Relevant Variables in the Stimulation of Psychological Well-Being in Physical Education: A Systematic Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Search Strategy
- P = child, children, boys, girls, adolescents;
- I = physical education;
- C = no comparison group was added to the search;
- O = psychological well-being, eudaemonic well-being.
2.2. Selection Criteria
- Studies involving a specific population with any type of physical, cognitive or psychological impairment;
- Articles not providing primary data (non-interventions) because they do not ensure methodological and statistical rigor (reviews, conceptual articles, conference proceedings, editorials, doctoral theses, books, opinion articles, etc.);
- Instrument validations.
2.3. Data Extraction and Reliability
3. Results
3.1. Overview of Studies
3.2. Employed Grade Levels Selected
3.3. Focus of the Studies and Context
3.4. Types of Associated Variables
3.5. Definition of PW
3.6. Research Results
3.6.1. Psychological Well-Being (PW)
3.6.2. Results Related to BPN
3.6.3. Academic Performance
3.6.4. Specific Programs
3.6.5. Environment in PE Classes
3.6.6. Exercise/PA
4. Discussion and Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Authors | Construct |
---|---|
Ryff and Singer [39,40] | Self-acceptance |
Positive relationships with others | |
Personal growth | |
Purpose in life | |
Environmental mastery | |
Autonomy | |
Ryan and Deci [41,42] | Competence |
Autonomy | |
Relationships | |
Warr [43] | Positive self-evaluation |
Growth | |
Learn through new experiences | |
Realistic freedom from constraints | |
Some degree of personal success in valued pursuits | |
Bauer, McAdams and Pals [44] | Pleasure |
Sense of meaning | |
Higher degrees of psychosocial integration | |
Personal growth | |
Meaningful relationships | |
Personal narratives and life stories involve growth and development | |
Wissing and van Eeden [32] | Affect |
Cognition | |
Behavior | |
Self-concept | |
Interpersonal relationships | |
No mental issues | |
Bar-On [45] | Self-regard |
Independence | |
Problem solving | |
Assertiveness | |
Stress tolerance | |
Self-actualization | |
Happiness | |
Reality-testing | |
Interpersonal relationship | |
Flexibility | |
Social responsibility |
Study | Journal | Objectives | Population/ Sample Size | Instruments Used to Assess Well-Being | Results |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. Bagøien et al. [56] | Perceptual and Motor Skills | Test a trans-contextual model based on the self-determination theory of the relations among motivation in PE, motivation in leisure-time PA, PA and PW. | = 16.5) n = 329 | Support for perceived autonomy: Physical Education Climate Questionnaire (PECQ); BPN Satisfaction: Basic Psychological Need Scale—General; Autonomous Motivation: Self-Regulation Questionnaire; PA in leisure time and effort: ad hoc questionnaire. | There is an association between teacher support for autonomy in PE classes and student BPN satisfaction, which is related to autonomous motivation for participation in PE. Autonomous motivation is positively related to perceived competence and autonomous motivation during free time, which is also related to PW in general. |
2. Barth et al. [57] | Mental Health and PA | Describe the association among PA, mental health and academic achievement in adolescents. | = 13.3) n = 1001 (402♂ 599 ♀) | Accelerometer, grade point average. The Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-being scale (WEMWBS) Harter’s Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents (SPPA) and Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). The Family Affluence Scale (FAS) and academic achievement. | PA is positively associated with mental well- being, perceived competence and social acceptance. There is no association with self-esteem. No relations were found between PA and academic performance, but an association appeared between PA and performance in PE for women. |
3. Berman et al. [58] | Plos One | Provide self-report standards for children and parents for the KIDSCREEN-27 in Swedish children aged 11–16 years. | Children 11-16 years n = 1200 and one of their parents n = 600 | Children and adolescents’ quality of life (KIDSCREEN-27). Parental QoL (WHOQOL-Bref. and Sociodemographic factors. | The Swedish children in this sample score lower for PW (48.8 SE/49.94 EU), but higher for the other KIDSCREEN-27 dimensions: PW (53.4/49.77), Parent relations and autonomy (55.1/49.99), social support and peers (54.1/49.94) and school (55.8/50.01). Older children self-report lower well-being than younger children. No significant self-reported gender differences occur, and parent ratings show no gender or age differences. |
4. Chu et al. [59] | Journal of Teaching in Physical Education | Explore the predictive strengths and relative importance of BPN in PE in physical, cognitive and psychological outcomes in Hispanic boys and girls. | 4th and 5th grade children n = 214 (110♂ 104 ♀) | Demographic information. BPNs: autonomy (Standage scale, Duda, Ntoumanis 2005); competence (Intrinsic Motivation Inventory); relations (Acceptance subscale of Need for Relatedness Scale); cardiorespiratory health (PACER TEST); effort (Effort Scale of Intrinsic Motivation Scale); body composition (Health-O-Meter 500KL Digital Scale). | Competence as a predictor of effort and well-being in children. Social relationships only predict well-being in boys, and well-being and effort in girls. Autonomy does not predict any improvement. |
5. Cronin et al. [60] | PE and Sport Pedagogy | Explore the relationship between the teaching climate and students’ perceived development of LS in PE and their PW. | SE and young adults 11–18 years n = 294 (204 ♂ 90 ♀) | Support for autonomy: Sport Climate Questionnaire; LS development: Life Skill Scale. | Students perceive improvements in LS through PE: teamwork, goal setting, time management, emotional skills, interpersonal communication, social skills, leadership, and problem-solving and decision-making. Support for teacher autonomy is positively related to the perception of LS development in PE and its PW. |
6. Earl et al. [61] | Psychology in Schools | Identify satisfaction profiles of psychological needs (PN) and in grades in classroom performance, and self-reported well-being results. | SE students 11–15 years n = 586 (387♂ 199 ♀) | Autonomy satisfaction; competence: Perceived Competence subscale of the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory; relationships: Acceptance Subscale of Need for Relatedness Scale); teacher achievement; Subjective Vitality Scale; Perceived Stress Scale; Positive and Negative Affect Schedule. | Five profiles appear; four profiles indicate a synergy among three needs, showing similar in-group levels of satisfaction across needs, but in varying amounts. The findings illustrate that the three psychological needs may operate interdependently and should be considered together rather than isolated. |
7. Erturan-Ilker [62] | Educational Psychology in Practice | Examine the relationships among BPN, motivational regulations, self-esteem, subjective vitality and social physical anxiety in PE. | SE students 14–19 years n = 1082 (539♂ 543 ♀) | PN: Need Satisfaction Scale; motivation: Situational Regulation Scale. | Students’ motivational regulations mediate the relation between BPN and PW. Intrinsic motivation negatively predicts social physique anxiety and positively predicts subjective vitality. Amotivation positively predicts social physique anxiety and negatively predicts subjective vitality. The identified regulation and external regulation positively predicts subjective vitality. |
8. Fierro-Suero et al. [63] | Revista Electrónica Interuniversitaria de Formación del Profesorado | Analyze the relationship among BPN, motivation, emotional intelligence, life satisfaction and academic performance in PE classes. | SE students 11–17 years n = 343 (161 ♂ 182 ♀) | BPN: BPN Measurement Scale; perceived locus of causality: Perceived Locus Scale of Causality in PE PLOC; emotional intelligence: Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire EQI: Young Version and the Life Satisfaction Scale. | The results show positive correlations among PNs, the most self-determined types of motivation, emotional intelligence and possible consequences, such as academic performance or life satisfaction. Demotivation is associated with lower levels in the study variables along the Self-Determination Theory lines. LBBs act as predictors of the most self-determined types of motivation and emotional intelligence. |
9. García et al. [64] | PeerJ | Investigate whether self-regulation, well-being and exercise behavior influence the academic performance of Swedish SE students. | Secondary Students ( = 17.7 years). n = 160 (111 ♂ 49 ♀) | Self-regulation: Regulatory Mode Questionnaire; subjective well-being: Positive and Negative Affect Schedule, Satisfaction with Life Scale; exercise behavior: 2 items to measure frequency of exercise practice; academic achievement: grades in mathematics, English and PE. | Academic achievement is positively related to assessment, well-being and frequent/intensive exercise behavior. Assessment is, however, negatively related to well-being. Locomotion is positively associated with well-being and also with exercise behavior. |
10. Garn et al. [65] | International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology | Test a BPN model of physical self-concept in SE teenagers. | High school students n = 1022 Mage = 16.13 (511♀ 490 ♂) | Autonomy support: Sport Climate Questionnaire; BPN Basic Need Satisfaction at Work Scale. | Need satisfaction fully mediates autonomy support and physical self-concept and autonomy support and global self-esteem. Physical self-concept is a partial mediator in the relationship between overall need satisfaction and global self-esteem. |
11. González et al. [66] | Journal of Sport Psychology | Establish relationships between educational styles on content transmission in PE classes and the PW perceived by students in PE. | Students 11–14 years n = 150 (64 ♂ 86 ♀) and PE teachers n = 15 | Educational styles: Styles Questionnaire Educational Profiles (PEE); the Spanish version of Ryff’s Scale of Psychological Well-Being. | The data analysis suggests a positive correspondence between the indices of psychological well-being perceived by students with the way in which their PE teachers teach this subject. |
12. Ha et al. [67] | BMC Public Health | Examine the effects of the intervention on students’ MVPA (moderate-to-vigorous physical activity) during PE. | = 14 n = 773 | AFMV: accelerometer; need for teacher support: The Learning Climate Questionnaire; BPN: Basic Need Satisfaction in Sport Scale; AF autonomous motivation: Perceive Locus Causality Questionnaire; future intention of sports practice: 2 items; health-related physical condition: Hong Kong School Physical Fitness Award Scheme; interviews and focus group. | The SELF-FIT intervention was designed to improve students’ health and well-being by using high-intensity activities in classes given by teachers trained in supportive autonomy needs. If successful, scalable interventions based on SELF-FIT can be applied to PE in general. |
13. Lovoll et al. [68] | Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research | Explore processes of developing emotional patterns in PE over a 3-year period in SE. | SE students 14–17 years n = 1681 (51% ♂ 49% ♀) | Basic Emotion State Scale. Basic Psychological Need Satisfaction in PE: BPNES; Situational Motivation Scale (SIMS). | The results reveal an association among the intensity of positive emotions, BPN satisfaction and quality of motivation. |
14. Jančiauskas [69] | Baltic Journal of Sport and Health Sciences | Analyze the self-esteem and PW of young students in PE classes. | Students n = 222 | Self-esteem: Self-assessment scale; PW profiles formed based on A. Suslavičius semantic differential method. | The results show that 41% of the evaluated children have high PW levels, with the same percentage for those who consider their self-esteem to be average. |
15. Karasimopoulou et al. [70] | Health Education Research | Examine the effect of the Health Education Program “Skills for primary school Children” quality of life: physical well-being, mental well-being, moods, and emotions, self-concept, leisure-autonomy, family life, financial resources, friends, school environment, social acceptance (bullying). | Students 10–12 years n = 286 (139 ♂ 147 ♀) | KIDSCREEN-52 Group Europe. | The children in the experimental group have significantly improved perceptions of physical well-being, family life, financial aspects, friends, school life and social acceptance. The children in the control group have significantly improved perceptions of physical well-being, which deteriorate significantly for family life, mood and feelings and social acceptance. Children’s self-concept also improves. The experimental group has better autonomy perceptions than the control group. |
16. Madsen et al. [71] | Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports | Analyze the well-being effects for the 10- to 12-year-old children who participated in the school-based intervention “11 for Health in Denmark,” which comprises PA and health education. | Children aged 10–12 years n = 3061 | Brief scale of multidimensional well-being (KIDSCREEN-27). | The “11 for Health in Denmark” intervention program has a positive effect on girls’ physical well-being, whereas the improvement for boys is not significant. The program also positively impacts the well-being scores for peers and social support. When analyzed separately in the boys’ and girls’ subgroups, changes are not significant. |
17. McDavid and McDonough [72] | Psychology of Sports and Exercise | Examine associations between observed staff behaviors and youths’ perceptions of their relationships with staff and well-being. | Youth form PYD programs Staff n = 24, Youth n = 394 Mage = 10.20 (53%♂ 47% ♀) | Youth Program Quality Assessment (YPQA), Perception of Teachers Scale, Teacher Mutual Respect Scale, Learning Climate Questionnaire; social competence and self-worth: Self-Perception Profile for Children; Hope: Hope Scale. | Structural equation modeling indicates that the observed staff engagement positively predicts youths’ perceptions of their relationships with staff and well-being. Youths’ perceptions of positive social relationships with staff also positively predict their well-being. |
18. Neave et al. [73] | Theater, Dance and Performance Training | Assess the effectiveness of engaging in CST (Circus Skills Training) for up to 6 months on the development and enhancement of a range of physical, psychological and emotional measures in children aged 9–12. | Children 9–12 years n = 89 | Optimism−pessimism: ‘Youth Life Orientation Test’ (YLOT), AF: PAQ-C; prosocial behaviors: ‘Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire’ (SDQ) | With an intersubject design, two groups of children (aged 9–12 years) are compared at the baseline by various physical and psychological well-being measures. Significant differences appear between the children in the experimental group vs. the control group. |
19. Ramanathan et al. [74] | Journal of School Health | Analyze the association between active transport to school and indicators of happiness and well-being of Canadian children and their parents. | Students n = 5423 (mostly in kindergarten to grade 8) Parents n = 5423 | Demographic variables and distances to travel to school survey; emotional perception of the way to travel to school: 2 items. Welfare of active transport: 4 items. | Parents and children using active transport report increased positive emotions. Parents who actively travel with their children report stronger connections to well-being dimensions. Active transport shows the strongest association with parents’ perceptions of their child’s well-being. Positive emotions (parent and child) are also significantly related to well-being on trips to school. |
20. Schmidt et al. [75] | International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health | Examine changes in PA, physical fitness and PW in early adolescents after implementing a school-based health promotion program in SE schools. | Students 13–15 years n = 813 | Subjective vitality and health-related quality of life (HRQoL) in five domains: physical health, psychological well-being, parent, peers and school. PA and sedentary lifestyle: accelerometer; cardiorespiratory fitness: Andersen test; strength: standing long jump test; anthropometry, demographics; | A multicomponent school program emphasizes the use of active physical learning with positive changes in school-based PA levels. Positive changes are seen in young adolescents’ physical fitness, vitality and health-related quality of life. |
21. Smith et al. [76] | Mental Health and Physical Activity | Examine the impact of a school-based PA intervention on adolescents’ self-esteem and subjective well-being, and explore the moderators and mediators of intervention effects. | 9th grade scholars n = 607 49.6% (♀) | global self-esteem: Physical Self-Description Questionnaire (PSDQ); socio-economic status: Socio-Economic Indices for Areas (SEIFA), weight, height and BMI; physical self-perception: International Fitness Scale (IFIS); self-efficacy to training: Luban’s Scale; autonomous Motivation: BREQ-2. | Intervention effects for self-esteem and well-being are not statistically significant. Moderator analyses show that the effects for self-esteem are stronger for the overweight/obese subgroup, and resistance training self-efficacy is a significant mediator of changes in self-esteem. No other significant indirect effects are observed. |
22. Standage et al. [77] | BMC Public Health | Determine the effectiveness of the BtBYCB program ‘Be the Best You Can Be’ on (i) pupils’ well-being, self-perceptions, self-esteem, aspirations, and learning strategies; (ii) changes in modifiable health-risk behaviors (i.e., PA, diet, smoking, alcohol consumption). | Students 11–13 years n = 711 | Self-esteem: Rosenberg Scale; adaptive learning strategies: Patterns of Adaptive Learning Scale; AF: Physical Activity for Older Children and Adolescents Questionnaire; alcohol and cigarettes: Youth Risk Behavior Survey; muscle mass: BMI; focus group. | This research informs about improvements in the BtBYCB program and other interventions that target child/youth health and wellness. |
23. Valadez et al. [78] | Frontiers in Psychology | Compare the perceptions and opinions of parents or caregivers of a community sample of children and adolescents to another with high abilities for PW, PA and sedentary lifestyles developed during the COVID-19 health crisis. | Parents Mage = 41.54 high-ability children n = 325 and parents control group n = 209 | Ad hoc questionnaire to evaluate: demographic data, pandemic problems, PA, routines, PA assessment by your child. | The results show no differences between students from community samples and those with high capacities in well-being and PA. Parents living in Spain observe less play time in the high-ability sample, and more time spent on homework, but make a high-ability diagnosis. |
Study | Program Description | Number of Participants | JCR | PW Assessment | Methodology Description | PW Definition | Total Score | Quality |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. Bagøien et al. [56] | 2 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 10 | HQ |
2. Barth et al. [57] | 2 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 9 | HQ |
3. Berman et al. [58] | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 11 | HQ |
4. Chu et al. [59] | 2 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 10 | HQ |
5. Cronin et al. [60] | 2 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 9 | HQ |
6. Earl et al. [61] | 2 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 10 | HQ |
7. Erturan-Ilker [62] | 2 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 11 | HQ |
8. Fierro-Suero et al. [63] | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 7 | MQ |
9. García et al. [64] | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 10 | HQ |
10. Garn et al. [65] | 2 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 9 | HQ |
11. González et al. [66] | 2 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 9 | HQ |
12. Ha et al. [67] | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 11 | HQ |
13. Lovoll et al. [68] | 2 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 11 | HQ |
14. Jančiauskas [69] | 2 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 7 | MQ |
15. Karasimopoulou et al. [70] | 2 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 10 | HQ |
16. Madsen et al. [71] | 2 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 9 | MQ |
17. McDavid and McDonough [72] | 2 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 5 | MQ |
18. Neave et al. [73] | 2 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 8 | MQ |
19. Ramanathan et al. [74] | 2 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 9 | HQ |
20. Schmidt et al. [75] | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 11 | HQ |
21. Smith et al. [76] | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 12 | HQ |
22. Standage et al. [77] | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 12 | HQ |
23. Valadez et al. [78] | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 11 | HQ |
Study Objectives for Students | Number of Mentions | Research Number |
---|---|---|
PA | 9 | 1, 2, 4, 12, 16, 20, 21, 23 |
Mood/emotion states | 9 | 3, 4, 7, 13, 15, 18, 19, 22 |
BPN | 8 | 1, 4, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12, 13 |
Health | 8 | 2, 3, 4, 6, 12, 16, 22 |
Self-perception | 6 | 2, 3, 15, 17, 22 |
Motivation | 6 | 1, 8, 7, 12, 13, 21 |
Program’s effectiveness | 5 | 3, 15, 16, 18, 22 |
General well-being | 5 | 3, 11, 15, 19, 23 |
Self-esteem | 4 | 7, 14, 21, 22 |
Academic performance | 4 | 2, 6, 8, 9 |
Autonomy | 4 | 3, 15, 22 |
Social support | 3 | 3, 15, 16 |
Economic resources | 3 | 3, 15, |
Physical well-being | 3 | 3, 15, 16 |
School environment | 3 | 2, 15, 16 |
Teaching climate | 2 | 5, 10 |
Life satisfaction | 2 | 8 |
Vitality | 2 | 7 |
Quality of life | 2 | 15, 20 |
Prosocial behaviors | 2 | 17, 18 |
Locus of control | 2 | 8, 12 |
Anthropometry | 2 | 20, 21 |
Life skills | 1 | 5 |
Self-regulation | 1 | 9 |
Aspirations | 1 | 22 |
Learning strategies | 1 | 22 |
Emotional intelligence | 1 | 8 |
Happiness | 1 | 19 |
Active transport | 1 | 19 |
Teacher achievement | 1 | 6 |
Social physical anxiety | 1 | 7 |
Need for teacher support | 1 | 12 |
Future PA practice intentions | 1 | 12 |
Hope | 1 | 17 |
Self-efficacy in PA | 1 | 21 |
Sedentary lifestyles | 1 | 23 |
Study objectives for teachers | Number of mentions | Research number |
Educational styles | 1 | 11 |
Social relationships | 1 | 17 |
Study objectives for parents | Number of mentions | Research number |
Happiness | 1 | 19 |
Well-being | 1 | 19 |
Active Transport | 1 | 19 |
Quality of Life | 1 | 3 |
Research | Well-Being Variable | Other Types of Variables |
---|---|---|
1. Bagøien et al. [56] | BPN Well-being | PE motivation Leisure PA |
2. Barth et al. [57] | Well-being Self-Perception | PA Academic achievement |
3. Berman et al. [58] | PW Mood state Self-perception Autonomy Friendships and social support | Physical wellness Parents’ relationships and family life, school context Economic resources, parents’ quality of life |
4. Chu et al. [59] | BPN | Motivation Health Body composition |
5. Cronin et al. [60] | Life skills | PE teaching climate |
6. Earl et al. [61] | BPN Vitality | Academic performance Teacher’s achievement, academic stress Negative affects |
7. Erturan-Ilker [62] | BPN Self-esteem Subjective vitality | Motivation Social physique anxiety |
8. Fierro-Suero et al. [63] | BPN Life satisfaction Emotional intelligence | Motivation Academic performance Locus of control |
9. García et al., 2015 [64] | Self-regulation Subjective well-being Life satisfaction | Academic PE practice frequency |
10. Garn et al. [65] | BPN Self-concept | PE teaching climate |
11. González et al. [66]) | PW | Teacher’s education style |
12. Ha et al. [67] | BPN | MVPA Teacher’s support needs PA motivation Locus of control PA future practice intention Physical condition |
13. Lovoll et al. [68] | BPN | PE emotional patterns Motivation |
14. Jančiauskas [69] | BP Self-esteem | Satisfaction with PE classes |
15. Karasimopoulou et al. [70] | Psychological well-being Mood Self-perception Autonomy Friends and social support | Physical well-being effectiveness program Parents’ relationships and family life School context and economic resources |
16. Madsen et al. [71] | Psychological well-being Peers and social support | Physical well-being effectiveness program School environment |
17. McDavid and McDonough [72] | Well-being Self-perception Hope | Social relationships with staff |
18. Neave et al. [73] | Optimism and pessimism Prosocial behaviors | Effectiveness of a PE program |
19. Ramanathan et al. [74] | Happiness Well-being | Active transport |
20. Schmidt et al. [75] | Quality of life | Physical condition anthropometry |
21. Smith et al. [76] | Well-being Self-esteem | Physical condition anthropometry Self-efficacy in training Autonomous motivation |
22. Standage et al. [77] | Well-being Self-perception Self-esteem Acceptance | Effectiveness of a PE program Student learning strategies Changes in risky behaviors |
23. Valadez et al. [78] | Well-being | PA Sedentary lifestyles |
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Pérez-Ordás, R.; Piñeiro-Cossio, J.; Díaz-Chica, Ó.; Ayllón-Negrillo, E. Relevant Variables in the Stimulation of Psychological Well-Being in Physical Education: A Systematic Review. Sustainability 2022, 14, 9231. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14159231
Pérez-Ordás R, Piñeiro-Cossio J, Díaz-Chica Ó, Ayllón-Negrillo E. Relevant Variables in the Stimulation of Psychological Well-Being in Physical Education: A Systematic Review. Sustainability. 2022; 14(15):9231. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14159231
Chicago/Turabian StylePérez-Ordás, Raquel, Javier Piñeiro-Cossio, Óscar Díaz-Chica, and Ester Ayllón-Negrillo. 2022. "Relevant Variables in the Stimulation of Psychological Well-Being in Physical Education: A Systematic Review" Sustainability 14, no. 15: 9231. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14159231