Lauric Acid from the Black Soldier Fly (Hermetia illucens) and Its Potential Applications
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Black Soldier Fly (Hermetia illucens)
2.1. The Effectiveness of Organic Waste Treatment by BSF Larvae
2.2. Nutrients Composition of BSF
2.3. Lipid and Lauric Acid Content in BSF
2.4. Comparison of Lauric Acid Content in BSF and Other Insects
3. Lauric Acid
3.1. Sources of LA
Sources | Amount of LA (%) | Reference |
---|---|---|
Palm kernel oil (Elaeis guineensis) | 45.7–48.2 | [86] |
Coconut oil (Cocos nucifera) | 45–53 | [87] |
Babasu oil (Attalea speciosa) | 47.4 | [88] |
Cohune oil (Attalea cohune) | 46.5 | [78] |
Ucuuba butter (Virola sebifera Aubl.) | 73 | [89] |
Murumuru butter (Astrocaryum murumuru) | 40 | [89] |
Ouricury oil (Syagrus coronate) | 43.64 | [90] |
Tucum oil (Astrocaryum vulgare) | 45.5 | [91] |
Laurical oil (Brassica napus) | 37.6 | [92] |
3.2. Potential Application of Lauric Acid
3.2.1. Biodiesel Use
3.2.2. Pharmaceutical Use
Antimicrobial Character | Microorganism | Level of LA Bioactivity | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Antibacterial | B. megaterium | 0.15 mM a | [124] |
Pneumococci Micrococcus sp. Corynebacterium sp. N. asteroides | 0062 µmoles/mL a 0.624 µmoles/mL a 0.124 µmoles/mL a 0.124 µmoles/mL a | [27] | |
N. asteroides S. aureus Strep. faecalis Strep. pyogenes | 62 µg/mL a 500 µg/mL a 500 µg/mL a 62 µg/mL a | [87] | |
Helicobacter pylori | 1 mM b | [138] | |
Chlamydia trachomatis | 5 mM for 10 min c | [127] | |
S. aureus P. acnes | 0.97 μg/mL a 3.9 μg/mL a 60 μg/mL b (ATCC 6919) 80 μg/mL b (ATCC 11827) | [28] | |
Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) Methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA) | 400 μg/mL a 400 μg/mL a | [133] | |
Salmonella S. aureus E. coli Micrococcus Bacillus stearothermophillus Pseudomonas | 3.13% equivalent to 31.3 mg/mL a 3.13% a 3.13% a 10% a 30% a 50% a | [139] | |
Neisseria gonorrhoeae | 2.5 mM c | [128] | |
Antifungal | Candida albicans | 10 mg/mL a | [34] |
Candida albicans | 2.5 and 5 mM c | [140] | |
Antivirus | Vesicular stomatitis virus Herpes simplex virus type 1 Visna virus | 2 mg/mL c 2 mg/mL c 2 mg/mL c | [33] |
Vesicular stomatitis virus | 40 µg/mL c | [141] | |
HIV | LA as GML 40 μg/mL LA as GML 2.4 g (3 capsules), 3 times daily or 7.2 g daily | [142] | |
[143] | |||
Junin virus (JUNV) | 46–188 µM (IC50) | [144] |
3.2.3. Other Applications of Lauric Acid
4. Opportunities and Challenges
5. Conclusions
- BSF larvae can serve as a bioconversion agent for converting organic waste into larval products rich in nutrients, including proteins and lipids.
- Numerous studies have demonstrated that the lipid and fatty acid content of BSF larvae are influenced by the growth substrate and the developmental stage of the larvae.
- Generally, the fatty acid composition of BSF larvae/prepupae is predominantly composed of LA, which is comparable in quality to the LA content found in coconut and palm kernel oil.
- Various research studies have shown that LA exhibits bioactivity as an antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, and anticancer agent.
- LA offers numerous benefits and has found widespread applications in diverse fields, including pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, personal care, food and beverages, soap and detergent, plastics, textiles, and others.
- Potential applications can be applied as a single compound or a mixture with other fatty acids.
- Given the high LA content present in BSF larvae, which is similar to that of coconut and palm kernel oil, there is significant potential for utilizing it as a novel source for raw materials typically obtained from coconut or palm kernel oil.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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No. | Substrate | Larvae Biomass (DW) | Waste Reduction (% DW) | Biomass Conversion Ratio | Survival Rate (%) | WRI (g/Day) | ECD | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Poultry feed | 251 ± 6 mg | 84.8 ± 3.6 | 12.8 ± 0.7 | 93.0 ± 2.9 | - | - | [4] |
Dog food | 252 ± 6 mg | 60.5 ± 1.5 | 13.4 ± 0.9 | 89.3 ± 6.6 | - | - | ||
Food waste | 212 ± 4 mg | 55.3 ± 4.1 | 13.9 ± 0.3 | 87.2 ± 0.5 | - | - | ||
Fruits and vegetable | 218 ± 4 mg | 46.7 ± 3.1 | 4.1 ± 0.2 | 90.7 ± 5.6 | - | - | ||
Abattoir waste | 248 ± 3 mg | 46.3 ± 2.9 | 15.2 ± 1.6 | 101.5 ± 2.8 | - | - | ||
Abattoir waste–fruits and vegetable | 252 ± 13 | 61.1 ± 10.7 | 14.2 ± 1.9 | 96.3 ± 5.2 | - | - | ||
Poultry manure | 164 ± 14 mg | 60.0 ± 2.3 | 7.1 ± 0.6 | 92.7 ± 3.3 | - | - | ||
Human feces | 245 ± 5 mg | 47.7 ± 1.1 | 11.3 ± 0.3 | 91.8 ± 4.5 | - | - | ||
Primary sludge | 137 ± 5 mg | 63.3 ± 1.9 | 2,3 ± 0.1 | 81.0 ± 1.5 | - | - | ||
Undigested sludge | 145 ± 5 mg | 49.2 ± 3.7 | 2.2 ± 0.2 | 76.2 ± 7.1 | - | - | ||
Digested sludge | 70 ± 5 mg | 13.2 ± 0.8 | 0.2 ± 0.0 | 39.0 ± 4.4 | - | - | ||
2 | Vegetable and fruit waste (7:3) | 10.42 ± 0.65 g (total) | 65.2 ± 5.54 | - | - | 3.2 ± 0.26 | 0.07 ± 0.009 | [6] |
Fruit waste | 10.92 ± 2.06 g (total) | 70.8 ± 8.39 | - | - | 3.2 ± 0.41 | 0.05 ± 0.011 | ||
Winery by-product | 9.90 ± 0.79 g (total) | 53.0 ± 5.28 | - | - | 2.4 ± 0.32 | 0.06 ± 0.002 | ||
Brewery by-product | 11.32 ± 0.86 g (total) | 42.5 ± 8.41 | - | - | 5.3 ± 1.05 | 0.14 ± 0.034 | ||
3 | Bread | 137 ± 7 mg | - | 24.1 ± 3.3 | 69.8 ± 9.8 | - | - | [7] |
Fish | 89 ± 18 mg | - | 3.2 ± 0.1 | 18.4 ± 2.6 | - | - | ||
Food waste | 191 ± 19 mg | - | 18.9 ± 2.4 | 89.1 ± 6.0 | - | - | ||
Fresh mussels | 235 ± 15 mg | - | 0.8 ± 0.1 | 89.3 ± 6.8 | - | - | ||
Ensiled mussels | 25 mg | - | <0.1 | 11.0 ± 4.5 | - | - | ||
Rotten mussels | 106 ± 29 mg | 0.2 ± 0.0 | 55.1 ± 11.2 |
Life Phase | Crude Protein (%) | Crude Fat (%) | Ash Content (%) |
---|---|---|---|
Eggs (<12 h) | 45 | 15.8 | 4 |
1 Day | 56.2 | 4.8 | 5 |
4 Day | 54.8 | 5.8 | 10.5 |
6 Day | 54.2 | 9.6 | 10 |
7 Day | 46 | 13.4 | 9.2 |
9 Day | 42 | 22.2 | 8.4 |
12 Day | 38 | 22.6 | 7.8 |
14 Day | 39.2 | 28.4 | 8.3 |
Early Prepupa | 40.2 | 28 | 8.8 |
Final Prepupa | 46.2 | 24.2 | 9.6 |
Early Pupa | 46.2 | 8.2 | 9.6 |
Final Pupa | 43.8 | 7.2 | 10.2 |
Waste Type | Life Stage | Lipid Content (% Dry Weight) | References |
---|---|---|---|
Fruit wastes | Larvae | 44.46 | [1] |
Palm decanter | Larvae | 36.51 | |
Sewage sludge | Larvae | 29.85 | |
Chicken feed | Prepupa | 33.6 | [2] |
Restaurant waste | Prepupa | 38.6 | |
Biogas digestate | Prepupa | 21.8 | |
Vegetable waste | Prepupa | 37.1 | |
Horse manure | Larvae | 23.15 | [63] |
Raw coconut endosperm waste | Larvae | 32 | [64] |
Vegetable and fruit waste (7:3) | Larvae | 26.3 | [6] |
Fruit waste | Larvae | 47.4 | |
Winery by-product | Larvae | 32.2 | |
Brewery by-product | Larvae | 29.9 | |
Cassava peel | Larvae | 28.89 | [59] |
Fruit pulp | Larvae | 21.16 | |
Tofu waste | Larvae | 20.09 | |
Food scraps | Larvae | 22.54 | |
Palm kernel meal | Larvae | 35.1 | [65] |
Industrial waste is 80% + organic waste 20% | Larvae | 51.5 | |
Bread | Larvae | 57.8 | [7] |
Fish | Larvae | 46.7 | |
Food waste | Larvae | 40.7 | |
Fresh mussels | Larvae | 33.1 | |
Ensiled mussels | Larvae | 11.2 | |
Rotten mussels | Larvae | 29.7 | |
Apple waste | Larvae | 36.1 | [14] |
Banana waste | Larvae | 27.9 | |
Apple + Banana waste | Larvae | 33.4 | |
Spent grain | Larvae | 22.5 | |
Apple and spent grain (1:1) | Larvae | 20.1 | |
Banana and spent grain (1:1) | Larvae | 23.1 | |
Vegetable and fruit waste | Larvae | 33 | [66] |
Vegetable and fruit waste | Prepupa | 30.8 | |
Wheat bran | Prepupa | 26.7 | [67] |
Wheat bran and quail manure (40%) | Prepupa | 28.0 | |
Chicken feed | Larvae | 32.9 | [54] |
Mixed feed | Larvae | 27.0 | |
Brewer’s spent grain | Larvae | 22.4 | |
Mitigation mussels | Larvae | 21,6 | |
Rapeseed cake | Larvae | 24.5 | |
Shrimp waste | Larvae | 22.9 |
Substrate | Life Stage | Lauric Acid (C12:0) | Myristic Acid (C14:0) | Palmitic Acid (C16:0) | Oleic Acid (C18:1n-9) | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Fruit waste | Larvae | 76.13 | 8.46 | 6.98 | 4.97 | [1] |
Palm decanter | Larvae | 48.06 | 2.90 | 25.48 | 16.06 | |
Sewage sludge | Larvae | 58.32 | 6.90 | 16.49 | 13.16 | |
Chicken feed | Prepupa | 57.4 | 7.3 | 9.7 | 7.5 | [2] |
Digestate | Prepupa | 43.7 | 6.9 | 10.1 | 7.9 | |
Vegetable waste | Prepupa | 61 | 9.5 | 9.5 | 5.7 | |
Restaurant waste | Prepupa | 58 | 7.1 | 10.3 | 8.0 | |
Raw coconut endosperm waste | Larvae | 55 | 12 | 6 | 4 | [64] |
Vegetable and fruit waste (7:3) | Larvae | 52.1 | 10.4 | 13.9 | 8.5 | [6] |
Fruit waste | Larvae | 57.4 | 9.6 | 13.1 | 9.3 | |
Winery by-product | Larvae | 34.7 | 9.6 | 13.1 | 12.5 | |
Brewery by-product | Larvae | 32.4 | 6.7 | 20.4 | 9.2 | |
Horse manure | Larvae | 28.1 | 6.7 | 22 | 22.9 | [63] |
Palm kernel meal | Larvae | 40.54 | 15.57 | 14.55 | 17.48 | [65] |
Industrial waste 80% + organic waste 20% | Larvae | 46.72 | 11.13 | 12.12 | 15.98 | |
Bread | Larvae | 51.8 | 9.5 | 12.7 | 12.0 | [7] |
Fish (rainbow trout) | Larvae | 28.6 | 6.1 | 12.6 | 25.1 | |
Food waste | Larvae | 39.9 | 6.7 | 16.3 | 19.1 | |
Fresh mussels | Larvae | 52.1 | 8.0 | 11.9 | 10.3 | |
Ensiled mussels | Larvae | 13.4 | 5.8 | 21.9 | 14.0 | |
Rotten mussels | Larvae | 32.3 | 10.1 | 19.8 | 12.9 | |
Wheat bran | Prepupa | 41.96 | 7.05 | 12.59 | 11.19 | [67] |
Wheat bran and quail manure (40%) | Prepupa | 40.5 | 6.28 | 11.91 | 12.51 | |
Chicken feed | Larvae | 32.2 | 4.7 | 9.1 | 20.0 | [54] |
Mixed feed | Larvae | 37.6 | 6.6 | 10.8 | 15.7 | |
Brewer’s spent grain | Larvae | 21.2 | 4.5 | 17.0 | 12.0 | |
Mitigation mussels | Larvae | 7.5 | 3.4 | 13.5 | 20.7 | |
Rapeseed cake | Larvae | 10.0 | 2.0 | 5.8 | 46.8 | |
Shrimp waste | Larvae | 16.9 | 4.3 | 10.4 | 26.9 |
Insects Species | Life Stages | Lipid (% of Biomass) | Dominant Fatty Acid (% Total Fatty Acid) | LA (% Total Fatty Acid) | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Protaetia brevitarsis | Larvae | 13–16.7 | C18:1 (58.2–64.5) | N/A | [71] |
Zophobas morio | Larvae | 35 | C18:1 (cis-9) (35.7) | 0.7 | [72] |
Tenebrio molitor | Pupa | 32 | C18:1 (cis-9) (36.3) | 0.2 | |
Tenebrio molitor | Larvae | 31 | C18:1 (cis-9) (37.7) | 0.3 | |
Gryllus assimilis | Nymph | 32 | C18:2 (cis-9.12) (35.7) | 2.7 | |
Rhynchophorus sp. | Larvae | 44 | C16:0 (40) | N/A | [64] |
Acheta domesticus L. | Pupa | 29–32 | C18:1n-9 (27.1–29.8) | 0.1 | [73] |
Alphitobius diaperinus | Prepupa | 31–34 | C18:1n-9 (31.4–34.9) | 0.1 | |
Hermetia illucens | Larvae | N/A | C12:0 (38.9–47.8) | 38.9–47.8 | |
Tenebrio molitor | Larvae | 32.14–40.1 | C18:1n-9 (45.06–58.04) | 0.18–0.46 | [74] |
Hermetia illucens | Larvae | - | C12:0 (43.10) | 43.10 | [68] |
Oecophylla smaragdina | Larvae | - | C18:1n-9 (38.80) | 0.50 | |
Zophobas morio | Larvae | - | C18:1n-9 (27.8) | 0.10 | |
Tenebrio molitor | Larvae | - | C18:1n-9 (44.6) | 0.37 | |
Gryllus bimaculatus | Nymph | - | C16:0 (31.2) | 0.18 | |
Tenebrio molitor | Larvae | 28.8 | C18:1n-9 (37.95) | 0.46 * | [70] |
Hermetia illucens | Larvae | 42.6 | C12:0 (31.14) | 31.14 * |
Substrate for Rearing BSF Larvae | Methods | Molar Ratio Methanol-Lipid | Catalyst | Reaction Time | Reaction Temperature (°C) | Yield of Biodiesel (%) | Biodiesel Testing Standard | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Restaurant kitchen waste | Acid-catalyzed esterification and alkaline-catalyzed transesterification. | 10:1 | 1% (w/w) H2SO4, 1.1% (w/w) NaOH | 41 min 61 min | 50 62 | nd | American Standard ASTM D6751 and European Standard EN14214 | [12] |
Fruit waste | In situ transesterification via ultra-sonication | 8.3:1 | 15.1% H2SO4 | 253 min | 51 | 96.15 | EN 14214 and ASTM 6751 | [113] |
Food waste | In situ transesterification via ultrasonication | 6.8:1 | 7.0 v/v% H2SO4 | 254 min | 71 | 94.63 | ||
Fermented wheat bran | Direct transesterification | 2:1 (v/v) | 1.2 mL H2SO4 | 90 min | 120 | 94.14 | EN 14214 | [112] |
Food waste | Base-catalyzed transesterification | nd | 0.25 g KOH | 8 h | 65 | 93.80 | Korea and EN 14214 | [111] |
Food waste | Non-catalytic transesterification | nd | SiO2 as reaction supporting porous material | 1 min | 390 | 94.10 | ||
- | Enzymatic transesterification | 6.33:1 | 20% Lipase Novozym 435 | 9.48 h | 26 | 96.18 | EN 14214 | [107] |
Nd. | Enzymatic transesterification | 3:1 | Lipase SMG1 and Lipase Eversa Transform 2.0 | 8 h | 25 | 98.45 | EN14214 | [110] |
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Suryati, T.; Julaeha, E.; Farabi, K.; Ambarsari, H.; Hidayat, A.T. Lauric Acid from the Black Soldier Fly (Hermetia illucens) and Its Potential Applications. Sustainability 2023, 15, 10383. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151310383
Suryati T, Julaeha E, Farabi K, Ambarsari H, Hidayat AT. Lauric Acid from the Black Soldier Fly (Hermetia illucens) and Its Potential Applications. Sustainability. 2023; 15(13):10383. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151310383
Chicago/Turabian StyleSuryati, Tuti, Euis Julaeha, Kindi Farabi, Hanies Ambarsari, and Ace Tatang Hidayat. 2023. "Lauric Acid from the Black Soldier Fly (Hermetia illucens) and Its Potential Applications" Sustainability 15, no. 13: 10383. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151310383