Transit-Oriented Development: Towards Achieving Sustainable Transport and Urban Development in Jakarta Metropolitan, Indonesia
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. The Jakarta Metropolitan Area
2.2. Geographic Information System (GIS) and Analysis of Land-Use Changes
- LUDI (land use diversity index): this is an index used for representing the land-use mix or homogeneity rate of land use in a given area.
- li: the ratio of a particular area of the land-use category to the total area being analyzed.
- li multiplied with the (ln i) which is divided by the total area (ln 4) within the TOD area with four land-use categories.
2.3. Survey of 400 Daily Commuters Who Live in Planned TOD Areas in 2013 and Repeated in 2020
3. Results
3.1. The Changes of Land-Use and Spatial Distribution within TOD Areas between 2013 and 2020
3.2. Housework: Changes in Commuters’ Preference between 2013 and 2020
3.3. Changes in Commuters’ Travel Behavior between 2013 and 2020
3.4. Changes in Commuters’ Travel Behavior Impacted COVID-19
4. Discussion
4.1. The Changes of Land-Use and Spatial Distribution
4.2. The Change of Commuters’ Preference to Choose Workplace and Housing Locations
4.3. The Change of Commuters’ Travel Behavior
5. Conclusions
- Through a geospatial information system analysis and survey of 400 daily commuters who live within a 1 km radius of the planned TOD case study areas conducted in 2013 and 2020, our study examined changes in the spatial distribution of land use and commuters’ travel behavior, determining the extent to which TOD implementation influenced these changes, thereby informing appropriate future policies. While acknowledging the importance of land-use diversity and accessibility within the modes of transit transportation, i.e., the physical aspect of which has become a major focus of the existing TOD literature, our research findings revealed a significant weight on social and culture as key factors that influenced commuters’ travel behavior, with kinship relations being the main reason for choosing housing locations.
- A significant increase in public facilities at the expense of green open space (GOS) indicates that TOD implementation was conducted by the government with the sole authority to manage GOS, lacking private sector involvement.
- Our study found workplace and home culture as key factors for commuters’ decisions to support TOD implementation, highlighting socio-cultural elements as key determining factors toward achieving sustainable urban transportation and development. The cost factor was the commuters’ main reason for using public or private modes of transportation, reflecting specific mobility habits and local culture. Therefore, we call for policymakers and urban planners to consider these aspects when designing transit areas and enhancing accessibility to commuters’ housing locations and workplaces. Specifically, the workplace is important because commuters cannot change employment easily.
- We also found that the COVID-19 pandemic has not caused significant change in the mobility behavior pattern of commuters who live within planned TOD areas in the Jakarta Metropolitan areas. This is attributed to the factor that commuters’ ability to change employment is limited. Following our research findings, our policy recommendations comprise two aspects on which governments should focus: (1) improving public transportation modes which are affordable, and (2) establishing good access and connectivity between housing and workplaces.
- There are several key limitations of this study, and we recommend that future research pays particular attention toward addressing them. Firstly, our sampled population consisted of commuters who live within a 1 km radius of the planned TOD areas. Thus, they may not have all the attributes that comprehensively match with the characteristics of the overall commuting population. Secondly, we surveyed different individuals as research respondents between 2013 and 2020. Therefore, the survey results might not prove the relationships and consistencies of the same commuters. Moreover, future research is required to include workers whose workplaces are within those planned TOD areas to explore their dominant travel behaviors and the relationship between the points of origin and destination within TOD areas.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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TOD Areas | Residential (%) | Work Places (%) | Public Facilities (%) | Green Open Spaces (%) | Diversity Index | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2013 | 2020 | 2013 | 2020 | 2013 | 2020 | 2013 | 2020 | 2013 | 2020 | |
Dukuh Atas | 36.79 | 35.48 | 36.17 | 36.91 | 5.09 | 11.54 | 21.95 | 16.06 | 0.88 | 0.92 |
Manggarai | 60.15 | 65.64 | 27.85 | 18.91 | 5.78 | 11.61 | 6.22 | 3.83 | 0.72 | 0.70 |
Harmoni | 18.66 | 33.91 | 66.05 | 48.84 | 5.49 | 15.59 | 9.79 | 1.65 | 0.70 | 0.77 |
Blok M | 43.97 | 46.39 | 31.40 | 33.18 | 14.80 | 13.49 | 9.74 | 6.94 | 0.89 | 0.85 |
Grogol | 55.04 | 60.44 | 21.18 | 15.66 | 11.41 | 16.36 | 12.38 | 7.53 | 0.84 | 0.78 |
Senen | 51.36 | 50.46 | 28.28 | 29.46 | 17.55 | 18.40 | 2.81 | 1.68 | 0.80 | 0.78 |
Lebak Bulus | 53.09 | 53.50 | 18.80 | 23.49 | 15.66 | 13.05 | 12.45 | 9.95 | 0.87 | 0.84 |
Kampung Bandan | 25.44 | 25.43 | 45.33 | 42.41 | 12.08 | 23.44 | 17.14 | 8.72 | 0.91 | 0.91 |
TOD Areas | Residential (%) | Work Places (%) | Public Facilities (%) | Green Open Spaces (%) | Diversity Index | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2013 | 2020 | 2013 | 2020 | 2013 | 2020 | 2013 | 2020 | 2013 | 2020 | |
Bogor | 50.76 | 48.80 | 31.14 | 17.83 | 3.45 | 20.17 | 14.64 | 13.20 | 0.80 | 0.90 |
Depok | 78.09 | 67.09 | 8.10 | 11.88 | 3.24 | 7.39 | 10.57 | 13.65 | 0.54 | 0.71 |
Depok Baru | 65.15 | 65.76 | 15.01 | 15.26 | 2.46 | 7.94 | 17.15 | 11.04 | 0.69 | 0.73 |
Tangerang | 61.66 | 57.97 | 18.26 | 14.44 | 8.60 | 15.84 | 11.48 | 11.75 | 0.77 | 0.82 |
Tang-Sel | 75.35 | 66.26 | 2.68 | 4.37 | 2.47 | 5.36 | 19.51 | 24.01 | 0.52 | 0.66 |
Bekasi | 57.83 | 39.14 | 13.97 | 23.70 | 8.78 | 15.07 | 19.43 | 22.09 | 0.81 | 0.96 |
2013 | 2020 | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Influencing Factors | East Suburbs | West Suburbs | South Suburbs | East Suburbs | West Suburbs | South Suburbs |
GOS | 7.50 | 7.60 | 19.30 | 16.60 | 17.40 | 20.20 |
Social (kinship) | 19.60 | 19.60 | 20.10 | 24.80 | 17.20 | 24.90 |
Accessibility | 24.60 | 24.60 | 18.30 | 25.30 | 24.20 | 24.70 |
Price | 21.00 | 21.00 | 19.70 | 21.40 | 24.30 | 21.80 |
Public Facility | 15.80 | 15.80 | 11.00 | 13.60 | 20.70 | 12.30 |
Water Facility | 11.50 | 11.50 | 11.70 | 11.20 | 13.60 | 10.20 |
Near The MRT | 3.70 | 0.00 | 6.10 |
Commuters’ Origin (Bodetabek Areas and Jakarta Suburbs) | Reasons to Choose Workplace Locations 2020 in Percentage (%) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Near CL | Easy Access to Trans-Jakarta Bus | Near MRT/LRT | Place of Employers | Others | |
| 19.3 | 1.8 | 0.9 | 78.9 | 1.8 |
| 20.9 | 7.5 | 0.0 | 71.6 | 0.0 |
| 21.7 | 0.0 | 1.6 | 54.3 | 22.5 |
Public Transportation Usage | |||||||||
Commuters’ Origin | 2013 | 2020 | |||||||
KRL Commuter Lines | Bus | BRT Trans-Jakarta | City Mini Bus | KRL Commuter Lines | Bus | BRT Trans-Jakarta | City Mini Bus | MRT | |
East suburbs of Jakarta | 57.1 | 5.2 | 0.6 | 13.0 | 57.9 | 3.5 | 10.5 | 0.0 | 0.9 |
West suburbs of Jakarta | 8.3 | 21.4 | 6.5 | 11.7 | 72.4 | 0.0 | 7.5 | 1.5 | 1.5 |
South suburbs of Jakarta | 54 | 10.0 | 0.0 | 5.0 | 58.9 | 0.0 | 4.7 | 0.8 | 14.0 |
Private Transportation Usage | |||||||||
2013 | 2020 | ||||||||
Car | Motorbike | Bicycle | Car | Motorbike | Bicycle | ||||
East suburbs of Jakarta | 5.2 | 29.9 | 1.3 | 19.3 | 43.0 | 0.0 | |||
West suburbs of Jakarta | 10.2 | 28.9 | 0.0 | 5.2 | 69.4 | 1.5 | |||
South suburbs of Jakarta | 17.5 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 16.3 | 50.4 | 0.8 |
Suburbs | Reasons to Use Public Transport (In Percentage (%)) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
New Transport Infrastructure (MRT, LRT) | Better Connectivity of Trans-Jakarta Bus | Pedestrian Space | Cost | |
East suburbs of Jakarta | 9.6 | 11.4 | 0.0 | 31.6 |
West suburbs of Jakarta | 23.9 | 22.4 | 1.5 | 29.1 |
South suburbs of Jakarta | 38.0 | 16.3 | 8.5 | 31.0 |
Item/Sub-Urbs | No | Yes | No Answer |
---|---|---|---|
Use of train from the station | |||
East suburbs of Jakarta | 48.4 | 51.6 | 0 |
West suburbs of Jakarta | 72.0 | 28.0 | 0 |
South suburbs of Jakarta | 37.0 | 63.0 | 0 |
Changes in traveling time and frequency | |||
East suburbs of Jakarta | 46.5 | 53.5 | 0 |
West suburbs of Jakarta | 25.0 | 63.0 | 12 |
South suburbs of Jakarta | 71.0 | 27.0 | 2.0 |
Changes in mobility due to service limitations | |||
East suburbs of Jakarta | 26.8 | 66.8 | 6.4 |
West suburbs of Jakarta | 34.0 | 43.0 | 22.0 |
South suburbs of Jakarta | 20.0 | 58.0 | 2.0 |
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Hasibuan, H.S.; Mulyani, M. Transit-Oriented Development: Towards Achieving Sustainable Transport and Urban Development in Jakarta Metropolitan, Indonesia. Sustainability 2022, 14, 5244. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14095244
Hasibuan HS, Mulyani M. Transit-Oriented Development: Towards Achieving Sustainable Transport and Urban Development in Jakarta Metropolitan, Indonesia. Sustainability. 2022; 14(9):5244. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14095244
Chicago/Turabian StyleHasibuan, Hayati Sari, and Mari Mulyani. 2022. "Transit-Oriented Development: Towards Achieving Sustainable Transport and Urban Development in Jakarta Metropolitan, Indonesia" Sustainability 14, no. 9: 5244. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14095244