Can After-School Tutoring Sustainably Empower Preschoolers’ Development? —A Longitudinal Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Literature Review
2.1. After-School Tutoring and Children’s Academic Development
2.2. After-School Tutoring for Preschool Children and Their Learning and Development
2.3. The Current Study
- What are the factors that influence preschool children’s participation in after-school tutoring?
- Does after-school tutoring in the early years have an immediate and lasting impact on children’s learning and development?
3. Methods
3.1. Participants
3.2. Measures
3.2.1. East Asia-Pacific Early Child Development Scales
3.2.2. Questionnaire on Preschool Children’s Participation in After-School Tutoring
3.3. Data Analysis
4. Results
4.1. Factors Influencing Children’s Participation in After-School Tutoring
4.2. Balance Test
4.3. Estimation Results of PSM Model Based on Baseline Data
4.4. Longitudinal Impact of the Participation in After-School Tutoring on Children’s Learning and Development
5. Discussion
5.1. Gender, Age, and Family Socioeconomic Status Are Important Factors That Affect Preschool Children’s Participation in After-School Tutoring
5.2. Participation in After-School Tutoring Has No Significant Immediate Effect on Children’s Learning and Development
5.3. Participation in After-School Tutoring Has Limited Lasting Effect on Children’s Learning and Development
6. Conclusions, Implication and Limitations
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Baseline Samples | Follow-Up Samples | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Location of the Preschool (Number of Preschools) | Classrooms (Number) | Boy | Girl | Total | Boy | Girl | Total |
Cities (7) | 3- to -4-year-old (7) | 36 | 32 | 68 | 27 | 25 | 52 |
4- to -5-year-old (7) | 33 | 33 | 66 | 23 | 27 | 50 | |
5- to -6-year-old (7) | 42 | 43 | 85 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
Counties (8) | 3- to -4-year-old (8) | 69 | 73 | 142 | 61 | 63 | 124 |
4- to -5-year-old (8) | 62 | 60 | 122 | 52 | 50 | 102 | |
5- to -6-year-old (8) | 61 | 57 | 118 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
Villages and small towns (2) | 3- to -4-year-old (2) | 14 | 12 | 26 | 14 | 10 | 24 |
4- to -5-year-old (2) | 11 | 6 | 17 | 9 | 6 | 15 | |
5- to -6-year-old (2) | 13 | 7 | 20 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
Total (17) | 51 | 337 | 327 | 664 | 186 | 181 | 367 |
Variable | Description and Coding | |
---|---|---|
Participation in after-school tutoring | 0 = No, 1 = Yes | |
EAP-ECDS | Cognitive development | Fetching objects by number, counting, addition and subtraction of numbers, short-term memory, card sorting, standard sorting, and recognizing graphics. (Score each item with 0, 1, and 2 and take the sum. Continuous variable. Same below.) |
Socio-emotional development | Polite behavior toward adults, seeking help from adults, taking perspectives, interacting positively with peers, recognizing emotions and resolving conflicts | |
Motor development | Walking in balance, drinking water and eating independently, walking while carrying something, and catching a ball. | |
Language and emergent literacy | Verbal expression (telling a story, and describing events/experiences), and pre-reading (recognizing words, drawing pictures according to templates, writing radicals independently, drawing graphics independently without referring to a template) | |
Health, hygiene, and safety | Personal hygiene, safety behavior, human body knowledge, and hygiene behavior | |
Cultural knowledge and participation | Cultural knowledge, participation in religious and spiritual or national activities, singing, clapping hands to form a rhythm. | |
Approaches to learning | Self-control, persistence, curiosity and exploration | |
Control variable | Gender | 0 = Girl, 1 = Boy |
Age group | 1 = 3- to 4-year-old classrooms, 2 = 4- to 5-year-old classrooms, 3 = 5- to 6-year-old classrooms | |
Family socioeconomic status | Educational background: 1 = junior high school or below, 2 = high school, higher vocational school, technical secondary school, 3 = college or above Occupation: 1 = Agricultural workers, temporary workers and others; 2 = Commercial service personnel, industrial workers, individually owned businesses, and soldiers; 3 = Civil servants, enterprise management, technicians, managers and private business owners Annual household income: 1 = below 60,000, 2 = 60,000 to 120,000, 3 = more than 120,000 SES = highest educational of parents + best-paid occupation of parents + total annual family income | |
Daily reading time spent with kids | 1 = Basically No, 2 = 1 to 10 min, 3 = 11 to 30 min, 4 = 31 to 60 min, 5 = Over 1 h | |
Daily play time spent with kids | 1 = Basically No, 2 = 1 to 10 min, 3 = 11 to 30 min, 4 = 31 to 60 min, 5 = Over 1 h | |
Location of the preschool | 1 = Villages and small towns, 2 = Counties (under the jurisdiction of municipality), 3 = Cities (municipality directly under the jurisdiction of the Central Government) | |
Lead teacher’s bianzhi | Teacher’s bianzhi is a structural variable unique to the Chinese sociocultural and education system, having bianzhi means “teachers are within the public servant system of the government and have tenured positions in government-sponsored public preschools” [52] (p. 154). 0 = No, 1 = Yes | |
Lead teacher’s professional title | Teacher’s professional title is also a structural variable unique to the Chinese sociocultural and education system, which means that “teacher has achieved a certain level in the tiered professional rankings and has successfully met the relevant evaluation criteria” [52] (p.154). 1 = None, 2 = Level 3 teacher, 3 = Level 2 teacher, 4 = Level 1 teacher, 5 = Senior teacher, 6 = Middle school senior teacher | |
Lead teacher’s honor | 1 = None, 2 = Backbone teacher of the preschool, 3 = District or county-level backbone teacher, 4 = City or state-level backbone teacher, 5 = Provincial or municipal-level backbone teachers |
Variable | Participation in After-School Tutoring |
---|---|
Gender | −0.724 *** (0.219) |
Age | −0.739 *** (0.137) |
Family socioeconomic status | 0.263 *** (0.081) |
Daily reading time spent with kids | 0.235 (0.189) |
Daily play time spent with kids | −0.117 (0.142) |
Location of the preschool | −0.117 (0.233) |
Lead teacher’s bianzhi | 0.454 (0.366) |
Lead teacher’s professional title | −0.033 (0.136) |
Lead teacher’s honor | −0.104 (0.103) |
Intercept | 1.411 ** (0.659) |
Matching | Treated Group | Untreated Group | Reduction of Standard Errors(%) | Absolute Value of Reduction | t Value | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Gender | Before | 0.458 | 0.615 | −31.9 | 70.2 | −3.17 *** |
After | 0.535 | 0.582 | −9.5 | −1.09 | ||
Age | Before | 1.820 | 2.314 | −61.9 | 95.5 | −6.12 *** |
After | 1.981 | 1.958 | 2.8 | 0.32 | ||
Family socioeconomic status | Before | 5.488 | 4.832 | 40.6 | 96.3 | 4.01 *** |
After | 5.134 | 5.159 | −1.5 | −0.18 | ||
Daily reading time spent with kids | Before | 2.856 | 2.671 | 26.5 | 92.9 | 2.62 *** |
After | 2.782 | 2.769 | 1.9 | 0.22 | ||
Daily play time spent with kids | Before | 2.907 | 2.853 | 5.8 | 72.3 | 0.57 |
After | 2.883 | 2.868 | 1.6 | 0.19 | ||
Location of the preschool | Before | 2.293 | 2.209 | 21.4 | 88.1 | 2.11 ** |
After | 2.194 | 3.852 | −2.6 | −0.30 | ||
Lead teacher’s bianzhi | Before | 0.553 | 0.440 | 22.8 | 88.4 | 2.28 ** |
After | 0.501 | 0.514 | −2.6 | −0.30 | ||
Lead teacher’s professional title | Before | 2.473 | 2.251 | 15.7 | 90.7 | 1.56 |
After | 2.333 | 2.312 | 1.5 | 0.17 | ||
Lead teacher’s honor | Before | 1.820 | 1.993 | −15.1 | 59.9 | −1.54 |
After | 1.902 | 1.833 | 6.1 | 0.73 |
Interest-Oriented Class | CD | SED | MD | LEL | HYS | CKP | AT | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Baseline data | Neighbor matching | ATT | −0.027 | −0.048 | −0.154 | 0.060 | −0.020 | −0.237 * | −0.150 |
T Value | −0.22 | −0.37 | −1.18 | 0.49 | −0.15 | −1.99 | −1.15 | ||
Radius matching | ATT | 0.056 | 0.012 | −0.057 | 0.091 | −0.012 | −0.169 | −0.086 | |
T Value | 0.49 | 0.11 | −0.49 | 0.81 | −0.10 | −1.55 | −0.74 | ||
Kernel matching | ATT | 0.048 | 0.009 | −0.064 | 0.087 | −0.016 | −0.175 | −0.083 | |
T Value | 0.42 | 0.08 | −0.55 | 0.77 | −0.13 | −1.60 | −0.72 | ||
Follow-up data | Neighbor matching | ATT | 0.003 | 0.099 | 0.013 | 0.145 | 0.027 | −0.019 | 0.152 |
T Value | 0.03 | 0.70 | 0.09 | 1.98 * | 0.22 | −0.13 | 0.89 | ||
Radius matching | ATT | 0.071 | 0.135 | −0.010 | 0.240 ** | 0.083 | 0.004 | 0.385 | |
T Value | 0.58 | 1.13 | −0.09 | 1.94 | 0.80 | 0.04 | 2.67 | ||
Kernel matching | ATT | 0.072 | 0.133 | −0.006 | 0.233 ** | 0.082 | 0.006 | 0.378 | |
T Value | 0.59 | 1.11 | −0.05 | 1.88 | 0.79 | 0.05 | 2.62 |
Interest-Oriented Class | CD | SED | MD | LEL | HYS | CKP | AT | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Baseline data of children in 3- to 4-year-old classrooms | Neighbor matching | ATT | 0.285 * | 0.301 | 0.080 | 0.037 | 0.093 | 0.021 | 0.001 |
t value | 1.72 | 1.61 | 0.37 | 0.26 | 0.36 | 0.11 | 0.01 | ||
Radius matching | ATT | 0.250 | 0.320 * | 0.082 | 0.057 | −0.021 | −0.019 | 0.001 | |
t value | 1.61 | 1.77 | 0.42 | 0.41 | −0.09 | −0.11 | 0.01 | ||
Kernel matching | ATT | 0.244 | 0.301 * | 0.068 | 0.038 | −0.039 | −0.030 | −0.016 | |
t value | 1.57 | 1.66 | 0.35 | 0.28 | −0.16 | −0.18 | −0.07 | ||
Follow-up data of children entering 4- to 5-year-old classrooms | Neighbor matching | ATT | 0.043 | 0.401 ** | 0.111 | 0.432 ** | 0.266 | 0.288 | 0.483 ** |
t value | 0.13 | 2.15 | 0.60 | 2.19 | 1.33 | 1.35 | 1.98 | ||
Radius matching | ATT | −0.009 | 0.379 ** | 0.046 | 0.375 ** | 0.306 * | 0.291 | 0.621 ** | |
t value | −0.06 | 2.24 | 0.28 | 2.15 | 1.78 | 1.51 | 2.74 | ||
Kernel matching | ATT | −0.007 | 0.365 ** | 0.059 | 0.369 ** | 0.298 * | 0.283 | 0.602 *** | |
t value | −0.05 | 2.15 | 0.36 | 2.11 | 1.73 | 1.46 | 2.65 | ||
Baseline data of children in 4- to 5-year-old classrooms | Neighbor matching | ATT | −0.089 | −0.104 | −0.175 | −0.272 | −0.209 | −0.206 | −0.097 |
t value | −0.57 | −0.43 | −0.86 | −1.39 | −1.13 | −0.90 | −0.58 | ||
Radius matching | ATT | −0.107 | −0.022 | −0.127 | −0.264 | −0.155 | −0.230 | 0.035 | |
t value | −0.75 | −0.11 | −0.70 | −1.57 | −0.99 | −1.23 | 0.23 | ||
Kernel matching | ATT | −0.108 | −0.027 | −0.136 | −0.267 | −0.168 | −0.223 | 0.026 | |
t value | −0.76 | −0.13 | −0.75 | −1.59 | −1.07 | −1.20 | 0.17 | ||
Follow-up data of children entering 5- to 6-year-old classrooms | Neighbor matching | ATT | −0.033 | −0.234 | −0.158 | −0.005 | −0.198 * | −0.252 | −0.020 |
t value | −0.19 | −1.24 | −0.70 | −0.05 | −1.92 | −1.55 | −0.11 | ||
Radius matching | ATT | 0.027 | −0.215 | −0.212 | 0.043 | −0.133 | −0.208 | 0.047 | |
t value | 0.18 | −1.30 | −1.04 | 0.34 | −1.35 | −1.46 | 0.28 | ||
Kernel matching | ATT | 0.017 | −0.214 | −0.216 | 0.054 | −0.135 | −0.211 | 0.057 | |
t value | 0.11 | −1.29 | −1.06 | 0.43 | −1.36 | −1.48 | 0.33 | ||
Baseline data of children in 5- to 6-year-old classrooms | Neighbor matching | ATT | −0.038 | −0.211 | −0.256 | 0.048 | −0.115 | −0.366 * | −0.156 |
t value | −0.19 | −0.89 | −1.18 | 0.27 | −0.48 | −1.71 | −0.63 | ||
Radius matching | ATT | −0.074 | −0.227 | −0.210 | 0.087 | −0.127 | −0.289 | −0.227 | |
t value | −0.41 | −1.06 | −1.07 | 0.55 | −0.58 | −1.47 | −1.01 | ||
Kernel matching | ATT | −0.064 | −0.204 | −0.203 | 0.096 | −0.106 | −0.275 | −0.236 | |
t value | −0.36 | −0.96 | −1.04 | 0.59 | −0.49 | −1.42 | −1.06 |
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Shi, J.; Xue, H.; Fang, C.; Luo, L. Can After-School Tutoring Sustainably Empower Preschoolers’ Development? —A Longitudinal Study. Sustainability 2022, 14, 10144. https://doi.org/10.3390/su141610144
Shi J, Xue H, Fang C, Luo L. Can After-School Tutoring Sustainably Empower Preschoolers’ Development? —A Longitudinal Study. Sustainability. 2022; 14(16):10144. https://doi.org/10.3390/su141610144
Chicago/Turabian StyleShi, Jin, Haiping Xue, Chenchen Fang, and Li Luo. 2022. "Can After-School Tutoring Sustainably Empower Preschoolers’ Development? —A Longitudinal Study" Sustainability 14, no. 16: 10144. https://doi.org/10.3390/su141610144
APA StyleShi, J., Xue, H., Fang, C., & Luo, L. (2022). Can After-School Tutoring Sustainably Empower Preschoolers’ Development? —A Longitudinal Study. Sustainability, 14(16), 10144. https://doi.org/10.3390/su141610144