Water and Food Sustainability in the Riparian Countries of Lake Chad in Africa

Abstract

Lake Chad is a strategic water resource shared by more than 40 million people in Sub-Saharan Africa. In the 1960s, it served as a primary source of water for irrigation and fishing in the region, but the capacity of Lake Chad to supply water for irrigation plummeted by 90% at the beginning of the twenty-first century. With some initiatives taken by the neighboring countries, Lake Chad has recovered about 5% of its water volume in recent years. This research conducted an extensive literature review on Lake Chad and its riparian countries. The four major riparian countries were given particular attention due to their significant stake in the sustainability of lake Chad. This review identified and analyzed the water usage trends in this region, both before and after the lake’s decline in water levels. Our research findings revealed that riparian countries around Lake Chad have experienced an 80% increase in population growth and that the lake has now been reduced to 10% of its original size in the 1960s. Animal production in the region has increased significantly, too, particularly in Chad, and this increase of over 75% has contributed to the conflicts between farmers and herders in the region. The possible solutions proposed for the restoration of Lake Chad include increased water harvesting activities in the basin, developing a legal framework for sustainable water use, incentive-based policies for stakeholders to mitigate climate extremes events, establishing a joint water administration for the basin, and introducing regenerative agricultural practices with a highly efficient micro irrigation system.

1. Introduction

Lakes play a vital role in meeting the food security needs of the world’s growing population because agriculture consumes about 70% of the available water worldwide [1]. Lakes also play an essential role beyond food and water sustainability as they are part of the global water cycle, towards both flood attenuation and recreation efforts worldwide [2]. However, climate variations and land use changes pose significant challenges to the sustainability of many lakes globally [2,3,4,5]. The challenges faced in distinct lake regions differ due to their roles as sources of water for both crop and animal production. Furthermore, these regions serve as the thriving ecosystems for aquatic life [6]. Despite many challenges, the benefits of well-maintained lakes far outweigh the challenges that these lakes face from human interference.

In Africa, lakes hold immense importance locally, regionally, and globally. However, managing these regional and global water bodies is a major challenge. The situation becomes even more complex when we consider that numerous African lakes and their vital water resources are shared between multiple countries [7,8], making effective management challenging and sometimes a stuttering and even stagnating progress. Countries sharing major lakes in Africa, such as Victoria, Tanganyika, and Chad, struggle with insufficient water availability for domestic and agricultural use [9]. Notably, Lake Chad stands out in Africa because it has experienced a significant decline in water storage due to poor water management by its riparian countries since the 1980s, and it has not fully recovered from its continuous decline since the 1980s [7].

The Lake Chad Basin (LCB) is a vast but shallow endorheic lake in Africa, situated west of Chad near the Sahara Desert. This lake is a vital freshwater resource shared by five Lake Chad riparian countries (Cameroon, Niger, Nigeria, Chad, and the Central African Republic) [10]. In recent years, climate change has impacted the inflow to Lake Chad [11], one of the oldest water bodies in Africa. Around 5000 BC, it was the largest of four Saharan paleolakes [12], with a surface area of 361,000 km² [13]. By the 1960s, Lake Chad’s surface area had shrunk to little more than 26,000 km², but it remained Africa’s fourth-largest lake after Victoria, Tanganyika, and Nyassa. Today, however, Lake Chad’s surface area has shrunk to less than 1600 km². Multiple subbasins drain into the lake, with 95% of its inflow water coming from the Chari and Logone river systems [14,15].

The Lake Chad basin covers an area of 2,434,000 km² between latitudes 60° and 24° N and longitudes 80° and 24° E. The percentage of international territory covered in the Lake Chad basin is as follows: 43.9% by Chad, 29% by Niger, 7.6% by Nigeria, and 2.1% by Cameroon, and other countries share the remaining 17.4%. The average water depth of the lake is between 1.5 and 4m, and the altitude is between 275 to 284 m above sea level. The lake water supports several regional economic activities, such as agriculture, mining, fishing, and crafting. The activities that consume the most significant amount of lake water are fishing, agriculture, livestock, and domestic water use [16,17].

Each of the lake riparian countries depend on lake water for different uses. Nigeria uses the water mainly for irrigation, and other countries also use it for irrigation. Chad uses lake water for farming, fishing, drinking, and domestic purposes. Meanwhile, Cameroon relies on alternative water sources, such as the Niger and Congo-Ubangi basins, whereas Niger holds a relatively minor hydrological stake in Lake Chad.

However, LCB has transformed over the years, radically shifting from its previous status as a remarkable resource in the heart of the Sahel region capable of supplying food and water to a population of 40 million people [18]. LCB now suffers from mass poverty and hunger, a growing population, and a lack of other natural resources. Consequently, there has been a decrease in biodiversity and reduced fishing activities, with many inhabitants now struggling for livelihood and resources [19]. Moreover, Boko Haram (BH), an insurgency that originated in northern Nigeria, has affected the living environment around the lake and its resources, and has displaced millions of people from their homes [20].

In response to the various challenges encountered within the LCB, the Lake Chad Basin Commission (LCBC) was established in 1964, and the member countries fund the commission’s $1 million yearly budget in proportion to water use from the lake: Nigeria contributes 52%, while Cameroon, Chad, Niger, and the Central African Republic contribute 26%, 11%, 7%, and 4%, respectively [7]. The LCB commission’s goals are to solve some of the challenges faced in the region due to the drying up of Lake Chad, coordinate the funding of projects, and help to collaborate with other countries in order to protect the lake. Due to the laxity of development and the lack of innovative policies, the desired improvements in lake water are still a distant dream. If the LCBC had achieved its aims, lake restoration would have occurred by this time, and the lake water level would have improved significantly beyond its current state [19,21].

The LCBC’s primary goal should be the lake’s restoration to its original level by ensuring a consistent recharge of the lake as well as well-planned and innovative policies on its water use by surrounding countries.

Other measures should include dredging the lake to remove siltation that has accumulated at the bottom of the lake over the years [22], which would help to increase lake water storage, and implementing innovative water harvesting measures in the watersheds [23]. In addition, landscape conservation planning is needed in all the watersheds that are draining into Lake Chad in order to reduce soil erosion [24] and increase inflow rates to the lake from regional contributing rivers [23].

Collaborations between countries must be increased to manage the watersheds efficiently and help in reducing the terrorist activities of BH significantly [25] with education and good governance. When there is peace, it becomes possible to implement watershed conservation plans smoothly and without fear, which helps in fostering a balance in the ecosystem. Any proposed solution must be future-focused, with posterity as the core beneficiary.

This research brings a novel perspective to the study of Lake Chad and its implications for food and water sustainability in the region. What sets this work apart is its extensive use of open-source data, which fills the gaps caused by limited data availability. By synthesizing existing research findings, this study offers valuable insights into the current state of Lake Chad and contributes to our understanding of effective strategies for ensuring long-term food and water security in the region.

Therefore, the primary objective of this study is to review the published literature on Lake Chad, summarize the reasons for the decline in water quantity and quality over the years, and address some of the primary challenges faced by the riparian countries around Lake Chad for its revival. The secondary objective of this study is to explore different ideas and policies on how water development and sustainability projects in the Lake Chad basin can be implemented to achieve the goal of lake revival. Therefore, the overall goal of this paper is to provide actionable recommendations that support the restoration of Lake Chad so that it becomes capable of supplying a sustainable water supply for agriculture in meeting the food security challenges of the region.

2. Methodology

2.1. Study Area

The study area encompasses the four major riparian countries surrounding Lake Chad, as shown in Figure 1A: Nigeria, Niger, Chad, and Cameroon. Nigeria is situated in West Africa at a latitude of 9.04° N and longitude 8.40° E; Niger is located in West Africa at a latitude of 16° N and longitude 8° E, and the Sahara Desert primarily covers the country in the North; and Chad is positioned in Central Africa with a latitude of 15.45° N and 18.44° E, and borders Sudan to the east and the Central Africa Republic to the south. Cameroon is in Central Africa with a latitude of 7.22° N and 12.20° E.

2.2. Literature Search Criteria

We initiated the search by searching the Web of Science and Scopus databases using the keyword “Lake Chad”. This initial search identified a substantial number of articles, resulting in 659 articles in Web of Science and 592 in Scopus. To focus on articles specifically related to the food or water aspect of Lake Chad, we performed an additional search. We applied the combined keywords “Lake Chad” and “food or water” to filter the results. This refinement reduced the number of articles to 220 in Web of Science and 269 in Scopus. To further narrow the selection and ensure relevance to climate studies, we included the keyword “climate” and restricted the articles to English ones. This refined search resulted in 85 articles in Web of Science and 78 articles in Scopus. To eliminate duplicate and irrelevant articles, we applied additional filters. We also assessed the alignment of the articles with our research objectives and excluded those not associated with our end goal.

3. Historical and Current Trends at Lake Chad Region

3.1. Old and the New Lake Chad

Climate change, population pressure, and the unstructured withdrawal of water for irrigation have been reported as the primary reasons for the drying of the lake by 90% between 1960 to 2000 [26], and its water surface area has decreased from 25,000 square kilometers to less than 1600 square kilometers as shown in Figure 2 [13,27]. The temperature is increasing at an unprecedented rate [28]. Consequently, there have been significant and frequent alterations in inter-seasonal rainfall yearly [29,30] until recent years as shown in Figure 3 and Figure 4 [31]. These changes in temperature and rainfall have contributed to a rise in food insecurity in the region, leading to vulnerable youth in local communities turning to terrorist groups due to the lack of job opportunities [15,20].

Numerous factors have contributed to the conditions of Lake Chad, and one of the major contributors is the climatic conditions in the region. Indeed, it is seated in the Sahel, where there is scarcity and uneven distribution of rainfall [36], compounded with continuous drought prevalent in the region [29,37]. It is worth noting, however, that the recent observations depicted in Figure 2 and Figure 3 suggest that there have not been significant changes in the patterns of rainfall and temperature. Nevertheless, as the encroachment of desertification steadily advances each year, meeting the escalating demand for water in the region becomes increasingly arduous, resulting in accelerated water withdrawals from the lake [38].

The viability of Lake Chad has been undermined due to an unplanned irrigation scheme coupled with the increasing population in the region [39]. Griffin [40] posits that attention given to Lake Chad and its region is poor because the parliamentary seat (headquarters) of each country’s government (Yaounde, Abuja, Niamey, and N’Djamena) are at a much farther distance from Lake Chad, and there is an ongoing political conflict in Cameroon.

Many other regions connected to the lake, such as the northeast part of Nigeria, are also in crisis, making interventions to revive the lake complex and difficult. Some rivers that feed into the lake, such as the Chari, Logone, and Komadugu-Yobe, are experiencing drought due to climate change, and scientists have recommended feeding these rivers with water from other rivers in the region [41], but this may end up causing more ecological harm than good as those other rivers may then dry up as well [42,43].

The fluctuations in the rainfall patterns in West Africa have many implications for implementing water resource management programs for Lake Chad [44]. The decades between the 1950s and the 1960s were very wet, but the decades between 1980 and 2000 experienced a decline in the yearly rainfall, which affected flow into the lake from various tributaries, as shown in Figure 3 [14,37].

Over the last few decades, climate change and severe drought have diminished vegetation cover in the LCB [38,45,46]. Changes in the region’s burgeoning plant cover have also been apparent in recent years. This might be directly related to people abandoning the area due to the ongoing crises and lack of livelihood, too, though.

The vegetation growth in the LCB is not being controlled, hence floating reeds and water lilies continue to impact waterways; however, if the biodiversity in the region is improved and monitored, there would be remarkable changes to the lake [22,47].

3.2. The Neighboring Countries of Lake Chad

Figure 1 shows all four major countries (Chad, Niger, Nigeria, and Cameroon) of the Lake Chad Basin (LCB). Each of the four countries has its share in the Sahelian region, and their region bordering Lake Chad is primarily dry because of the low annual rainfall. Nigeria stands out for its peak rainfall of 1400 mm, almost double the annual rainfall for other countries in the region. Nonetheless, northern Nigeria still experiences water scarcity, as shown in Figure 3. Cameroon ranks prominently among African countries with significant surface water potential, placing second after the Congo, with 50% of the continent’s reserve [48]. Aside from using water from LCB, Nigeria also depends on other surface water, totaling 215 cubic kilometers of accessible surface water every year [25,49,50].

The population across these countries is growing at an increasing rate, as shown in Figure 5. Nigeria’s population is 210 million; Niger’s is 22 million; and Cameroon’s is 27 million. While Chad’s current population is only 9% of Nigeria’s population, each country’s population growth rate is increasing by 2% annually [51]. The increase in population in the region has put huge demand for Lake Chad water to meet their food and water security needs in the past several decades [19]. Chad and Niger are landlocked countries with fewer reserve water resources than Cameroon and Nigeria. Despite the vast amount of available water in Nigeria, one-third of its population still lacks access to potable water for drinking, and most citizens in all four countries do not have access to portable water for drinking [52].

Water is a crucial resource for generating electricity in each country, with more than 56% of Cameroon’s energy coming from hydropower alone, while 21% of hydropower in Nigeria serves many purposes. Agriculture consumes the most water in both Chad and Niger; however, this is not the case in Nigeria and Cameroon because both nations rely more on rain-fed agriculture than irrigated agriculture. Agricultural water takes up to 70% of total available water worldwide [1], and water for agriculture could be for irrigation and livestock [53]. In northern Nigeria, intense irrigation systems are used due to lower rainfall, and, therefore, water usage is mainly dependent on the region’s climate variability affecting rainfall patterns [54,55,56].

Each of these countries faces peculiar challenges around water sustainability, and policy failure is a critical factor in having poor access to water: resources are mishandled at the stakeholder level, resulting in either over-abstraction or misuse of water in some areas. The River Basin Development Authority in these countries oversees the management of surface and groundwater resources; however, the countries are still faced with many water challenges evident in the LCB region [52].

3.3. Hydro-Geomorphology of the Lake

The LCB has some uniqueness because of its hydrological structure. The changing climate in the region makes it difficult to track viable data information [57,58], coupled with the documentation challenges faced in Africa [59]. There is a lot of variability in the extent of dryness of the lake and how to revitalize it back to its original state in the 1960s. Some river basins (i.e., the Chari-Logone, Komadugu-Yobe, Gubio, Ngadda, Yedseram, El-beid, and Lake Fitri basins) drain into Lake Chad [44,60], and some researchers have suggested that some other surface waters from Congo basin be transferred artificially to recharge the lake [61], but this comes with disadvantages, such as drying out the other rivers [14,22,33,62,63].

Ref. [43] researched various river basins, considering hydro-climatic data for the region. Some of the peculiarities of this lake remain: the instability of its hydrological cycle and the substantial drop in freshwater availability; biodiversity loss, namely, the extinction of plant and animal species [64]; and harm to the health of the ecosystem [44]. Furthermore, the growing occurrence of marshes inside the lake and the sedimentation of rivers flowing into the lake [65] have decreased inflows, and the proliferation of invasive species contributes to the destruction and the modification of its ecosystem [66].

The type of soil in this region largely determines how well infiltration or rather repelled water inflow can be permitted, and there is a variety of sand, clay, clay loam, and sandy loam in the LCB [67,68]. Generally, sandy soil would absorb water, but it has a low water-holding capacity. In the Sahel region where the lake is situated, there is sparse rainfall, as shown in Figure 3, which makes the soil dry very fast, and which has influenced the drying up of the lake.

During the dry season, these soils shrink significantly and develop fissures up to 50 cm deep. Water penetrates through these fissures during the start of the rainy season, causing the clays to expand. The fissures seal because of the swelling of the soil, and low soil permeability favors floods in the region [69].

Ref. [67] demonstrates that the built-up region in the Lake Chad basin has enormous runoff because of impermeable surfaces obstructing the infiltration process due to the area’s soil being generally low in organic matter, which causes significant runoff. The northeastern part of Nigeria bordering Chad is made up of 60% of clay [70], while Cameroon’s 2.1% land dedicated to sorghum also has heavy clay. There are a variety of other soils, too, and, in addition to these, agricultural and mixed forest, shrub, and grass cover places have moderate runoff rates and yet have significant transpiration [71].

Ref. [72] characterized the soils in the Lake Chad area as Vertisol soils, while [32] found more soil types as ferralitic and wind-derived undeveloped raw mineral soils, isohumic (or subarid) soils, ferruginous tropical soils, hydromorphic soils, halomorphic (or salsodic) soils, and ferruginous tropical soils. Some of the soil areas are dark and very compact, with low organic matter content of less than 2.73%, but they possess a high C/N ratio. In Cameroon’s northern part, an integral part of the lake, 60% of the land is made up of Vertisol. For effective management of the Lake Chad Basin, knowing the type of soil and giving it the proper care would foster a complete restoration of the lake.

4. Agricultural Activities in the Lake Chad Region

4.1. The Overall Crop Production in the Area

Agriculture is natural to most countries in Africa because of relatively good soils that permit the planting of various crops, and the presence of diverse environmental conditions provides opportunities for cultivating a wide range of crop varieties [73]. These varying conditions allow for the growth and cultivation of different crops that are adapted to specific environmental requirements and can thrive in their respective climates. Agriculture generates 25% of Lake Chad’s income, with 41% of the total population’s active participation in agriculture, followed by other employment activities such as fishing, pastoralism, and modest commercial businesses [55].

However, the Sudano-Sahelian zone of Africa often experiences variability in crop production output due to their environmental conditions [74]. Other factors that affect crop production and variability in this region are conflicts, population dynamics, fertilizers procurement, political programs, land availability, and development projects [55,75].

Maize is a popular staple food in this basin, it is an essential crop because it can be used directly as food and processed into other food products such as cornflakes. It also serves as a significant source of biomass for animal feeding. In some cases, maize stover is used as fuelwood, and it could also be harnessed as an industrial raw material to obtain products such as oil, jam, alcohol, and paper [19,55].

Too much water is not suitable for growing maize, and drought could terminate its life cycle [76]. There is a requirement for enough water to meet crop water demand, which is not accessible to most farmers due to declining water supplies, which means more planning is needed to provide water for other water-dependent activities in the community.

Millet also grows in this community, and it is more rainfall dependent, with maize making up more than 80% of the agricultural production in this region. Maize is also grown during the dry season, but is strategically planted at receding lake beds [55].

Due to intensive agricultural operations in the region, different irrigation techniques are employed [77], but flooding irrigation is the standard method of irrigation that contributes to a significant amount of water losses, to evapotranspiration, and to runoff. Extensive irrigation schemes have also been implemented, such as the South Chad Irrigation Project (SCIP), which the Nigerian government started. Feeding the irrigation project is one of the significant reasons why the lake has shrunk to the point where rainy-season rice cultivation is impossible and where dry-season wheat production is limited [39,54].

Nigeria established SCIP intending to irrigate 67,000 ha at 130% cropping intensity from 1975 until 1984 [78], which appeared to be a great idea since this period experienced a severe drought; however, the recession of the lake started and became evident in less than 10 years. This brought the three-phase project to an end, with only the first two phases of the irrigation project accomplished.

Other dams have since emerged in Nigeria, drawing their water from rivers draining into Lake Chad, such as the Tiga dam and the Challawa Gorge dam. The Challawa dam has been underutilized, but the Tiga dam contributes significantly to the Watatari irrigation scheme, where Nigeria generally irrigates 311,150 ha of farmland [32]. Nigeria irrigates 50% more than the capacity of all of the other countries combined.

There is also the Maga dam in Cameroon, irrigating over 5000 hectares of land [69]. Cameroon irrigates over 25,650 ha of its land, and Niger has an irrigation project to serve 12% of its cultivated land cumulating into 99,890 ha of irrigated land. Chad, on the other hand, only irrigated 18,000 ha between 1988 and 1992, but it is now irrigating 30,274 ha of its land.

4.2. The Culture of Animal Husbandry and Rearing

Fishing is a dominant occupation for people in this region because of the lake, but some inhabitants still practice agriculture and livestock rearing. Some of the notable livestock in this area are poultry, goats, sheep, camels, horses, and asses. The livestock has increased by 75%, 83%, and 92% of cattle, goats, and sheep, respectively, between 2012 and 2020 in Chad [32,79], as shown in Figure 6. The reduction in the size of Lake Chad led to people finding jobs (i.e., sustenance and solace) in animal production, and nomadic herders also started entering the area and took over more lands to feed and water their herds [80].

The failure to harness available arable land in different countries for crop production and animal husbandry has resulted in a never-ending battle over arable land between herders and farmers in the Lake Chad region. Several lives are lost yearly to this clash, much agricultural produce is damaged, and depletion in biodiversity has occurred. Although conflicts are in the northern part of Nigeria, they also touch the three other countries within the confines of Lake Chad and other West African countries, too [81].

This susceptibility to conflicts in the region has resulted in widespread poverty, child malnutrition, and a lack of means for survival for those who have lost their farms while facing the problems and battles created by the conflicts. Forest encroachment is also considered a norm in this region, with people regularly breaking the forest regulations.

4.3. Transitioning from Fishing to Aquaculture

The principal activity of many Lake Chadians is fishing, whether in seasonal or permanent ponds, rivers, and tributaries, and some utilize the proceeds from their fishing activities to purchase farm inputs and other assistance for intensified agriculture [80].

The surface water receding in its strength and capacity pushed more fishermen and fisherwomen into other occupations, and various regional crises compounded the problem as more people embraced aquaculture as a form of sustenance. Many of them come from Internally Displaced Persons (IDP) camps [82,83] and were trained in a program facilitated by both the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the World Food Programme (WFP) on some of the 21st-century ideas regarding the practice of aquaculture.

Aquaculture is also a great way to help fish farmers transition from their former generational fish farming job to a more sustainable path, although it requires more work and a conscious effort to see the fish grow from fingerlings to adults [32].

4.4. Agricultural Sustainability in the Region

Most rural communities are more intentional about practicing agriculture that puts a portion of food on their table or garners them a substantial profit than engaging in sustainable practices for the soil and the ecosystem, and this is the case in the Lake Chad region [55].

New strategies are being developed in the Sahel region in order to harvest rain strategically. Plants are grown in those half-moon potholes, which would also help retain some moisture when there is enough vegetation cover; if those farmers in the Sahel learn approaches like the half-moon planting, it will reduce how much water is being withdrawn from the lake [54].

Crop production quantities in the Chad area are now less than in the comparative analysis of LCBC [32] and FAOSTAT [79]. Crop diversification is missing in most of the basin, but the land can potentially grow other crops aside from maize, sorghum, and millet, which dominate, as shown in Figure 7 [55]. More farmers need targeted sensitization on how they can sustainably practice agriculture, and many of the lands are not being tilled because most people practice sustenance agriculture, yet this comes with many limitations and much drudgery.

5. Water Sustainability in the Lake Chad Region

5.1. The Evident Effect of Climate Change on the Hydrological System

Rapid population growth and technological and urban development worldwide have fostered climate variability globally [84,85]. The climate change effect is two-sided when dealing with water dynamics; it can cause a dwindling of water bodies [86], as we have seen in the case of the Aral Sea, Lake Poopo, Lake Eyre, Lake Mead, Lake Chad, and a host of other small catchments [87,88,89,90]. On the other hand, climate change could result in complex flooding activities that are difficult to manage.

The dwindling of Lake Chad happened gradually; its reduction in the area covered led to the loss of biodiversity in their watershed [91], and the numbers of fish and aquatic bodies also declined [92], leaving many with the option of migrating to another community [93,94,95]. One of the UN goals is to ensure the availability and sustainability of water and sanitation for all, and restoring a receding lake would be an excellent way to end poverty for people living in the LCB region [96].

5.2. Lake Water Level on the Satellite Imageries

Satellite imagery technologies make it easy to monitor trends [97], and this became relevant in the case of the Lake Chad Basin as shown in Figure 8. The first piece of significant research that placed a spotlight on Lake Chad was the report by NASA, which spotted how large it was in 1963 through to 2001, with some of the vegetation also disappearing. There has been an update to validate this claim by NASA [98,99], with others also negating the claim that Lake Chad is just experiencing seasonal changes [100,101].

Lake Chad had stopped declining in size due to much attention and work by various international bodies, and another reason why it remains stable could also be tied to the crisis as more people have sought their livelihood through other means in the neighboring community. The lesser demands and pressures on the lake maintained the water body, as shown in Figure 4 and Figure 8. There has also been increasing Sahelian precipitation in the 1990s, although climate change does still threaten the lake [102].

Alternatively, recharging Lake Chad from two main tributaries was a projected solution to end the decline through the Congo River Inter Basin Water Transfer Project, initiated as the Lake Chad Replenishment Project [22]. This would reroute water from the Ubangi River to the Chari River system via a dam near Palambo, eventually flowing into Lake Chad [63].

5.3. Water Use and Water Law in the Surrounding Countries of Lake Chad

Generally, the management structure of law and order in Africa is rickety, and this can be seen in the way water systems are being managed; there are no sustainable water laws or the metrics to detect are too challenging to quantify, leaving many people as violators of the law. People still cut down trees that leave the area bare, they still hunt for fish without any need for a license, and those monitoring most water deliveries and taxes just do it with no accountability, which makes them look somewhat like a threat to the citizens [23].

In Africa, the implementation of water laws similar to those seen in the United States of America (USA) and the European Union (EU) faces challenges. While the USA’s Clean Water Act ensures that industries and individuals maintain safe limits on water’s physical, chemical, and biological properties, and the EU has a range of water directives for surface and groundwater, Africa struggles to implement such laws [23] effectively. In many cases, despite the existence of water laws, adherence by the citizens remains limited, which results in the impairment of water systems [103,104,105].

In the 1960s, the international water law for the Lake Chad Basin was established, which led to the commission’s establishment to oversee the management of Lake Chad [106]. The LCBC is a liaison between the government, NGOs, and communities to bridge the gaps between water governance, climate change, and security issues. There has been a lack of follow-up on various measures taken to address the impact of climate change and insurgency on water resources, resulting in uncertainty about what steps should be taken next [23,107]. Lake Chad, involving the commitment of four significant countries, makes it more relevant to ensure transboundary cooperation that implements policies smoothly and swiftly [108].

International organizations like the World Bank have interventions in the Lake Chad Development and Climate Resilience Action Plan (LCDAP), which is excellent since they would monitor and ensure the integration of such a process. The actionable plans in the LCDAP are excellent, if all are implemented, and promote decentralization, sensitization of citizens to water bodies, and awareness creation about the Lake; recovery, relief, and incentives for drought and conflict management; and, overall, another collaborative intervention approach that engages the community for a solution [23].

Some other water acts and plans that are either yet to be implemented or are actively being implemented at the Lake Chad basin are the inter-basin water transfer, Strategic Action Programme (SAP), natural resource management, Lake Chad Vision 2025, Lake Chad Water Chart, and joint task against BH. If success was recorded in many of these Lake Chad thematic action areas, things would change regarding the hydrology and the quality of life in the community [23].

5.4. Food Sustainability in the Lake Chad Region

The food insecurity rate in the Lake Chad Region started progressing upward when the water level declined because dwellers in this region are the primary food producers. Many struggle to grow their crops and others who catch fish cannot do this because of the condition of the water. In addition to the decline, the crisis also opened up a vast population in the region to hunger: as they moved to the internally displaced community, they had to depend entirely on international agencies to supply them with food before feeding themselves [33].

In this region, one in every four people is food insecure, totaling about 6.9 million people, and 75% are in northeastern Nigeria. In northern Nigeria, indigenous people have a high birth rate, and specific cultural norms may prohibit them from practicing family planning. BH operations are also at their peak in northeastern Nigeria, making more families vulnerable to hunger [15,18].

In order to eradicate hunger, there is a need to address the root cause of the problem; aside from the declining lake size, many more things contribute, such as lack of jobs for many people, uncontrolled childbirth, and chronic diseases that may be siphoning all earnings from families.

6. Influence of the Rising Crisis on Sustainability in the Region

6.1. The Operation of Boko Haram and Its Impact on the Region

The BH Group, which stands against Western education, remains one of the significant reasons that the lake faces numerous challenges today. The group started by engaging the citizens as helpers, giving mini aids to them in order to entice them, but it only ended up becoming their adopters by taking them into forests and sensitizing them to the wrong values; these adoptees internalize such training and, in many cases, become desperate to carry out attacks without any regard for the preciousness of life [20,109].

The BH group used their canoe to perpetrate an attack on the community, and the Chad government banned the use of canoes, which means people living by fish farming would have had to forget about this business. Displacement of people and damaging properties resulted in rubble getting into the body of the water, and it also made unwanted species fester in the area with a declining biodiversity rate. The consequences of the attack on the lake were numerous: pollution increased, means of livelihood were lost, and the lake became a reproach rather than a blessing to the community [109].

Conflicts and war increased the number of people living with hunger, and many others became malnourished citizens; hikes in food prices became the norm, the market became incapacitated, and this drove millions from their homes and their farms. People were only surviving from the foreign food aid supplied for the community and the host of other agencies. Food and water sustainability became difficult relative to their availability. As a way out, international agencies started training the Internationally Displaced Persons (IDPs) on being self-dependent by equipping them with the necessary skills [109].

6.2. The Persistent Farmers-Herders Clash in the Region

People in this region are primarily fishermen, some perform agriculture [110], while others weave mats and baskets, and many live in huts and were self-sufficient until the emergence of the attack. There are many unfavorable conditions in the LCB, such as violent extremism, food shortages, population expansion, sickness, poverty, weak statehood, and corruption in LCB [111]. Cattle herders and farmers were also killing one another over access to shrinking pastures, and the number of deaths has now surpassed 15,000, rivaling BH’s toll [20,112].

Drought is prevalent in the LCB, vegetation cover at present cannot suffice for the livestock, and migration has become a possible way out. Nomadic herders in northern Nigeria, where the lake is located, started moving to the south, and the problem became more serious. Those in the south are primarily farmers of maize or other row crops. Herders invade such farms with their cattle and turn them into animal feed [54,112].

The farmers wanted revenge, attempted to kill their cattle, and farms were thus set on fire, destroying many people, communities, and properties. Cattle rustling was another issue, but primarily from the terrorists and not just from the farmers [81].

This crisis could be suppressed through proper planning for the herders and the farmers. Herders moving from one location to another is not entirely their fault; climate, crisis, and illiteracy, in most cases, made them default to such a solution. During low rainfall periods and drought, specific land with vegetation should be earmarked for the herds to graze, and proper practices like mixed crop and extended crop rotation could build resilience against the effect of climate on the region [113].

7. Sustainable Way out of the Challenges Facing the Lake Chad Region

7.1. Conflict Resolution and Enabling Peace

Conflicts, insecurity, and weak institutions remain a significant focus toward achieving sustainable development goals [114,115]. Peace should be the first focus, as this would foster the implementation of other solutions as shown in the Figure 9. Restoring the lives of the 36,000+ who died in the LCB in Nigeria is impossible, but we must protect the 6.9 million people still facing food insecurity and the other 32 million who are scattered across Africa [116]. To restore people’s livelihoods at the lake, we must take deliberate actions toward the restoration of peace through accountability.

7.2. Governance and Policy Implementation

Policy implementation is crucial for the sustainable management of the Lake Chad ecosystem. It is essential to integrate policies that address the specific challenges faced by the region and foster bilateral agreements among the governments of the countries involved [23]. These agreements should encompass funding agencies, the administration of financial resources, and the implementation of solutions to overcome the challenges.

To ensure the effectiveness of these policies, governments must collaborate and plan based on the unique ecosystems of each country. They should establish mechanisms to monitor policy adherence and devise appropriate penalties for those who fail to comply. These policies should aim to regulate water usage for agriculture, transportation, and damming activities. Additionally, they should encourage diversifying water sources within each country, thereby reducing the strain on Lake Chad and promoting its long-term sustainability. By adopting a comprehensive and collaborative approach to governance and policy implementation, we can work towards preserving the ecological balance and the resilience of the Lake Chad region.

7.3. Data Integration and Management

This region has a paucity of data concerning restoration efforts and many other issues [30]. Accountability is a crucial factor, and if we want to see peace play out in the region, the military should work with the people to bring defaulters and terrorists to justice. If we do not track progress, it will not be easy to know whether we have been successful with this goal.

The government set up some committees that would try to produce peace in the region, such as the “Regional Strategy for the Stabilization, Resilience, and Recovery of the BH-affected areas”, but the solution to the problem is not yet evident through their efforts. There should be a data inventory of activities, having standard repositories where key statistics about occurrence in the region are noted as well as some of the progress made and how to move to the following line of action. One of the significant challenges in Africa is still a lack of transparency around data management, and work should be done to put it all in perspective.

7.4. Leveraging Ramsar Site of Convention

The Ramsar Site of Convention is a significant innovation to protect wetlands worldwide [117]. Any designated site would note some of the threats in the region and also ecosystem services that are in the region, and ensure protection and maximum revenue is generated from each of the water bodies. The northern Nigerian area of Lake Chad has been recognized as a Ramsar Site since April 2008.

Protecting the ecological right of the lake through the Ramsar Site Convention is excellent in theory, but it has not yielded many results in the case of LCB. Water quality was not an issue with the LCB at one point, but the insurgency’s invasion of the region has left the water in bad shape, with debris filling many parts of the water, and most tourists who visit the region leave disappointed because their expectations of the lake are not met.

7.5. Strategic Engineering Projects

Dredging Lake Chad will limit the impact of sedimentation and also remove shoals, and managing the main lake with strategic channeling of neighboring rivers is necessary to ensure effective navigation and flow into it. Some of the bare areas should be seeded with vegetation, too, as this would limit flooding that takes sediment with them. Weirs and locks could be utilized in order to increase the navigable length while always maintaining a minimum depth for bigger boats.

7.6. Ecosystem Services Restoration

In addition to engineering restoration projects, exploring solutions that offer ecosystem services, mitigate environmental degradation, and promote biodiversity are also crucial steps. Such solutions have the potential to contribute to the restoration of water bodies while preserving the near-original conditions of the lake.

By implementing approaches that harness the natural functions of ecosystems, we can enhance the overall health and functionality of the ecosystem of the lake. This may include initiatives such as wetland restoration, reforestation efforts, and the establishment of protected areas. These measures can help improve water quality, regulate water flow, and provide habitats for diverse species, thereby contributing to restoring the water bodies within the Lake Chad region.

The area where maize planting is prevalent in the suburb of the LCB should consider using cover crops or living mulch in order to protect the land. Most of the farming in this region is sustenance and does not have access to heavy-duty equipment for tillage, and challenges associated with tilling are thus not an issue; indeed, most challenges become a land management issue. With highly variable climate and soil being experienced, a percentage of the Lake region should be dedicated to grassland and other perennial covers, which leaves the soil under vegetation. There should also be efficient micro-irrigation tools to enhance crop production while reducing water usage for agricultural purposes.

The preservation and continued existence of vegetation and aquatic ecosystems within the Lake Chad Basin (LCB) play a crucial role in maintaining and promoting biodiversity within the region and would facilitate nutrient cycling without endangering the environment, and this should be approached in a holistic way that touches on all of the processes in the tropic cascade [118].

7.7. Facilitate Adequate Funding and Relevant Inter-Boundary Cooperation

Water resources that are shared by multiple countries have the potential for increased opportunities, but, at the same time, they can be susceptible to discord and a lack of unity. Teaming together usually makes a lot of difference in a water body if the goal is to achieve peaceful cooperation and sustainable development. Interboundary cooperation should take a different approach, i.e., a conscious reawakening of the LCB commission’s vision, and collaboration should be strengthened across states, sectors, and stakeholders at various levels of operation.

Funding the LCB system and its operation would make much difference, and this should be done in a memorandum of understanding with the LCB commission, which has representation from all of the four major countries of the Lake Chad basin. This funding should be channeled towards peace actualization and the implementation of critical engineering projects that can restore both the water quality and the quantity challenges. Lake Chad should be able to generate revenue and attract more foreign tourists if it becomes a point of attraction.

8. Conclusions

More than 40 million people depend on Lake Chad for food security from fish, power generation, and direct water use for agriculture and animal production systems. Lake Chad is a beacon of hope for the LCB community. Therefore, the four major countries of the LCB need to develop innovative policy frameworks in order to generate resources and implement strategic measures in the watersheds for water harvesting, conservation, sedimentation, water use by stakeholders, and having good and effective governance.

The findings of this paper have clearly shown that Lake Chad has become almost a marshland and that it faces enormous challenges if it is to be revived. Many countries across Africa have argued that the capacity of Lake Chad is no longer declining, but this study has found that the lake is now at 10% of its original capacity when compared to how it was in 1960 [119]. Among the major problems that have caused the decline of Lake Chad’s capacity to meet local/regional water demands include the increased population in each of the surrounding countries by more than 80% between 1950 and 2021, which put considerable pressure on lake water use in an unsustainable way, as shown in Figure 5. Other factors responsible for the degradation of Lake Chad are the increased surface temperatures [120], the loss of vegetation and biodiversity in the LCBC to intercept rainwater, variability in rainfall patterns, and the drying of local rivers that drain water to Lake Chad [45].

In addition, increased insurgency in the region has added to the problems and the misery in the LCBC by taking limited resources from local governments in attempts to control the insurgency rather than developing and implementing effective watershed management programs to revive Lake Chad [43,121]. Strong political willpower is needed to develop long-term sustainable collaborative efforts that will develop mutually agreeable and implementable policies between the four LCBC countries regarding the restoration of Lake Chad to a level close to its capacity in the 1960s. Technologies are available, but strong political commitment is needed in order to strengthen LCBC with resources and autonomy, hopefully leading to the revival of the lake in the next 20 to 30 years. If this happened, Lake Chad could again become an economic engine of growth and a biodiversity/ecological research center of Africa, attracting tourism in all four countries of the region and increasing their national revenues.

Another finding of this study is the impact of international organizations such as the World Bank, FAO, and WTP on Lake Chad’s revival. Some of the programs funded by these international agencies for the revival of Lake Chad have been hindered by the increasing violence created by local insurgencies [23], which need serious intervention from the four governments of the region to overcome this social disturbance that affects the revival of the lake water and its commercial use for agriculture, marine life, trade, and biodiversity.

This study has highlighted and provided some innovative solutions for the revival of the lake, such as restoring peace through effective and engaged conflict resolution among communities, improving natural resource conservation management by implementing engineering solutions, including the water harvesting of rainwater; restoring the drying rivers with building reservoirs along the rivers in order to intercept runoff during intense storms; dredging; possible straitening of select rivers in order to better recharge the lake; and, finally, reforesting areas of the LCB. The idea to recharge the lake with the Congo-Chari River will undoubtedly lead to lake revival, but it will also require cooperation from other African countries in the region.

This research offers a fresh and innovative perspective on the study of Lake Chad and its implications for food and water sustainability in the region. What distinguishes this work is its comprehensive utilization of open-source data, effectively addressing the limitations of limited data availability. Through the synthesis of existing research findings, this study provides valuable insights into the present condition of Lake Chad. It significantly contributes to our understanding of developing effective strategies for ensuring the region’s long-term food security, water security, and prosperity.

By leveraging open-source data, this research fills critical knowledge gaps and brings a more holistic understanding of Lake Chad’s dynamics. The integration of diverse research findings enables a comprehensive analysis of the region’s challenges regarding food and water sustainability. The findings of this study shed light on the complex interactions between climate change, ecological factors, and human activities in shaping the current state of Lake Chad.

The decline of Lake Chad by 90% in the last fifty years has had significant socioeconomic implications for the region. The factors contributing to this decline, such as climate change, population growth, unplanned irrigation schemes and water use, insurgency, and social crises in the region have resulted in adverse effects on the communities reliant on the lake for their livelihoods.

The shrinking of Lake Chad has led to a reduction in fishing activities and the availability of aquatic resources. This has negatively impacted the livelihoods of local fishing communities, resulting in decreased food production and increased food insecurity in the region. The diminishing water resources of Lake Chad have also led to increased water scarcity in the surrounding areas. This scarcity affects both domestic water supply for communities and agricultural irrigation, hampering agricultural productivity and exacerbating water-related conflicts among different user groups.

More so, the decline of Lake Chad has also resulted in a decline in economic activities that depend on the lake, such as fishing, agriculture, and tourism. The loss of these sectors has led to reduced employment opportunities, income disparities, and a decline in the region’s overall economic development. The socioeconomic consequences of the declining Lake Chad have contributed to increased population displacement and migration. Displaced communities and individuals often face challenges in finding alternative livelihoods and adapting to new environments, leading to increased vulnerability and social tensions.

Revitalizing Lake Chad through investment will positively impact the well-being of communities, enhance food and water security, and promote peace through various developmental activities. These activities include improved access to education, employment opportunities for youth, and the expansion of entrepreneurship possibilities. A potential method to gauge progress is to establish a database with a state of the art website for public use that monitors the advancements made in rejuvenating Lake Chad. This will put Africa on the world map in the restoration of dying water resources in Africa.