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Article

Using Netnography to Understand Customer Experience towards Hotel Brands

by
Imran Khan
* and
Mobin Fatma
Department of Marketing, College of Business Administration, Prince Sultan University, Riyadh 12435, Saudi Arabia
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2023, 15(1), 279; https://doi.org/10.3390/su15010279
Submission received: 8 November 2022 / Revised: 21 December 2022 / Accepted: 22 December 2022 / Published: 24 December 2022
(This article belongs to the Section Sustainable Management)
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
The competitive environment in the hospitality and tourism industry requires proper attention towards the effective management of hotel brands. Recently, in marketing literature, the customer brand experience has emerged as a multidimensional construct that influences customer loyalty. Stressing the importance of this branding construct, the study explores the underlying dimensions of brand experience in five-star hotel brands in an emerging economy like India. The study employs a qualitative research method, that is, netnography to identify the brand experience dimensions. The results reveal the importance of sensory (sight, smell, sound, touch, and taste), affective (feelings and emotions), relational (feelings of not being left alone), food (memorable meal) and leisure time (freedom to perceive and select activity during free time) experiences.

1. Introduction

Brand experience, the responses evoked due to brand-related stimuli [1,2], is an essential marketing tactic that catches considerable attention of academicians [3,4,5,6]. Studies argued the significance of this concept [7] and the role of brand experiences in influencing loyalty and customer satisfaction [1,8]. Literature also discussed ways to manage brand experiences [3] and emphasize the need to control it [9]. In terms of the customer-brand relationship, the literature categorized the experiences in the form of individual (sense, feel and think) and shared (act and relate) experiences with a brand [10].
Studies have discussed the various brand experience dimensions in various contexts (see Table 1). For instance, Brakus et al. [1] took a variety of brands and employed open-ended questionnaires to identify and validate brand experience dimensions. Iglesias et al. [11] adopted products (car, laptop and sneaker) and collected data through both paper and an online questionnaire survey. Ishida and Taylor [4] and Nysveen et al. [5] adopted an online questionnaire survey method in retailing and services (mobile, telecommunication and broadband), respectively. These studies reflect the majority of the questionnaire methods in studying brand experiences. This brings debate on the implication of some (qualitative) methods to understand brand experience with different perspectives and verify the results in other industries [12].
Regarding experience measurement, researchers cannot directly measure experience because it is singular in nature and happens to an individual [13]. Therefore, the methodologies used in experience studies, such as focus groups and interviews, have several shortcomings [6]. In last few years, ethnography has become a key qualitative research method in experience studies, especially for comprehending the emotions and deep feelings experienced by individuals that overcome the limitations of questionnaire and interview-driven literal meanings [13,14,15]. In the 1990s, Netnography, an online marketing research technique to understand consumer insights from the existing concept of ethnography, evolved [16]. This method is based on the external assessment to capture and understand consumer reflexive narratives that are published online instead of self-assessments that might be misleading. Therefore, to fill this void, the current study explores the underlying dimensions of brand experience in the service sector (i.e., hotel brands) using the netnography method. The literature has also argued the need to study experience dimensions in hotel brands [17].
The remainder of the study is arranged as follows. First, the study provides a theoretical background on experiential concepts while discussing brand experience and its dimensions employed in literature. Second, we discuss the methodology adopted in this study. Finally, the results and discussion section highlight the findings of the study, which is followed by managerial implications, the conclusion and limitations of the study.

2. Experiential Concept: A Theoretical Background

Regarding the initial understanding of the experiential concept, studies Holbrook and Hirschman [18] contrasted the information processing model and suggested fantasies, feelings and fun as experiential aspects that occur during the consumption of product and services. They argued that ‘‘by focusing single mindedly on the consumer as information processor, recent consumer research has tended to neglect the equally important experiential aspects of consumption, thereby limiting our understanding of consumer behavior. Future research should work toward redressing this imbalance by broadening our area of study to include some consideration of consumer fantasies, feelings, and fun’’ (p. 139). This understanding provided a platform for several experience studies in the form of consumption patterns. For example, playful consumption [19], consumption emotion patterns [20], the social patterning of consumption [21], consumer’s gambling experiences [22], extraordinary experience of white-water rafting [23], consumption as play [24], high-risk adventure of skydiving [25] and joint consumption experiences of brands [26]. Parallel to consumption experience, researchers also studied product, service and shopping experiences. Studies have named experiences that occur during an information search and the examination and evaluation of any product as a product experience [27,28]. Whereas service [29,30] and shopping experiences occur during a consumers’ encounter with a store’s physical environment, personnel and its practices [31]. Taking a broader view on the experiential concept, Pine and Gilmore [32] proposed the role of experience in economic offerings: they termed it experience economy and argued about increasing experiential value from the early stage of the commodity economy to manufacturing, manufacturing to services and services to experience economy. According to them, firms stage memorable experiences that are entertaining for the customer and offer an opportunity to charge more for it.
The above discussed notions of consumption experience and experience economy together provided further directions to the experience concept in marketing literature, in the form of experiential marketing. According to Schmitt [33], experiential marketing is based on five strategic experiential modules (SEM): sense, feel, think, act and relate. Experiential marketing suggests that consumers are not only rational decision makers, but they also give importance to emotions while making decisions and expect pleasurable experiences. With this view, several studies developed the notion of customer (or consumer) experience and argued that a product/service alone is not enough to manage customer experiences [34]. The origin of customer experience was noticed in the article “Engineering customer experience” [35]. Studies discussed the significance of understanding [36] and delivering outstanding customer experience at a low cost [37]. In a highly influential study, Gentile et al. [38] proposed the role of customer experience components (sensorial, pragmatic, lifestyle, relational, emotional and cognitive) in co-creating value with the customer. Recently, brand experience has emerged as a new area of research in marketing literature with an emphasis on brand management. The brand experience term originated in the article titled “Brand experience as a moderator of the negative impact of promotions” [39]. After eighteen years, Brakus et al. [1] conceptualized and examined it as a multi-dimensional construct. In 2005, Chattopadhyay and Laborie studied the identification and delivery of brand experience through relevant customer brand encounters, i.e., brand contacts. The study discusses brand experience literature and its dimensions in the subsequent section.

Brand Experience and Its Dimensions: A Review

Chang and Chieng [10] examined the influence of experiences (individual and shared experiences) in building consumer–brand relationships. This increased the attention of the experience concept in branding management literature. Brand experience is defined as “subjective, internal consumer responses (sensations, feelings, and cognitions) and behavioral responses evoked by brand-related stimuli that are part of a brand’s design and identity, packaging, communications, and environment” [1] (p. 53). Brand experience is also understood as the consumer’s perception formed at every moment of brand contact through projected brand images in advertising during the first personal contact or the level of quality concerning the personal treatment they receive [40]. Brand experience is a broad concept that includes both customer and non-customer experiences [3]. Brakus et al. [1] developed a scale on brand experience by taking several different product and service categories and proposed a multi-dimensional construct that consists of sensory, behavior, affective and intellectual experiences. Studies have examined these brand experience constructs in several context (Table 1): Iglesias et al. [11] verified brand experience dimensions in products (car, laptop, sneaker) and proposed their effect on brand loyalty through affective commitment; Ishida and Taylor [4] examined a brand experience construct in retailing and verified only three dimensions (sensory, behavioral and affective). Nysveen et al. [5] tested the brand experience scale of Brakus et al. [1] in services (mobile, television, broad brand) and proposed an additional ‘relational experience’ dimension. They also identified the significant influence of brand experience dimensions on brand satisfaction, brand personality and brand loyalty.
Brand experience concept is not as well established as other branding constructs such as brand equity, brand loyalty and brand personality. Research to capture the real meaning of brand experience is limited [41,42]. Hence, this study aims to contribute towards the rapid and emerging interest in the brand experience construct. The purpose of this study is to provide an insight into the brand experience concept and identify its underlying dimensions in the hotel brands.

3. Rationale of the Study

Carbone and Haeckel [35] stated that experiences are take-away impressions formed when an individual interacts with a brand (product/service). Experience with any brand influences word of mouth, revisit intention [43], satisfaction and customer loyalty [1,3,43]. Thus, brand experience is considered a significant construct that can influence the customer decision making process. This study explores the underlying dimension of brand experience, which is subjective in nature and occurs at every interaction with brand-related stimuli [1]. In particular, the service sector (hotel industry) has been considered because close and direct encounters with brands exist in this sector [44]. This study uses five-star hotel brands in the city of Agra city in India due to the high number of tourists that visit the Taj Mahal from all over the world. A better understanding of the hotel brand experience construct can have a positive impact for hotel businesses [17]. Further, studies have mostly adopted a (self-assessment) questionnaire method (online or offline), interviews and open-ended responses to identify and understand brand experience dimensions. Structure equation modeling (SEM) and content analysis are used as analytical tools. The present study uses an unobtrusive qualitative research method (i.e., netnography).

4. Methodology

This study applied a newly developed qualitative research method in consumer studies called “ethnography on the internet” or “netnography”. This methodology does not affect the experience through observation and is argued as a best method to examine experiences [45]. It is based on the expansion of the ethnographic concept into an online set-up, to capture and understand the reflexive narratives that are published online by individuals [45,46,47,48]. In 2002, Kozinets defined netrography in relation to both process and product. As a process (research methodology), netnography is defined as “new qualitative research methodology that adapts ethnographic research techniques to study the cultures and communities that are emerging through computer-mediated communications” [45] (p. 62). In relation to product, netnography is “a written account of online cyberculture, informed by the methods of cultural anthropology” [46] (p. 470). It consists of the following steps.

4.1. Entrée

This first step of netnography is based on a selection of the most relevant online communities for the researcher’s particular area of interest, where the researcher can learn about the community as much as possible. In this study, detailed information about hotel brand experiences is obtained through customer reviews published on prominent websites that are based on non-participant observations. Non-participant observation controls the influence of an outsider on a community [49]. To get the most convenient website for this study, we searched on Google with the keywords “Agra” and “hotels”. This search listed several websites related to travel. To choose the most appropriate website, we performed brainstorming sessions with both practitioners and academic experts in the hotel industry to select the most relevant travel website in the chosen extent. As a result of the procedure, the study selected www.cleartrip.com (accessed on 7 November 2019).

4.2. Data Collection

We documented messages from the online travel-related websites: www.cleartrip.com (accessed on 1 November 2019) because of the supremacy of communications related to hotels on these sites. Relevant customer reviews were copied by examining certain aspects, such as:
  • Messages that are detailed, descriptive and experiential in nature (postings concerned with emotions or stories based on experiences, not talks about services).
  • Due to the overwhelming amount of data, irrelevant messages were discarded like very short messages and promotional messages (believed to be posted by the company itself for hotel promotion).
  • An effort was made to include only messages posted by real customers.
  • In relation to the sampling strategy, an attempt was made to find both positive and negative (diverse) message postings with a view to achieve an in-depth analysis of the topic [50].
Finally, after considering all the above aspects, we retrieved, downloaded and printed 260 qualified reviews from nine hotel brands with a five-star rating. The number of reviews varies from14 to 46. Reviews were mainly in English due to the international scope of the website.

4.3. Analysis and Interpretation

Once the messages were identified in a data collection step, we performed the analysis part of the study by employing the constant comparative method. First, the identified text was coded using the constant comparative method [51]. After reading the identified postings several times and devised categories, the identified categories were revisited several times, clarified and grouped into like categories. This resulted in different themes that define the dimensions of the brand experience. Finally, the identified themes were audited, which provided some suggestions in the interpretation phases.

4.4. Research Ethics and Member Checks

Research ethics means providing information about the purpose of research to the participating community and making some or all the research text available to the interested community members. Ethical issues for online-based qualitative studies remain unresolved and some researchers view online data as “public pronouncements” [52] (p. 405). Therefore, it makes sense to revise the ethical guidelines recommended, and it is application for restricted (semi-private) online modes [45]. Studies also proposed covert netnographic studies and stated that a researcher’s participation could potentially endanger this research work if participants do not favor the research [45,52]. However, the web sites utilized in this study come under public forums of communication and do not require consent for an analysis of public postings. Finally, the issue of “member checking” that provides the research findings back to participants does not have any requirement in this study due to the entire unobtrusive nature of the study.

5. Results and Discussion

An analysis of the posted consumer reviews concerning customer experiences with hotel brands resulted in five dimensions. The identified brand experience dimensions in five-star hotel brands are sensory experience, affective experience, relational experience, food experience and leisure time experience. Out of the five identified dimensions, the sensory and affective dimensions of brand experience are consistent with the findings of Brakus et al. [1], a major study based on brand experience. The relational dimension aligns with Nysveen et al. [5], which is also based on services. The remaining two dimensions, food experience and leisure time experience, were not identified in the prior literature.

5.1. Sensory Experience

Analyses of online posted reviews show several sensorial impressions noticed by hotel brand users. It is noteworthy that customers who posted their reviews even after 2–3 months of their stay remember sensorial impressions and mention them in their reviews. Analysis suggests that though hotel brands offered various services properly, such as clean rooms, efficient staff, etc., a single sensory impression resulted in a memorable experience towards the hotel brand. In some instances, customers conveyed disappointment due to disturbing noises and foul smells. A single bad sensory experience can degrade the hotel brand image, which in turn could produce negative word-of-mouth for that brand.
The identified meaning of sensory experience in this study is in accordance with the existing literature, which indicates that sensory experiences are related to the five senses, smell, sound, sight, touch and taste [33]. Sensory experience as a significant dimension of brand experience is consistent with Brakus et al. [1] and Schmitt [33]. It signifies that customers are not only concerned with core services like a hotel room, Wi-Fi or an efficient staff, but also every single experience related to their senses and what they take away from formed sensory experiences.

5.2. Affective Experience

The findings show that an affective experience was evoked from all the managed services and facilities offered to the customers during their stay at the hotel. More specifically, an affective experience is triggered when inner-feelings and emotions are linked to the brand [7]. In predicting consumer behavior, Brakus et al. [1] employed three items for measuring affective experience in his brand experience scale, which are “This brand induces feelings and sentiments”, “I have strong emotions for this brand” and “This brand is an emotional brand”. In line with these items, an affective experience category was recognized in our analysis. Describing himself as a Mughal emperor, one of the hotel brand users expressed his experience regarding that brand.
The analysis clearly stated the appeal of feeling like royalty in the psychology of the customer. The customer mentioned spacious rooms and supportive staff as the reason behind this feeling. Therefore, by providing better services, a hotel brand appeals to feelings and emotions that create an affective experience. Another important aspect analyzed in relation with affective experiences through the netnographic study is feedback. Hotel brand users have discussed their feelings through every encounter with the brand as well as provided suggestions to overcome the negatives.
Our analysis supports the evidence of the feelings and emotions evoked through hotel brand related stimuli, which reflects an affective experience. Prior studies stated an affective experience as one of the significant brand experience dimensions [1,5,33].

5.3. Relational Experience

Comments regarding the supportive and smiling nature of the staff or the presence of a ‘staff member’s name’ in customer reviews indicate healthy experiences with those personnel. While some reviews were written after 3–4 months after the stay, several customers remembered the name of staff personnel. Several posts pointed toward the need of healthy relationships in their experiences. The findings from the qualitative research illustrate that relational experiences were created from the supportiveness or positive behavior of the staff. The reviews based on the interactions between service personnel and the hotel guests were categorized under the theme of relational experience in the analysis.
Sometimes, relational experiences may present a negative image of the brand. For example, staff personnel can become irritated and unfriendly toward a customer, but the customer always looks for well-behaved personnel during an interaction. In the findings from our qualitative research, we noticed both sides of the hotel brand experience. Some posts reflected disappointment with the hotel brands because of the undesirable behavior of service personnel. Such disappointing moments were also explained by hotel brand users.
Prior studies in marketing literature view relational experience with a different perspective: It is defined as “brand’s influence on consumers’ feelings of belonging to a community” [5] p. 413. Recently, another item for measuring brand experience in services, which is the “feelings of not being left alone”, has been adopted to take a holistic approach to measure relational experience [5]. In the current study, the findings are consistent with the view of relational experience developed in services [5].

5.4. Food Experience

The findings illustrate that experiences evoked by food in hotels is central to customer psychology during their stay. Tourists incorporate food experiences as part of their total peak experiences [53]. The experience lies into the intangibility of the services offered in the hotel brand, such as a memorable meal, an adventure vacation or the hotel surroundings [54]. In the present study, an analysis of posted customer reviews stressed the significance of the food experience with hotel brands. The analysis found that food experience was discussed heavily and provided a form of comparison with other hotels. With this experience, customers showed an intention to revisit the hotel.
Tourism literature also states the potential of local food for enhancing the tourist experience and argued that it connects consumers to the place [55]. In line with this view, our findings from the netnogarphic study identified the influence of the local food experience on hotel brand users. For example, food is normally cooked with LPG or electric cookers, but some traditional non-vegetarian Indian dishes are specially cooked in a “Tandoor” (a cylindrical metal or clay oven used in baking and cooking using wood or charcoal). This provides a pleasant taste for foreign tourists and creates memorable food experiences for them. However, tourists always look for novelty and change [56] and it brings a quest for food experiences that occur beyond the routine and familiar life [53].

5.5. Leisure Time Experience

Another major theme emerged from this netnographic study is ‘leisure time experience’. Leisure is “a time of opportunity wherein the individual has the freedom to perceive and select experiences that are either worthwhile or simply gratifying” [57] (p. 15). Leisure activities are either (a) developmental, which necessitates demand and effort; or (b) relaxed, which offers pleasure with no physical demands. The former is distinguished as a way that youth can make the shift from the relative freedom of the teenage years to the constraints and demands of adulthood [58]. Leisure is also understood as a “sense of separation from the everyday world”, it is a feeling of intense pleasure, spontaneity, freedom of choice, timelessness, adventure, fantasy and self-realization [59]. Studies have argued the idea of leisure experience in tourism [60] and services [30]. In line with them, the results of the current study suggest the relevance of experiential perspectives in leisure time activities. The analysis of the online posted messages reflects several leisure time experiences encountered by hotel brand users.
The findings indicate strong evidence for providing leisure time experience with hotel brands to improve hospitality. However, the hotel brands should be cautious when offering such experience, keeping in mind that a customer visits a hotel for core services like a clean room, efficient staff and a smooth check-in and check-out facility.

6. Contributions and Implications of the Study

The study has numerous contributions in the marketing and business field. First, identification of five experience dimensions confirms the multi-dimensionality of brand experience concept. It re-establishes the idea of understanding/measuring brand experience concept thru various touchpoints (dimensions). Second, the study investigates food and leisure time experience as new brand experience dimensions. These two dimensions play an important role in providing meaningful and pleasurable brand experiences to hotel guests. The study also confirms sensory, affective and relational experience [33] as brand experience dimensions. Finally, the use of netnography as a research method approach in the current study to understand and identify the nature of brand experience concept is an important and novel contribution to the marketing and business literature.
The results of the study offer several implications for marketing and brand managers related to services. Hotel businesses will have a better understanding of the specific experiences that need to be managed with their brand. Agra is an international tourist hub; the knowledge of hotel brand experiences is of utmost important for hotel brand managers. Understanding the hotel brand experience construct provides a means to improve Indian hospitality and tourism industry. It also increases customer satisfaction through memorable experiences offered with the hotel brands and ultimately increases the flow of tourists.
While marketers need to understand the role that experiences play in building a brand, limited studies on the brand experience concept exist to offer proper guidance to hoteliers. In these considerations, the study finds the vital role of sensory (sense, feel, act, relate, think), affective (feelings and emotions), relational (feelings of not being left alone), food (memorable meal) and leisure time (freedom to perceive and selects activity during free time) experiences. With the help of this exploration of brand experience dimensions, it becomes possible to separately plan and manage experiences that constitute the brand experience construct. Additional implication for the hoteliers relates to the planning of the marketing strategy. Hotel brands might plan and develop marketing strategies around the experience dimensions (sensory, affective, relational, food, leisure time) identified in the study. Hoteliers should develop promotional campaigns with symbolic meaning related to the identified dimensions, hence, they may position their hotel brands accordingly.
This qualitative research study explores academic knowledge on the brand experience construct by providing data through hotel brand user’s online posted reviews and brings the development of the construct in services. More specifically, this research contributes to the brand experience literature in three ways. First, a theoretical background on the existing knowledge of experience concept in marketing literature and a review of the brand experience construct. Second, this study explored brand experience dimensions, sensory, affective, relational, food and leisure time experiences with five-star hotel brands to get a comprehensive understanding of this emerging concept. To reveal the hotel brand experience dimensions, the netnography method was employed and provided an in-depth understanding of the brand experience construct. Only a few studies have adopted this method [61] as a marketing research technique. Such an effort therefore brings a new standard for brand experience studies.

7. Conclusions

Brands operating in competitive environments have difficulty obtaining a sustainable position. In such an environment, brand differentiation depends on their capability to offer memorable experiences to build a long-term relationship with consumers [62]. Therefore, a proactive approach toward managing brand experience is undoubtedly an important and challenging task for marketing managers. It has been stated that “experiences can be better designed and managed and most importantly that this is of central importance to the experience seeking consumer” [63] (p. 103). However, only a few studies have examined this topic, which is very significant for practitioners. This study has centered on brand experience in the context of the hotel industry in Agra from the customer’s perspective. Agra is a global hotspot with comprehensive and diversified tourism and an increasing number of tourists every year that brings new launches of hotel brands. The knowledge of hotel brand experience that can offer memorable experiences is critical for attracting consumers. Marketing managers admit the importance of brand experience, but they lack the knowledge of the components of brand experience in the hotel context.
This study therefore has been conducted to gain an understanding of brand experience construct by identifying its dimensions in hotel brands. For this purpose, we used the netnography method to uncover the dimensions of brand experience. This qualitive method has not been widely employed as a marketing research method. The results of this qualitative study suggest crucial dimensions of brand experience in the hotel industry. In particular, the study identified sensory (sight, smell, sound, touch and taste), affective (feelings and emotions), relational (feelings of not being left alone), food (memorable meal) and leisure time (freedom to perceive and selects activity during free time) experience dimensions.

8. Limitations and Direction for Future Research

The first limitation is the narrow focus of netnography on hotel brand users who posted their reviews online, making it difficult to generalize the findings to tourists outside the online community. Moreover, the study focused on reviews that were only posted in English. Marketing researchers who wish to apply findings of the netnographic study of any specific online community to another offline group must carefully evaluate the similarities and possibly use multiple methods for triangulation in further studies.
Another limitation of the study is the identification of brand experience with five-star hotel brands in Agra, which is obviously different when compared to different types of hotels. The role of brand experience could be enhanced by incorporating different types of industries other than the hospitality industry. Further research could examine the brand experience construct within the airline industry and hospitals. This would bring an understanding of the brand experience construct in different services and extend the existing body of knowledge in service marketing literature. In addition, the role of customers in co-creating brand experiences should be evaluated in future studies.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, I.K. and M.F.; methodology, I.K.; validation, I.K. and M.F.; writing—original draft preparation, I.K.; writing—review and editing, M.F. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by Prince Sultan University.

Informed Consent Statement

Not Applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not Applicable.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to acknowledge the support of Prince Sultan University for paying the Article Processing Charges (APC) of this publication.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Table
Table 1. Summary of brand experience (BE) dimensions.
Table 1. Summary of brand experience (BE) dimensions.
Dimension of Brand ExperienceStudyContextMethodology
Individual experience (sense, feel and think), shared experience (act and relate)[10]Coffee
chain stores (China)		Questionnaire/CFA
/SEM
Sensorial, affective, behavioral,
Intellectual		[1]A study on
a variety of brands (USA)		Open-ended response/Questionnaire/Content analysis/CFA/SEM
Sensorial, affective, behavioral,
Intellectual		[11] Product—Car, Laptops, Sneakers (Spain)Adopted Brakus scale/Questionnaire/SEM
Sensorial, affective, behavioral[4]Retail (USA)Adopted Brakus scale/Questionnaire (online survey)/SEM
Sensorial, affective, behavioral,
Intellectual, relational		[5]Services-Mobile, Television, Broadband (Norway)Adopted Brakus scale/Questionnaire (online survey)/SEM
Source: Developed for this study.
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Khan, I.; Fatma, M. Using Netnography to Understand Customer Experience towards Hotel Brands. Sustainability 2023, 15, 279. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15010279

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Khan I, Fatma M. Using Netnography to Understand Customer Experience towards Hotel Brands. Sustainability. 2023; 15(1):279. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15010279

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Khan, Imran, and Mobin Fatma. 2023. "Using Netnography to Understand Customer Experience towards Hotel Brands" Sustainability 15, no. 1: 279. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15010279

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