A Narrative Review of the Link between Sport and Technology

Abstract

Background: Research on the application of technology in sports in Romania is completely lacking, and the existing studies at the international level have mainly been carried out in recent years. We considered it appropriate to highlight the best practice models of technology application in sports that can be multiplied, adapted, improved, and widely used. The paper aims to identify the use of technology and devices in sports, with an emphasis on their role in training and competitions with the aim of improving sports performance, to provide sports specialists, organizations, and authorities with a wide range of information regarding the connection between sport and technology. The results obtained regarding the application of technology in sports refer mainly to the following: techniques and technologies used in training and competition (portable localization technology and global positioning systems (GPS); Virtual Reality (VR) technology; video analysis; digital technologies integrated into sports training); aspects of sports training targeted through the use of technology (use of technology for athlete health, recovery, and injury management; use of technology for monitoring sports performance and various body indicators); training optimization and ecological dynamics and the sustainable development of sports. Conclusions: Unitary research, at a European or even global level, in a uniform theoretical and practical framework, could lead to much more efficient training with large increases in sports performance. The coaches and specialists working with the athlete determine the specificity of some elements of the training, depending on the characteristics of each athlete. Large clubs could become a factor in generating and disseminating knowledge related to training and competition monitoring, sports performance enhancement, and health, recovery, and injury management. Research directions for the use of technology in sport and the formation of connections with other fields can be extended. For example, combined technologies assisted by specialized software can be used. Creativity must be the starting point for the use and combination of existing technologies in sports and for the creation of new ones. Their creation and use involve the teamwork of athletes, coaches, and specialists from different fields, such as sports, physiology, psychology, biomechanics, informatics, etc.

1. Introduction

Sport, as with most areas of life, has been greatly influenced by the advancement of technology. It is increasingly difficult to imagine sports and sports science without considering the use of technology. Due to the ever-increasing level of performance obtained at major competitions, the coach’s work has become more and more complex and specialized, seeking to transform training for high performance into a more modern and beautiful process. The knowledge and use of specialized equipment and the latest technologies is necessary for those who are involved in the sports phenomenon to be correctly informed, so that they can make rational choices regarding the type and use of sports technologies [1].

Training programs can be designed on specific equipment, for athletes from different branches, with varying duration. During training, data can be retrieved regarding the performance evolution, the degree of strain on the body during the effort, the degree of correctness of the movements, the speed of execution, and the way in which the effort is correlated with the heart rate values. In this way, situations such as repeating an incorrect movement will be avoided, and the athlete can correct himself in real time, which will lead to an increase in performance and help to minimize the risk of injury. We are aware that sport is a very modern field, in which cutting-edge technology plays an important role.

Sports training is conditioned by a multitude of aspects, such as physical, technical, tactical, psychological preparation, and biological preparation for competition. In this context, it is observed that the use of advanced technology to optimize training is increasingly common and is carried out in parallel with the permanent monitoring of the athletes’ health, with a long-term impact. The technology looks at how the healthy human body functions during exercise and how sport and physical activity promote health and performance. Current research highlights those athletes, coaches, and the interdisciplinary teams working with the athlete that have different views regarding the integration of technology in sports training. Thus, it is stated that the use of technology positively influences the mental state, or that the measurement in the case of technology is uncertain and that the results are dependent on the environmental conditions and the type of technology that is used, or that the results obtained are dependent on how frequently the technology is used and how easily it can be embedded/contained/included/framed in training [2].

Weldon, A et al. [3] applied an online survey among 156 coaches from different countries, from different sports, and with different levels of competence and appreciation. The questionnaire used also included a set of questions about how they viewed the use of technology in training. The answers obtained showed that 40% of respondents expressed a desire to include more technology in their training programs, while 30% believed that technology would be one of the main directions in the future of sports such as football, athletics, volleyball, golf, and field tennis.

The use of technology in sports has major implications in monitoring training tasks and improving execution techniques.

1.1. Monitoring Training Tasks

A very common aspect is related to the monitoring of training tasks. Sports experts from around the world gathered in Doha, Qatar in 2016 to discuss the topic of training task monitoring using multidisciplinary approaches, data capture, and interpretation technologies as a non-invasive approach to understand how athletes cope with training and competition. The result was the creation of a common conceptual framework and a scheme explaining what monitoring is, why monitoring is needed, and what the future holds for this training segment [4].

Adequate training load monitoring can provide important information to athletes and coaches; however, monitoring systems should be intuitive, provide efficient data analysis and interpretation, and allow the effective reporting of simple but scientifically valid feedback [5]. External training load (eTL) monitoring has become popular for team sports to manage fatigue and optimize performance. Researchers have concluded that there are significant relationships and predictive capabilities between the systems. However, each system appears to capture unique information that may be useful to performance practitioners in understanding the external training task [6].

“If you don’t measure, you can’t improve!”. This is a valid truth in any scientific field, and it is also perfectly valid in sports, a field in which, if one works without structure, one will certainly not obtain the desired results. The tests and investigations found in the content of the analyzed studies have scientific research behind them, being internationally accepted methods. Progress in performance sports and thorough motor learning presupposes knowledge of the athlete’s potential at different points in his training. Testing with modern and high-performance equipment gives a great deal of information about the sportsman’s motor capacity.

1.2. Technique and Improving Execution Techniques

The results obtained from the research demonstrate the usefulness and feasibility of some devices for improving the execution techniques of various technical procedures and, as a result, for the achievement of performance objectives. The researchers highlight how data analysis will facilitate the preparation of athletes, both through training interventions and long-term development planning. A multitude of articles deal with topics related to technology applications in team sports, and it is noted that most are in football, basketball, handball, and volleyball [7].

Technologies are used in the training of athletes, with the aim of facilitating this process and improving the performance achieved. Starting from research carried out up to the present moment, technological development can help to improve equipment, training methods, and the performance of athletes. In most sports, one technology is usually used, but connections to other technologies are not made very often. In this context, we start from the premise that the combined use of several types of technologies is beneficial and a factor of progress in sports.

The paper is structured as follows: Introduction—1, Material and Working Methods—2, Results and Discussion—3, and Conclusions—4. The purpose of this paper is to synthesize information regarding the use of technology and devices in sports, with an emphasis on their role in training and competitions, and in improving sports performance.

2. Materials and Methods

The present study sought to identify, organize, and evaluate trends in the use of technology and devices in sport using quantitative research. The selection of the database for documentation is decisive for an objective evaluation. We chose the Web of Science Core Collection (WOS) because it is a very comprehensive bibliographic data source that allows the selection of articles in the desired field and the evaluation of research. Systematic searches were performed in the Web of Science database. Figure 1 presents the design of the research methodology.

Articles published from July 2007 to July 2022 (15 years) were thus searched in WOS, using, as a search term, “technology in sport training”. The search was performed on the titles, abstracts, and keywords of the papers. Filters were applied to the data set, such as ”open access”, “language” (English), publication years “2007-present” and ”2017-present”, WoS category “sports science”. Following the application of these filters, from the initial number of 1943 works published between 2007 and 2022, 769 open-access articles were selected. Of these, the articles published between 2017 and 2022 were retained, resulting in a set of 670 articles. Only the articles that belonged to the “sport sciences” WOS category, i.e., 164 papers, were retained for analysis. Of these, 154 articles were analyzed that were published in English. In the end, a data set of 122 papers resulted, which were carefully analyzed. Of these, 17 papers were excluded due to the nature of the subject and 105 works were included in the pursued theme.

The obtained data were analyzed and synthesized according to the research objectives, and the obtained results and discussions are presented in a logical sequence, structured around the 4 objectives.

Table 1. Research hypotheses, objectives, and the results obtained.

Hypotheses of the Research	Objectives of the Research	Results Obtained
(I) The use of technology and devices in sports research involves a multitude of tools and working techniques	O1 Obtaining an overview of the current state of technological systems used in sport, highlighting the most used methods, techniques, and technologies	3.1. Techniques and technologies used in training and competition	3.1.1. Portable tracking technology and GPS global positioning systems
			3.1.2. Virtual Reality (VR) technology
			3.1.3. Video analysis
			3.1.4. Digital technologies integrated into sports training
	O2 Identify training and competition objectives that are addressed by using a certain type of technology or by combining two or even more methods and techniques	3.2. Aspects of sports training targeted through the use of technology	3.2.1. Using technology for athlete health, recovery, and recovery and injury management
			3.2.2. Using technology to monitor sports performance and various body indicators	3.2.2.1.Monitoring motor qualities and technical elements in different sports branches
				3.2.2.2. Biomechanical monitoring
				3.2.2.3. Monitoring of functional and biochemical indices
				3.2.2.4. Psychological monitoring
		3.3. Training optimization	3.3.1. Training tasks
			3.3.2. Performance enhancement
			3.3.3. Training equipment and items
		3.4. Ecological dynamics and the sustainable development of sport
	O3 Identifying studies that address connections/correlations between the most important aspects of the sports training process and technology	3.5.Number of articles published by training segment
(II) The use of technology in sports research is used worldwide and more intensively in recent years	O4 Determining the frequency with which technological research is used in sports branches, the dynamics of the publication of articles referring to technology for the period 2007–2022, and the countries from which the authors with the most numerous articles related to technology in sports originate	3.6. Determining the frequency with which technological research is used in sports
		3.7. Dynamics of publication of articles referring to technology in sports for the period 2007–2022
		3.8. Identifying the countries from which the authors with the most articles related to technology in sports originate

presents the research hypotheses, objectives, and the results obtained.

3. Results and Discussion

O1 Obtaining an overview of the current state of technological systems used in sport, highlighting the most used methods, techniques, and technologies.

3.1. Techniques and Technologies Used in Training and Competition

In recent years, specialized literature has highlighted the use of GPS, virtual technology, video analysis, and various digital techniques.

3.1.1. Portable Tracking Technology and GPS Global Positioning Systems

Many researchers in sports science and related fields have used GPS for various purposes. Studies have been accomplished that have analyzed and critically evaluated the methods used to validate different Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) and Local Positioning Systems (LPS) used in elite athletes [8]. It is preferred if the means of operation, the limitations, and the potential of the GPS system are known, because then it can increase the efficiency of the continuous observation of the effort capacity, the workload, the performance, as well as the health monitoring of the athletes [9].

Thus, these devices are now commonplace in sports research and practice, but there is still no clear consensus on how these data should be managed and reported in the sports context. Athlete monitoring technology contains two types of wearable sensors: motion sensors and physiological sensors. Motion sensors include pedometers, accelerometers/gyroscopes, and global positioning satellite (GPS) devices. Physiological sensors include heart rate monitors, sleep monitors, temperature sensors, and embedded sensors. The obtained data can be used in the design of optimized training programs and to determine potential causes of injuries [10].

There are numerous articles analyzing and evaluating the external and internal training load, highlighting data obtained with microtechnology devices such as the OptimEye X4, Catapult novations, which is worn by athletes for effort assessment [11]. It has also been investigated how GPS watches, smartphones, commercial activity monitors, and quality wearable sensors can be used for the same purpose [12]. To better understand training fatigue and its effect on the athlete, potential markers are available.

The ability to accelerate is a very important characteristic in any sport and it is one that can create a substantial advantage in competitions. For this reason, many studies revealed the use of GPS technology to identify the external acceleration task using count-based metrics [13]. The results showed that GPS-10 Hz technology demonstrated a sufficient level of accuracy for quantifying distances traveled at maximum speed or very high intensity effort, compared to a radar system [14].

Data derived from the Global Positioning System has an important role in managing various aspects of sports training and competition. Thus, the global quantification of the work performed or the volume of work during training and matches is a very often achieved objective [15].

Studies carried out with the help of GPS, in team sports, highlight that the level of play does not influence the distance covered, the movement patterns of the players, or the heart rate values [16] and that specific training, individualized by the positions that they occupy, is necessary for the players on the field. Thus, analyses of the physiological profile and the training level can be generated to influence the design of position-specific training in the field [17]. There is a great deal of discussion about pregnancy monitoring and its importance in physical training, about monitoring options in these sports branches, but also about how clubs perceive this aspect and are willing to spend in this regard [18]. There are studies that highlight the fact that by monitoring internal and external tasks, individually, by positional groups, and by the whole team, elements based on the location of the game, the ranking of the opponent, the result of the game, and the final score can be analyzed. It is found how the workloads are influenced by the location of the game and the ranking of the opponent, and a very interesting aspect is one that refers to the measurement of the heart rate of the defensive players in the lost and won matches [19].

In sports games, when a comparison of physical demands is required according to changes in distance, speed, and acceleration on different playing surfaces, monitoring and measurement using GPS is very suitable. The following data can be obtained: total distance traveled during a match, average speed, maximum speed, distance traveled at different speeds, and distance covered at different accelerations [20]. Moreover, monitoring with innovative biomarkers can be useful in training optimization [21]. The use of new player tracking technologies leads to better management of training and competition demands. Suitable training tasks for effective training can be determined and coaches can be helped in making the best strategic decisions during games [22]. The research evaluated the association of external training load (eTL) between inertial measurement units (IMU) and indoor positioning systems (IPS), used for fatigue monitoring in team sports. For example, distance covered during training was measured by Indoor Positioning Systems (IPS) compared to PlayerLoad (PL) Inertial Measurement Units (IMU).

For movements specific to team sports and for measuring sprints at speeds greater than 20 km/h, the WIMU 5 hz GPS has been shown to be valid and reliable [23]. GPS variables provide clarifications about the type of effort, muscle pain, duration and quality of sleep, and measures of internal load and external load. All of these can affect performance, from running to training or a match.

Training and competition data captured using player tracking technology can be combined with other types of technology to increase the effectiveness of monitoring. Video analysis can be used, and the information obtained can be used to evaluate the total energy expenditure, in the highest-level competitions (doubly labeled water method) [24].

In a study of professional basketball players, external training load variables were measured with a multivariable monitoring device [25].

In rugby, the GPS system has been used to monitor the workload of the players, by introducing individualized speed thresholds in training, which leads to a decrease in the probability of injury [26]. As a sport where the way in which a match is played is influenced by the very high possibility of hard contact between players, accelerometers, gyroscopes, magnetometers, and global positioning technology have been used in rugby training and matches to obtain data to help in the realization of an algorithm for the automatic detection of contact and collision phases (heap) [27].

Wearable technology can very well handle the factors of training in the preparatory periods, but also the specific elements of recovery periods after surgery, from recovery at home to the gradual return to the field and in subsequent training. In this way, by monitoring training loads, the likelihood of injury recurrence is greatly reduced [28,29]. Recovery activities can be self-managed, with specific indicators: sleep quality, daytime sleepiness, attitudes about sleep, and self-control [30].

It is known that sports training is a long process of adaptation to effort, which can result in various demands on the locomotor apparatus, so overuse injuries remain a problem in sports at all training levels. There are emerging wearable technologies that can be of great benefit to all involved in sports [31].

To gain an edge in competitions, but also to avoid overtraining injuries, it is necessary to use an effective tracking system. It is very important that it can be adapted to the characteristics of the sport, but also of the athlete. Moreover, the duration for which the monitoring is performed, the stage of preparation of the athletes, and when it is desired to achieve the peaks of sports form, the achievement of peak performance, must also be carefully determined [32].

The use of GPS combined with video recordings can offer coaches options for studying injuries and rehabilitation possibilities, as well as monitoring physical demands during the game. Various indicators can be measured: speed of movement, demands from specific tactical elements, e.g., grip and in a huddle in rugby [33]. Total collisions, obtained by video footage, and total distances, obtained by GPS, in rugby players can be analyzed to improve running demands [34].

Injury prediction is a very important issue in sports. Thus, GPS has been used in the training of athletes who practice different sports disciplines, including in the training of high-performance athletes and in medium and long-distance runners. Data on training tasks were obtained and, based on this, an injury prediction system based on XGBoost machine learning models was created, which considers information about training exercises in the days before an injury [35]. It is possible to monitor the link between the athlete’s workload and the possibility of soft tissue injuries. Thus, a progressive increase in training load considerably reduces the risk of injury [36].

Through a standard approach to data collection and reporting procedures, researchers and practitioners will be able to make more reliable comparisons between their data, which will improve the understanding and impact of these devices on athlete performance [37].

Table 2. The use of GPS in sports training.

Use of GPS in Sports Research	Main Data Obtained	Source
Health maintenance, recovery, and recovery and injury management	decrease in residual muscle tone	[38]
	pain relief
	monitoring the internal tensions produced on the musculoskeletal tissues	[39]
	the elements causing injuries: intrinsic factors, extrinsic factors, and the triggering factor
	the level of training tasks to increase performance, but with injury prevention
	creating an injury prediction system based on training tasks	[16]
	detection of accident-generating factors
Motor quality monitoring	determining the power of the lower train	[3]
	measuring linear sprint performance	[40]
	knowledge of force, power, and speed variables in horizontal and vertical jumps	[41]
	determining external and internal training tasks	[42]
	the association of the external load with the athlete’s fatigue	[18,43]
	monitoring and prescribing resistance training tasks	[28]
	knowledge of physical demands in correlation with the following variables: locomotion speed, body load, and total body load	[44]
	tracking running and inertia indicators	[27]
	recording information related to force, accuracy, impact over time, and direction of hitting the volleyball ball	[45]
Training optimization	optimization of sports training	[46]
	designing optimized training programs	[47]
	training and performance optimization	[48]
Functional index monitoring	effectiveness of inspiratory muscle training	[49]
	heart rate measurement	[50]
	designing optimized training
	training load quantified by heart rate monitoring
	training that takes into account position-specific training in the field	[51]
	real-time measurement of the hydration status index	[19]
	energy consumption during competitive periods	[16]
	nutritional strategies to ensure sufficient energy availability	[52]
Managing training tasks	external acceleration task identification with count-based metrics
	load monitoring and its application in high-performance sport	[53]
	managing effort intensity and workload	[54]
	large clubs could generate and share knowledge about training tasks and player health, more judicious rationalization of the training load to improve performance	[18]
	gradually increasing the intensity of training can reduce the risk of injury	[55]

Source: own design.

shows GPS technology and its most common uses in sports training.

3.1.2. Virtual Reality (VR) Technology

Scientific studies show that significant progress has been made in Virtual Reality (VR) technology, which is used in various fields of research. There are ways in which augmented reality can be used in sports to train perceptual–cognitive and motor skills. Research directions for using VR in sports and making connections with other fields can be extended [56]. This has influences on training and sports practice, offers special possibilities in the collection of physiological parameters, reproduces competition situations, such as complicated situations in which reaction time is critical, and leads to the easy acquisition of skills, supporting a novel and creative approach for coaches [57].

VR technology can be used to optimize sports training. Differentiation ability and accuracy in VR is comparable to that in the real environment. It uses the concept of ecological sports training and its development with the help of biomechanical analysis for the determination of muscle forces, Virtual Reality (VR) technology, and the visualization of interactions. The athlete can retrieve and analyze the results of their own movements and evaluate interactions with a virtual counterpart. A VR visualization and musculoskeletal analysis system has also been developed [58].

In team ball sports, Virtual Reality (VR) is used as a tool for simulation, analysis, and training. This technology gives researchers the ability to control and standardize training situations. Limitations and shortcomings are related to technical issues or the way in which the study is designed [59]. There are possible variants of data analysis, which follow the movement of the athletes’ eyes, in a virtual reality system. Thus, data on the perception and processing of visual information are determined, which are decisive, for example, in the goalkeeper’s decision-making capacity [60].

Using Virtual Reality games can have beneficial effects on physical recovery following injuries. Virtual Reality game training has been shown to increase clinical and sports performance compared to other training options in soccer players with chronic low back pain [61].

At the same time, there are studies that highlight that the use of virtual learning environments is not suitable for all skills and motor skills, and they can reduce the transfer of skills to the real world.

3.1.3. Video Analysis

Video technology is directly related to video analysis software, which depicts in real time all the events during training or a match and helps to manage training and competition [62]. It is used, first, as feedback in the mirror, for learning and correcting technical elements in different sports branches, especially in football and basketball, and then as a means of learning and perfecting ambidexterity and laterality [63].

To achieve superior performance, it is desirable that this technology is combined with other techniques and methods, such as Virtual Reality. In rugby, it is frequently used in association with micro-tech units (Optimeye S5, Catapult Innovations). Video recordings allow the analysis of collision frequency and intensity in contact sports, while GPS data are used to record the total distance traveled. Similarly, in tennis, match data are captured by video analysis and player tracking technology [64]. In volleyball, video analysis is often used, but connections with other technologies are not made. Many studies have mentioned the Power Glowe technology tool, which can record information related to the force, accuracy, impact time, and direction of the jump and ground kick. This analysis aims to correlate and compare the video analysis capabilities with those of the Power Glowe system regarding power, speed, accuracy, and serve efficiency in volleyball.

3.1.4. Digital Technologies Integrated in Sports Training

In the digital age, we are very tempted to use technology in any field and at any level. However, technology also has elements that can become harmful. There may be some obstacles and limitations that make the option of using the technology in specific areas questionable. There are researchers who mention the pitfalls that can arise in the application of technology in sports science and provide a framework to help in making the decision to use a technology [64]. The development of digital technologies at an unprecedented pace has led to the emergence of a multitude of training systems.

Recent research examines the FitLight (TM), BlazePod, and XLiGHT training systems and compares them in terms of usability, features, performance, and diagnostic methods [65].

Research shows that machine learning techniques are used to reduce the number of sports accidents, with an unwanted impact on the personality of athletes and on the image of the sport, by analyzing the factors that cause injuries [66]. Using information technology, large continuous, constant, and detailed data sets are obtained regarding the management of physical activities and monitoring of competition. Large databases are generated, which can become starting points in programming training strategies and generate new directions and creative research in sport [67].

Data fusion technology is used to organize the training process on a scientific basis, by detecting accident-generating factors. A dynamic chain model is established for early accident prevention [68].

Scientists seek to solve real-time data acquisition, analysis, and transmission to coaches and then athletes in a training system using data filtering and signal analysis technologies for real-time information exploration. This rapid feedback reaches the coach and a sports science specialist and is then transmitted to the athlete, who optimizes their movements and performance [69].

Tri-axial accelerometry technology and the evaluation of perceived exertion (sRPE) serve as valuable tools for load monitoring in basketball training [70]. An examination of how self-tracking technologies were used in the self-management of recovery activities for athletes during the 2020 pandemic highlighted that athletes are not very attracted to self-tracking technologies.

Metrifit health and sports technologies are highlighted in a study of Welsh performance football players. The data monitored by GPS technologies were entered into the self-reported questionnaire Metrifit—Health and Sport technologies. Indicators of health and well-being, such as sleep duration and quality, energy levels, stress levels, and athletes’ health status, were observed to assess pre-training and competition states.

The use of microtechnological data integrated into the training of team sports demonstrated that there are differences in the content of the training, depending on the positions on which they evolve, which proves that the training carried out in a microcycle is also specific to the position.

O2 Identify training and competition objectives that are addressed by using a particular type of technology or by combining two or even more methods and techniques.

3.2. Aspects of Sports Training Targeted Using Technology

Sports training is conditioned by a multitude of aspects, such as physical, technical, tactical, psychological preparation, and biological preparation for competition. In this context, it is observed that the technology targets precisely the most significant aspects of the training.

3.2.1. Using Technology for Athlete Health, Recovery, and Injury Management

In recent years, scientific research in the field of sports has brought its contribution through a series of studies aimed at medical recovery, the recovery of effort capacity, and the prevention and management of injuries in performance athletes, which offers possibilities to improve performance. Sports training is a complex process of adaptation, which requires knowledge from many fields. This is why it is possible that trainers do not possess sufficient knowledge required in this approach, such as, for example, the medical field.

Modern devices, such as the Flexibility Trainer, have been used in research, which leads to a decrease in the residual muscle tone of the hip joint muscles and an improvement in the flexibility of the hip joint [71]. Using the Bromsman device with bilateral eccentric strength training with overload improves pain in athletes with symptomatic patellar tendinopathy. The changes that occur because of the running effort in team sports can be monitored biochemically, but also of the internal tensions produced on the musculoskeletal tissues [72].

Ultrasound imaging (US), used in performance sports, can evaluate the morphological and mechanical properties of muscles and tendons, which reveals information about the body’s response to training, detecting athletes at a higher risk of injury, detecting musculoskeletal abnormalities at present or in the future, and evaluating recovery after injuries [73]. Physiological and movement parameters monitored by wearable sensors can be used to detect position-specific patterns in movement to design optimized training programs and to determine potential causes of injury.

The use of informatics in sports training is pursued, using electronic medical records, which give coaches the opportunity to use data for the medical care of the athlete and reduce the chances of injury. Current research in sports highlights the increasing introduction of machine learning (ML) techniques, applied to various aspects of sports injuries. Of great help to coaches, doctors, and sports researchers are models used to plan training tasks, which lead to increased performance, but with the prevention of injuries. Thus, an injury prediction system based on XGBoost machine learning models was created. Moreover, in the research, a dynamic chain model was established for the early prevention of accidents in tennis players, using data fusion technology that detects accident-generating factors [74]. GPS-recorded demands and the demands of athletes, combined with video recordings, can provide coaches with options for studying injuries and rehabilitation possibilities [75].

By organizing the training process on a scientific basis, the knowledge of biomechanics aspects in competitions and training is obtained to reduce injuries [76]. In this sense, the biomechanical diagnosis is identified, using the force–time curve for different movements [77]. In team sports, the relationship between workload and the possibility of soft tissue injuries was investigated using handheld global positioning system (GPS) technology. Injuries can be avoided by using progressive increases in training load [78], using individualized speed thresholds. By introducing ball-throwing machines into training, specific motor skills are learned and strengthened in fastball sports, and injury situations in athletes are reduced.

Following the analysis of speed monitoring technologies, practical proposals are made with the aim of increasing performance, controlling fatigue, and preventing injuries. The efforts of sports researchers are focused on the development of an affordable technological reference system in operation and price, called SwimBIT, which uses a wearable device. This tool has the role of helping swimmers and coaches in the evaluation and improvement of performance, for the classification of technical elements, but also in reducing the risk of injury by performing the technique correctly. It has even been verified how self-tracking technologies have been used in the self-management of recovery activities [79].

3.2.2. Using Technology to Monitor Sports Performance and Various Body Indicators

Today’s new technologies offer ample opportunities to continuously monitor the activities of athletes [80,81]. In recent years, there has been a proliferation of technology and sports science used in an athlete’s training, especially at the elite level. However, sports science is a broad field, encompassing disciplines such as biomechanics, motor control and learning, exercise physiology, sports medicine, and sports psychology, to name a few. Rarely are these disciplines applied in an integrated manner.

Monitoring Motor Qualities and Technical Elements in Different Sports Branches

In recent years, most of the concerns of sports researchers have been oriented towards measuring some motor qualities, such as speed and maximum power, especially regarding lower training and endurance, but also towards finding correlations between them. Most studies have focused on the assessment of conditional capacities: speed, strength, and endurance.

Scientific curiosity has led specialists to test the reliability of devices/apparatus and instruments that they have successfully used in research. For example, force monitoring technologies such as [82] linear position measurement devices (LPM), isoinertial dynamometers, 3D accelerometers (Myotest), VertiMax, the TENDO FiTROdyne Powerlizer, a conical pulley inertial device for measuring lower body power as well as 20 m linear sprint performance, a training bag filled with water and equipped with a sensor to determine impact force, the Power Glowe technology tool that can record information related to force, accuracy, impact in the time and direction of hitting the ball, in volleyball, for example, the use of the additional load principle and the SAID principle.

In research, among the devices used to develop motor skills is a new optical laser (FLEX) device for quantifying average concentric velocity, a useful device for monitoring and prescribing resistance training tasks.

Articles were analyzed that investigated methods of testing speed in athletes from different disciplines, with the help of computer technology developed to monitor their training. In this regard, the following tools have been found: a luminous electronic target for measuring fencers’ response times, a wearable accelerometer, a sigma sports heart rate monitor that retrieves and analyzes speed maintenance data [83], various GPS systems that measure travel speed, the proven valid and reliable 5 hz WIMU, an optical laser (FLEX) device for quantifying the average concentric velocity, and integrated microtechnology in the training of performance American football athletes by tracking running and inertial indicators.

Associations between force, power, and velocity derived during the deadlift and performance in the vertical jump and horizontal jump were investigated. The results showed that force, power, and speed variables are more strongly correlated with horizontal jumps [84].

During the research, many studies were found that analyze and evaluate external and internal training loads. Highlights include data obtained with microtechnology tools such as the Multivariable Monitoring Device, which measures external training load variables, and data derived from the Global Positioning System, OptimEye X4 Catapult Innovations, which is worn by athletes for exercise assessment.

It has also been investigated how GPS watches, smartphones, commercial activity monitors, and quality wearable sensors can be used for the same purpose. Distance traveled during training was measured by indoor positioning systems compared to PlayerLoad inertial measurement units. To understand training fatigue and its effect on the athlete, potential markers are available.

Researchers have concluded that each system appears to capture unique information that may still be useful to practitioners/specialists in understanding the external training task [6]. Recent studies demonstrate that, in addition to measuring some motor qualities, modern devices have been used to improve the technique of some procedures in different sports branches, by imitating a correct motor skill [85]. The scaling of wearable sensor technology from single- to multi-user has been used in the training of elite swimmers, along with a framework that allows for near-real-time as well as post-session data analysis [86], and in air pistol shooting the most important technical components were investigated [87].

Biomechanical Monitoring

Scientists present the concept of ecological sports training and its development with the help of biomechanical analysis. The athlete can retrieve and analyze the results of their own movements and evaluate interactions with the virtual model. Through three-dimensional biomechanical analysis of the jumping movement, the trunk position, horizontal velocity, and vertical velocity can be determined. Fine biomechanical elements are highlighted in the training of swimmers, with the help of technologies such as instrumented blocks, wires, and underwater cameras [88].

Monitoring of Functional and Biochemical Indices

The analysis of the physiological profile and the monitoring of athletes for this purpose are very useful aspects in terms of the approach to sports training. We note the presence of some articles that evaluate the level of some functional indices. Thus, using the POWERbreathe device and the Threshold IMT device, the effectiveness of inspiratory muscle training (IMT) at different intensities on lung function and physiological adaptations in long-distance runners was evaluated. Moreover, a new product designed to measure heart rate in swimmers without using awkward sensors is being developed at Philips Research.

Research has investigated a range of external load quantification and monitoring tools, such as time-motion analysis devices, effort perception devices, heart rate telemetry, blood lactate measurement, sleep monitors, temperature sensors, built-in sensors to quantify training load, or a treadmill to check maximum oxygen uptake and maximum HR (HRmax). It is very useful for coaches to systematically measure, before the start of training, neuromuscular performance and creatine kinase (CK) levels and then establish the influence that these indicators have on future training performance in football players, but also in any other sport [89]. Starting from the idea that hydration is very important for athletes, with the help of an automatic urine analysis device, it is possible to measure the hydration status index in real time.

Psychological Monitoring

Wearable devices do not provide information other than physiological values, despite athletes’ demand. To respond to athletes’ requests to receive psychological feedback, a preliminary exploration was introduced to track athletes’ psychological states based on wearable devices, coach observations, and machine learning techniques. Analysis of the data collected by GPS can provide information on exercise capacity, workload, as well as the well-being and performance of athletes.

In shooting sports, a sport in which the level of attention is very high, neurofeedback-EEG training was used, with the aim of improving the level of attention in shooters [90].

Moreover, by introducing an external attentional cue during some jumps, an improvement in technique and explosive jump characteristics was observed.

3.3. Training Optimization

Technological development can help to improve training methods and the performance of athletes. In the modern era of scientific development of the sports phenomenon, virtual technology can intervene in the optimization of sports training. On the other hand, the data obtained with the help of portable movement and physiological sensors can be used in the design of optimized training programs.

Ferrara, F. et al. (2019) [48] conclude that different variants of data acquisition will be integrated with the aim of optimizing analysis, training, and performance, by connecting and comparing video analysis with a technological tool that can record information related to force, precision, impact over time, and ball strike direction, using the Power Glowe technology and real-time data on volley power, speed, and accuracy.

3.3.1. Training Tasks

In terms of training load management, in recent years, there have been considerable advances in monitoring training loads in running-based team sports, in describing training loads designed to develop visual and perceptual–cognitive skills [91], in measuring the loads of external acceleration of athletes, or in managing external demands and the importance of internal training loads.

It also emphasizes finding ways to study injuries and rehabilitation possibilities, the effects of different training loads on the probability of injury in team sports, and the finding that workloads are not at all influenced by the location of the game and the value of the opponent, and the volume of internal work of the team is independent of the context of the game. Suitable training loads for effective training can be determined, and the biochemical changes that occur because of the effort, but also the internal tensions produced on the musculoskeletal tissues, can be monitored. Another aspect concerns the analysis and comparison of microtechnology-controlled external training loads with internal training loads in elite athletes. In fast bowlers, the relationship between recommended effort and microtechnology measurements may be a plausible variation in managing effort intensity and workload.

Herran, A., Usabiaga, O., and Castellano, J. [20] compared physical demands according to changes in distances, speeds, and acceleration on different playing surfaces, in 3 × 3 and 5 × 5 basketball.

3.3.2. Performance Enhancement

Scientific training of athletes and staff can lead to superior performance in competitions because of daily training management and performance prediction. Many applications have already been created for training management, and a suitable theoretical framework is sought to allow its further development [92]; a framework of good practices for the use of inertial sensor technology to assess performance in combat sports has been outlined [93] and a systemic structure is proposed that considers the analysis of the individual, the trends in the field, and the use of statistical analysis in data processing. Technology can be used to develop bilateral skills to increase athletic performance, and technologies such as Global Positioning Systems (GPS) and heart rate (HR) monitors have deepened the factors that contribute to increased performance.

Effective strategies have been identified in the increase in sports performance, such as Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD), which has evolved to become an indispensable technology in high-performance sports, with applications in equipment design, in understanding ball sports and fluid flow in motor sports, and in attempts to achieve world speed records. This foreshadows the increasing overlap of electronics and mechanics in engineering and even the overlapping use of technologies from Hollywood movies with mobile phones, the Internet, video games, and CFD in sports engineering [94].

3.3.3. Training Equipment and Items

Technological development can help to improve training equipment and objects. Thus, more pleasant training can be achieved, in which the monotony of the effort is reduced, the exercises become more efficient and easier to perform, and, as a result, the athletes can achieve superior performance. For example, a head-mounted display (HMD) system has been used in softball to develop temporal discrimination ability in swing initiation when an athlete faces two types of balls thrown at different velocities.

In cycling, scientists have found a way to develop a protective helmet, equipped with sensors and automatic controls, which improves the aerodynamic efficiency of the athlete, so, implicitly, it also leads to increases in performance. This helmet is a 3D prototype, made on a printer, and has been compared with the models of helmets already in use.

Sports research seeks to provide some principles that suggest “where” and “when” ball-throwing machines can be used more effectively for skill training in performance preparation.

The integration of sensing devices into sports equipment, such as tennis rackets, basketballs, and soccer balls, has great potential for performance measurement and feedback, for encouraging creative approaches to the game, and for increasing the motivation of athletes.

In the training of fighters, the striking force of the athletes was checked by using an Aqua Training Bag, struck by a pendulum with controlled weights from different heights. Thus, this training equipment was validated [95].

Interactive devices are real-time feedback systems. A basketball (94 Fifty) (TM), which contains an integrated sensor, can measure different trajectories, shooting speed, and the number of dribbles, using an application on a smartphone or tablet.

3.4. Ecological Dynamics and Sustainable Development of Sport

The development of sport must be seen in the context of sustainable development. In this sense, He, Chaohu, Huang, Zhenpeng, and Ye, Liaokun [96] analyzed the evaluation indicators of the sustainable development of sports in colleges and universities in China. The conclusion was that at least five types of evaluation indicators can be considered for the sustainable development of sport: science and technology, ethical education, institutional norms, economic and competitive development, external investment, and a coach training system that eliminates inbreeding.

The concept of ecological sports training is found, which considers the interactions with the counterpart and the virtual environment in a sports game. This type of training is developed with the help of biomechanical analysis, to determine muscle forces, and Virtual Reality (VR) technology, through which the athlete can retrieve and analyze the results of his own movements and evaluate interactions with the virtual counterpart.

There is a wealth of articles dealing with athlete nutrition, so studying more big data, properly shared, integrated with direct field measurements, and ecologically validated, with personalized referrals, may represent an avenue for the further development of sports nutrition [97].

An interesting article describes the biological structure of grape proanthocyanidin and analyzes the immune systems of volleyball players before and after the application of proanthocyanidin sports supplements. The study can be a good reference for many athletes who wish to use proanthocyanidin as a sports supplement [98].

Another concept circulated in many areas of life is that of ecological dynamics. There is research that suggests the use of ecological dynamics principles by sportspeople to manage training tasks. The learning design in the practice area can provide some principles by which ball-throwing machines should be used.

O3 Identify studies that address connections/correlations between the most important aspects of the sports training process and technology.

3.5. Number of Articles Published by Training Segment

Most studies (49) deal with sports performance monitoring. Thus, motor qualities are constantly analyzed by many sportsmen, specialists, and researchers (21 papers). The aim is to develop the general capabilities of the athlete or those specific to the practiced sport. With suitable training in this field, athletes who do not have special motor qualities can achieve performance that previously seemed unattainable. Speed monitoring is a goal in seven papers and force control in four papers. Physiological parameters are analyzed in nine papers. Knowledge of them and how they can be analyzed, controlled, and modified can lead to training that can be improved and made more efficient. Psychological monitoring is addressed in six articles, and biomechanical monitoring in three articles.

Training optimization is discussed in 28 papers. Of these, only one relates to sports prediction. This possibility of training optimization should be considered in further research, the idea being little analyzed. The improvement of the technique is considered in only two papers. We believe that more could be insisted on in this area, to arrive at optimization functions in training, which can be maximized or minimized, depending on the goal pursued. In 16 papers, training tasks are tracked and analyzed. The athlete’s performance in competitions is directly related to how the training tasks are managed. Loads that are too large or specific only to certain requests can lead the athlete to experience fatigue, muscle pain in certain areas, and a lack of motivation in training.

A great deal of attention is paid to aspects related to the health of athletes and recovery, and, above all, the avoidance and management of injuries (25 papers). For coaches, one extremely important aspect when building teams for competitions is to ensure that all the athletes are healthy (which is quite rare). Frequent injuries and those that remove the athlete from full or partial long-term activity can lead to a loss of form and performance for a long time or forever.

Notions such as ecological dynamics, ecological nutrition, and sustainable development are circulated. Everything can be analyzed in a context that considers the healthy diet of the athlete, adapted to his physiological characteristics and even mental state, in terms of the sustainable development of the environment and the sports phenomenon in which the athlete carries out his activity.

There are works that simultaneously deal with several aspects of sports training.

It is noted that wearable tracking technology and GPS are the most widely used systems in tracking athletes. They are presented in 35 papers in connection with the training segments where they are used, as follows:

• 14 papers deal with training optimization;
• 10 papers are concerned with athlete health, recovery, and injury management;
• 11 papers monitor the achievement of sports performance.

Thus, devices with global positioning technology were used to measure external loading (total distance, total high-speed running distance, athlete demand, maximum speed, maximum speed exposures), with most studies focusing on elite athletes as subjects of team games.

The distribution of the number of works identified according to the connection between the technology and the subject addressed is presented in Figure 2.

Some work links training loads to athlete health, recovery, and recovery and injury management.

Regarding the training means, equipment, and objects used, it can be concluded that they are diverse, using a different device in each work (with a few exceptions—inertial sensors, ball-throwing machines, accelerometers), depending on the endowments of each research, the respective sport, and the knowledge of the users. Inertial sensors were used for impact monitoring in three papers; ball-throwing machines in two works; accelerometers in six works, and the Catapult OptimEye device in two works. A variety of devices, systems, and training objects were each used in one paper: a head-mounted display system, a basketball (94 Fifty) (TM) containing an integrated sensor, an integrated wireless sensor node system, target luminous electronics, a water-filled training bag equipped with impact sensor (Aqua Training Bag 21), innovative biomarkers, a hardware attitude and direction tracking system (AHRS), the InFlow automatic urine analysis device, a Flexibility Trainer—an effective device to improve the mobility of the hip joint—the Bromsman device for bilateral eccentric strength training with overload (a linear position measuring device (LPM)), an isoinertial dynamometer (T-Force) and 3D accelerometer (Myotest), the VertiMax system for developing lower limb power, the POWERbreathe device (significant increases in all variables of performance), the Threshold device, synchronization gates and radar guns used as a reference system for average and peak speed, reference systems that allow instant dynamic position validation, such as motion capture systems based on infrared cameras, a laser optical device (FLEX) for quantifying the average concentric speed, and an optoelectronic training device.

Notably, few papers deal with ecological sports training, performance prediction, sports supplements, ecological dynamics and athlete care, psychological state monitoring, and constraint training. Of course, they were either included in other analyzed groups, categories, or directions, but they are areas of new openings that can be considered in the design and implementation of new training options.

Aspects related to digital techniques and technologies were also analyzed: digital technology is addressed in three studies and one study each addresses ML machine learning techniques, information technology, data fusion technology, data filtering and data analysis technologies, signals, tri-axial accelerometry technology, self-tracking technologies on smartphones, Metrifit health and sports technologies, and integrated technologies.

O4 Determining the frequency with which technological research is used in sports branches, the dynamics of the publication of articles referring to technology for the period 2007–2022, and the countries from which the authors with the most numerous articles related to technology in sports originate.

3.6. Determining the Frequency with Which Technological Research Is Used in Sports

In the 105 papers resulting from the data analysis and synthesis, 28 sports branches were identified. Of these, 13 are team sports, identified in 39 papers on baseball, football, women’s football, hockey, basketball, volleyball, handball, polo, rugby, women’s rugby, softball, Australian football, and American football. The most were in football, with 12, basketball with 9, and men’s rugby with 5. Individual sports amounted to 15, identified in 31 papers on wrestling, boxing, tennis, shooting, swimming, surfing, bowling, triathlons, cycling, fencing, athletics, golf, darts, martial arts, and gymnastics. The most were in athletics, with 6, swimming with 5, and tennis with 5. In the other works, the sports in which the analyses were performed were not specified (Figure 3).

Out of 28 sports branches present in the analyzed studies, 12 are outdoor sports (baseball, football, women’s football, rugby, women’s rugby, Australian football, American football, tennis, surfing, triathlon, cycling, and golf).

We note that among the works analyzed, most (12) were from a sport that takes place outdoors: football. Focusing on the presence of outdoor sports present in the analyzed works, we can say that, in relation to the other sports branches, many works were focused on athletics (6), men’s rugby (5), and tennis (5). Thus, we can conclude that researchers aimed more at in-depth studies that derive from the complexity given by the specific conditions/environment in which performance activity is carried out in these sports.

3.7. Dynamics of Publication of Articles Referring to Technology in Sports for the Period 2007–2022

The analyzed works are registered between July 2007 and July 2022 (15 years). Of these, 18 come from the period 2007–2016 and the remaining 87 from the period 2017–2022 (82.85%). In the last two and a half years (2020-July 2022), 52 papers can be found (49.52% of the total analyzed). Thus, this can be said to be a relevant period in the sense that modern technologies and devices can be included, as being used in a similar range (Figure 4).

3.8. Identifying the Countries from Which the Authors with the Most Articles Related to Technology in Sports Originate

Regarding the geographical distribution of the authors of the analyzed works, this is as follows: Great Britain—21 works; Australia—20 papers; USA—16 works; Spain—9 works; Canada—6 works; Italy and Portugal—5 papers; Germany, Holland, Ireland, Norway, and China—4 works; Croatia, Brazil, Japan, Austria, and France—3 papers; Russia, Sweden, Austria, Thailand, Denmark, South Africa, and Poland—2 papers; Saudi Arabia, Hungary, Korea, South Africa, Belgium, Egypt, New Zealand, Finland, Turkey, Luxembourg, Wales, Switzerland, Iceland, Qatar, Hong Kong, Greece, Chile—1 paper. Figure 3 shows the countries from which the authors with the most published articles on technology in sport originate.

4. Conclusions

It is clear that sport is increasingly marked by technology. It influences the lives of the athlete, the coach, and everyone involved in this phenomenon, with effects on performance that are greater than previously thought. This creates interesting and constantly changing directions for the development of the sport. The research hypotheses are confirmed, and the research objectives have been achieved. The technology and devices used in sports research encompass a variety of tools and working techniques. The study carried out led to the outline of an overview that includes a wide variety of technological systems used in sports, together with related methods, techniques, and devices.

The objectives of training and competitive activity were analyzed and identified. There were training protocols in which one type of technology was used, and others in which two or even more combined methods and techniques were used. In some studies, connections/correlations between technologies and the basic elements of the athlete’s training process have been addressed and analyzed.

As expected, the use of modern technology in high-performance sports research is global and a high percentage of published articles (82.85%) were published between 2017 and 2022. The frequency with which technological research was used in different sports branches and the dynamics of the publication of articles that used technology in the period 2007–2022 were analyzed.

The countries of origin of the authors with the most published articles referring to technology in sports were identified. The first three places are Great Britain—21 works; Australia—20 works; USA—16 papers.

The presented work can help to open up and develop new approaches in the use of technologies and devices in performance sports. Combined technologies can be used, assisted by general or specialized software, which researchers or coaches have not considered before. Creativity techniques can be used to discover other technologies and devices or to use existing ones in other sports, mainly heuristic sports (artistic gymnastics, rhythmic gymnastics, figure skating) and in other combinations and contexts. It must be understood by those who invest in sports that the presence of the specialists in proximity to the athlete and the coach is necessary. They can analyze the athlete’s biomechanics and physiological factors in real time and make decisive decisions to avoid injuries and increase performance.

Placing oneself “in the shoes of the athlete” can be a strategy to consider in programming the level and number of training tasks.

Theoretical and practical implications: Unitary research (in accredited research centers), at a European or even global level, in a uniform theoretical and practical framework, could lead to much more efficient training with large increases in performance. Of course, it is up to the coach and the specialists working with the athlete, and the specificity of some elements of the training, depending on the characteristics of each athlete.

Large clubs could become a factor in generating and disseminating knowledge related to training and competition monitoring, sports performance enhancement, and health, recovery, and injury management. Research directions for the use of technology in sports and the formation of connections with other fields can be extended.

Limitations of the article: The present research has some limitations that can serve as a foundation for future studies. These limitations stem from the fact that it is based on a quantitative analysis; thus, qualitative aspects are not considered. Similarly, the study focused exclusively on documents from the WOS database, and most of them can be found on different databases, such as Scopus or Google Academic. Searches can be extended by diversifying the search terms (modern technologies, sports software, etc.). It is possible that a larger number of articles would have led to slightly different results.

There are papers analyzed in which experimental approaches such as a double-blind randomized study, case–control study, observational study, and randomized controlled study are presented, along with surveys, questionnaires, and interviews (semi-structured interviews, questionnaires, online survey), which are taken from other fields of research. A more in-depth analysis of these can generate ideas related to future research possibilities and opportunities for use in certain sports training indicators.