the surfaces of the soil of a typical informal e-waste-recycling site | Results showed contamination with copper, zinc, and lead | Brazil | Fujimori and Takigami [100] |
Quantitative | Analysed soils at an informal e-waste-recycling site in Bangalore | Reported concentrations of cadmium, selenium, mercury, and lead in higher concentrations than those at a nearby control site in the same city | India | Borthakur and Govind [101] |
Quantitative | Measured concentrations of PBDEs in chicken tissues from Zhejiang province. | Reported elevated levels of PBDEs in chickens, which could pose a threat to human health | China | Liang et al. [98] |
Quantitative | Examined sediment samples collected from the Nanyang River | Found high levels of PBDEs in the soil sediment samples examined | China | Luo et al. [103] |
Quantitative | Analysed water flow from area downstream of the recycling site in Guiyu | Found up to 0.4 mg/L lead contaminating the water, which far exceeds the healthy drinking water threshold (0.05 mg/L) stipulated by the local government | China | Wang and Guo [104] |
Quantitative | A comprehensive study of air pollution caused by informal e-waste recycling at various sites | Results indicated particulate matter, PCDD/Fs, PBDEs, and PCBs in the atmosphere had significantly increased in the e-waste sites when compared with the previous corresponding reports | China | Zhang et al. [110] |
Quantitative | Analysed the presence of dioxins in human milk, placentas, and hair from various informal e-waste recycling regions in China | Reported increased concentrations of dioxins in human milk, placentas, and hair, indicating that dioxins are often ingested by humans, through air, water, or food, at levels high enough to pose serious health risks | China | Chan et al. [119] |
Quantitative | Analysed blood serum samples from informal e-waste workers and other residents from Guiyu | Results indicated e-waste workers and other residents from Guiyu had high blood serum PBDE concentrations of 126 ng/L and 35 ng/L, respectively, when compared to residents from a nearby town with concentrations of just 10 ng/L | China | Qu et al. [121] |
Quantitative | Investigated human hair samples from towns close to Guiyu | Results indicated elevated levels of PBBs, PBDEs, and PCBs at concentrations up to 58 ng/g, 30 ng/g, and 182 ng/g, respectively | China | Zhao et al. [122] |
Quantitative | Analysed the harmful effects arising from exposure to chromium, nickel, and lead on lung function among 144 school children between the ages of 8–13 | Reported a substantial difference between e-waste sites and controlled sites with respect to lung function, with a reduced forced vital capacity (FVC) in 8–9-year-old boys | China | Zheng et al. [123] |
Quantitative | Examined the consequences of e-waste exposure for thyroid function among children | Reported varying results on the effects of e-waste exposure on thyroid function among children | China | Liu et al. [114] |
Quantitative | Examined the connection between exposure to informal e-waste-recycling practices and adverse birth outcomes among pregnant women | Found an association between exposure to informal e-waste-recycling practices and adverse birth outcomes including altered neurodevelopment, adverse learning and behavioural outcomes, and worsened immune system and lung function among children | China | Amoabeng et al. [112] |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2023 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Andeobu, L.; Wibowo, S.; Grandhi, S. Environmental and Health Consequences of E-Waste Dumping and Recycling Carried out by Selected Countries in Asia and Latin America. Sustainability 2023, 15, 10405. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151310405
Andeobu L, Wibowo S, Grandhi S. Environmental and Health Consequences of E-Waste Dumping and Recycling Carried out by Selected Countries in Asia and Latin America. Sustainability. 2023; 15(13):10405. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151310405
Chicago/Turabian StyleAndeobu, Lynda, Santoso Wibowo, and Srimannarayana Grandhi. 2023. "Environmental and Health Consequences of E-Waste Dumping and Recycling Carried out by Selected Countries in Asia and Latin America" Sustainability 15, no. 13: 10405. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151310405
APA StyleAndeobu, L., Wibowo, S., & Grandhi, S. (2023). Environmental and Health Consequences of E-Waste Dumping and Recycling Carried out by Selected Countries in Asia and Latin America. Sustainability, 15(13), 10405. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151310405