1. Introduction
Mitigating climate warming by developing renewable and sustainable energy and environmental protection are considered key problems of future development [
1,
2]. Increasing the proportion of renewable energy, balancing fluctuations in the supply and demand of electrical energy, improving energy conversion efficiency, and developing new energy technologies are the directions of the future energy revolution [
3,
4,
5]. Popularizing electric vehicles has proved to be one of the effective means to solve the environmental problems caused by the automobile industry, such as pollution and the energy crisis. Precise estimation of the vehicle battery SOC (state of charge) and SOH (state of health) is vital to improve energy utilization, extend battery life, and ensure safe driving [
6]. Therefore, researchers have conducted numerous studies to develop a safe and reliable SOC estimation method. Many methods mentioned in previous studies, for instance, open circuit voltage, Coulomb counting, model-based methods, and machine learning, have already been widely used for battery SOC estimation [
7].
Accurate battery models are essential to study the effect of a battery’s internal parameters on its performance. Currently, commonly used battery models are the electrical ECM (equivalent circuit model), the electrochemical impedance model, the empirical model, and the data-driven model [
8]. In addition, fractional-order calculus has been applied to overcome the drawbacks of the IOM (integer-order model) of batteries [
9]. Wang et al. proposed a fractional-order model (FOM) of a hybrid power source system and used particle swarm optimization for parameter identification. The experimental results showed a high accuracy of FOM, with an average absolute error of less than 20 mV, and a mean relative error of less than 0.5% [
9]. Ruan et al. introduced a multi-timescale FOM and validated it with experimental data. From the results, it could also be seen that the model possesses good adaptability and high accuracy, with a maximum relative error of less than 0.86% [
10]. Zhang et al. established an ECM system based on a fractional variable-order model and used experimental data for model verification. The results indicated that the MAE (mean absolute error) and RMSE (root mean square error) of the proposed model are lower than those with the IOM and the fractional constant-order model [
11]. Eddine et al. presented a fractional model for impedance physical parameters estimation [
12]. Sánchez et al. constructed a model with fractional-order dynamics for the health assessment of lithium iron phosphate. The results showed that the health state estimation generated by fractional-order networks is always better than that of statistical and fuzzy models [
13]. Zou et al. reviewed a FOM applied to electrochemical energy storage and investigated its computational efficiency and accuracy. It can be seen from the result that, compared to an IOM, the accuracy of the FOM was 15–30% higher [
14]. Hidalgo-Reyes et al. proposed an EKF (extended Kalman filter) with Mittag–Leffler memory based on FOM for SOC estimation. The results indicated the high precision and robustness of the proposed algorithm for SOC estimation [
15].
The observability of the battery model is necessary for parameter identification and state estimation. Meng et al. [
16] conducted an observability analysis of an extended ECM and validated the effectiveness of the results by numerical simulation. Fotouhi et al. [
17] proposed a framework to estimate SOC using the identified parameters and assessed the framework by performing an observability analysis. The results showed that the mean error of the SOC was approximately 4%. Rausch et al. [
18] investigated the nonlinear observability and identifiability of battery packs. Zhao et al. [
19] conducted an observability analysis of an ECM and estimated the SOC of batteries in the presence of sensor biases. Experimental results showed that it is very important to consider the nonlinearity of the model in the estimation algorithm, which highlights the importance of observability analysis in state estimation. Fotouhi et al. [
20] investigated parameter identification of ECM and carried out a SOC observability analysis to determine the influence of temperature on performance.
Data-driven SOC estimation methods are developed by analyzing a large amount of data. Ahmed et al. proposed an approach of scaling the EKF for SOC estimation and validated it with experimental data at different temperatures. The results showed a 90% reduction from 10% to 1% in the maximum error of SOC estimation by using the proposed scaling method [
21]. Sun et al. presented an adaptive EKF for SOC estimation. The results showed that there is an enhancement in the accuracy of SOC estimation [
22]. Wang et al. developed a model framework of a battery, with an unscented particle filter method for SOC estimation, and validated the framework using experimental data at different temperatures under different dynamic driving cycles. The results demonstrated that the proposed method has the properties of fast convergence speed and high accuracy [
23]. Knap et al. used an unscented Kalman filter (UKF) with online parameter identification for SOC estimation. The results showed the high accuracy of the method with a SOC estimation RMSE of 0.53% [
24]. Zhu et al. developed a co-estimation method for parameter identification and SOC estimation. The results indicated an MAE of less than 1.2% for SOC estimation [
25]. Sun et al. constructed an ECM-based joint SOC estimation method and verified it with experimental data under dynamic driving cycles. The results confirmed that there is a significant improvement in the accuracy of SOC estimation with the utilization of the proposed approach [
26]. Xue et al. built a state-space model and demonstrated an integrated algorithm to describe the degradation and assess the RUL (remaining useful life) of a lithium-ion battery. The results indicated that the proposed method can achieve precise prediction of RUL [
27]. Křivík et al. introduced a SOC estimation method for lead-acid batteries through electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. The results verified that higher accuracy of SOC estimation can be achieved by combining the open circuit voltage, the measured phase angle, and the Z-modulus [
28]. Ling et al. developed a SOC estimation method based on the probabilistic fusion of an adaptive high-degree cubature Kalman filter and an adaptive cubature Kalman filter to enhance SOC estimation accuracy. The results show that the accuracy can be improved through the proposed approach [
29]. Girade et al. introduced an adaptive version of the equivalent consumption minimization strategy with a reference based on the SOC to keep the most efficient hybrid operation during the charge and discharge cycles. The results indicated that the average fuel economy was improved by 5% compared to the baseline strategy [
30].
The development trend of battery SOC estimation technology is toward the use of a mixture of estimation methods, which requires a trade-off between accuracy and robustness, ease of implementation, low complexity, and small calculation overburden [
31]. Loukil et al. presented a hybrid SOC method that combined an offline method and an online algorithm, and the results demonstrated the validity of this hybrid approach [
31]. Ragone et al. presented a multiphysics model to generate data for SOC estimation with different machine-learning methods [
32]. Ee et al. proposed a SOC estimation approach using a deep neural network with a nonelectrical model. The results showed that the SOC estimation model on the basis of nonelectrical parameters has better estimation performance [
33]. Sandoval-Chileño et al. constructed a SOC estimation method using extended state observers and validated it with data obtained by experiments. The results showed that the proposed approach has high robustness and performance [
34]. Ceraolo et al. used the Luenberger state estimator for the estimation of SOC and conducted a sensitivity analysis of the effect of measurement error on SOC estimation [
35]. Li et al. proposed a novel estimating algorithm for SOC and SOH and validated it through experimental data [
36].
Multi-innovation (MI) is a method to predict the error information collected from an iterative algorithm to enhance the accuracy of posterior correction. Compared with a single innovation, MI can improve error correction. Although the amount of calculation increases slightly with MI, the calculation results are acceptable considering the improvement in estimating accuracy [
37]. Li et al. introduced statistical information on the innovation sequence for model uncertainty identification, and, at the same time, proposed a combination algorithm to estimate SOC. The results indicated a good estimation performance of the proposed algorithm, which possesses better precision, robustness, and convergence [
37]. Liu et al. developed an MI Kalman filter methodology for SOC estimation. From the experimental results, significantly enhanced accuracy and anti-interference ability of SOC estimation are achieved through the approach [
38]. Ding et al. presented an MI gradient algorithm that can improve the convergence rate and the effectiveness was verified through simulation [
39]. Sassi et al. presented an MI theory-based UKF for SOC estimation accuracy enhancement. The results indicated that the MIUKF (multi-innovation unscented Kalman filter) is robust under different operating scenarios [
40]. Cui et al. built a state-space model of a battery and presented a MIUKF for SOC estimation. Experimental results indicated the validity of the proposed estimating algorithm through different dynamic tests [
41].
The SOC and SOH algorithms are interdependent because they are coupled. The design of a collaborative SOC–SOH estimation algorithm is the basis for obtaining accurate SOC estimation under complex and variable real-world vehicle conditions. Liu et al. proposed a joint SOC and SOH estimation method based on a pseudo-2D model. The maximum SOH estimation error shown from the results was approximately 2.8%, and the SOC estimation error was lower than 2% [
42]. Song et al. presented a joint estimating method with a least-squares support vector machine, along with a model-based unscented particle filter for SOH and SOC. The results indicated that the maximum estimating error of SOC and the RMSE of SOH estimation are reduced to less than 2% and 4%, respectively [
43]. Xiong et al. developed a multistage model fusion algorithm that realized a joint estimation of SOC and capacity and verified it with a hardware-in-the-loop platform at different temperatures. The results indicated that high accuracy of SOC and capacity estimation can be achieved; furthermore, the relative errors in the SOC and capacity are less than 2% and 3.3%, respectively [
44]. Zhang et al. introduced a joint estimating approach to assess the battery state of energy. The proposed approach was verified by experimental results using Federal Urban Driving Schedule tests. the results showed that the joint estimating method possessed good robustness and high accuracy [
45]. Li et al. proposed a multistate joint estimation of a lithium-ion hybrid capacitor under a wide range of temperatures. The proposed method was validated under different dynamic driving cycles. It can be found from the result that the RMSE of the SOC, state of energy, and remaining useful energy estimation are 2.1%, 2.3%, and 0.9 W·h, respectively [
46]. Li et al. presented a prognostic framework with a variant long short-term memory neural network to estimate the SOH and RUL. The results showed that the average root mean square error and conjunct error in the SOH and RUL were 0.0216 and 0.0831, respectively [
47]. Cui et al. developed a coupling-loop nonlinear autoregressive algorithm, and an exogenous input neural network estimation model was utilized to estimate the SOH. The results indicated that the reductions in the absolute error, relative error, and the mean square error in SOH estimation were more than 50%, 50%, and 80%, respectively [
48]. Yang et al. presented a novel fractional impedance model and a backpropagation neural network for the estimation of a lithium-ion battery SOH. The calculated error margin of SOH from the results was [−1.5%, 1.5%] [
49]. Propp et al. utilized a dual extended Kalman filter for SOC estimation optimization. The results showed that the proposed approach had high precision and good convergence [
50]. Meng et al. [
51] proposed a cascaded framework for parameter and state estimation and validated the effectiveness of the proposed framework by numerical simulations. Park et al. [
52] proposed an integrated model using a dual extended Kalman filter to estimate SOC and SOH. The results indicated that the mean absolute percentage errors of SOH/SOC were 0.5183% and 1.45%, respectively. Lai et al. [
53] proposed a joint SOC/SOH estimation method considering the effect of aging and temperature. The results showed that the proposed method could enhance the precision of SOC/SOH estimation, and their errors were less than 2%. Xu et al. [
54] proposed a method of using a dual particle filter to jointly estimate SOC and SOH and validated the proposed method using experimental data. The results showed that the proposed algorithm had high precision and robustness with a mean absolute error of less than 1.3%.
The IOM is not suitable for the accurate presentation of the dynamic process of the batteries, and the order will affect the model’s precision. The accuracy of a low-order model is low, but the amount of calculation is also small, whereas the accuracy of a high-order model is high, but the amount of calculation is large. The model cannot be extremely complex because presenting the dynamic characteristics clearly using the model is necessary. Hence, in the present study, a FOM of a battery is established. This model solves the trade-off between complexity and accuracy, realizes accurate battery modeling, and lays a foundation for SOC estimation. MI is a method used to predict the error information that accumulates from the iterative algorithm and make a posteriori correction more accurate. The use of only one innovation in predicting the error leads to the loss of a posteriori measurement correction information, which may cause a loss of precision. Therefore, the combination of MI and Kalman filter is helpful to enhance the accuracy of the algorithm. Although the use of the MI method increases the amount of calculation, the improvement in estimation accuracy is more important, and a slight increase in calculation cost is acceptable. A FOM on the basis of a second-order ECM can more truly simulate the polarization effect, as well as the charge/discharge characteristics of the battery. The model accuracy and calculation complexity of the ECM are important, and, therefore, the AGA (adaptive genetic algorithm) is used for the identification of parameters. Considering that Kalman filter estimation causes error accumulation over time, the fractional-order MIUKF is used for SOC estimation. The comparative study of an integer-order Kalman filter algorithm and a fractional-order MIUKF (FOMIUKF) algorithm shows that the FOMIUKF has higher accuracy. A multi-timescale-based co-estimation algorithm of SOC and SOH is established to improve the accuracy of SOC estimation and reduce the amount of computation. The FOMIUKF algorithm is used for the estimation of SOC, while the UKF algorithm is used for the estimation of the SOH, to form a joint estimation (FOMIUKF + UKF) algorithm. Finally, under different dynamic conditions (Federal Test Procedure [FTP75], Japan, New European Driving Cycle [NEDC], and World Harmonized Light-duty Vehicle Test Cycle [WLTC]), the performance of the proposed joint estimation algorithm is compared to that of Kalman algorithms mentioned in previous studies.