Definition, Role, and Functions of Soil Related to the Knowledge Society and the Someș-Tisa Hydrographic Area (Romania)

Abstract

In Romania, under the aegis of the knowledge society, we naturally wondered if the soil still had a role, through the functions it fulfills, at the level of local communities. In this context, we set out, starting from the definition of soil as a cosmic–telluric–biotic product with notable valences in the transition of communities from hunting to knowledge-based societies, to make some scientific observations on the importance of soil resources. The research methodology was outlined around the importance and functions of soil in society by presenting the current state of land use in the Someș-Tisa region. As reference points, graphs on the hydrometeorological conditions made using the MeteoBlue application and an archive of the meteorological station in Baia Mare were used, as provided (per an open-access regime) by the Someș-Tisa Water Basin Administration and the Maramures County Council, respectively. Moreover, the research was completed with studies conducted by specialists, most of which were included in the Application Guide of the XVIII National Conference of Pedology held in 2006 in Cluj-Napoca. The research results showed that soil resources were still of vital importance for the communities in the Someș-Tisa area, where agricultural and agrotourism practices predominate. At the same time, it was noticed that the soil resources required increased attention as a result of the pollution resulting from the development of mining activities in large areas. Consequently, the soil resources in the Someș-Tisa area, which closely define the evolution of local communities, should be carefully monitored and subject to good practice guidelines specific to the objectives of sustainable development.

1. Introduction

The word “soil”, like many common words, has many meanings, even in soil science. In its traditional sense, to which we are accustomed, the soil is perceived as the natural environment for the growth of terrestrial plants, whether or not it has distinct horizons [1,2]. This meaning is still the common understanding of the word, and the greatest interest in the soil is focused on this. The vast majority of the human population considers soil important because it supports plants that provide food, medicine, and other necessities; filters water; and ensures waste recycling [2,3,4]. The soil covers the surface of the earth as a continuum, except on bare rock, in areas with perpetual frost, in deep water, and on the barren ice of glaciers. In this sense, the soil has a thickness determined mainly by the rooting depth of plants [2,3,4].

Throughout history, the concepts of soil, its role, and its importance in the community have evolved, gradually moving, in different stages, from “naturist” to “technical” ideas [5]. Thus, for example, the definition of soil is relative to the function it provides to those who define it [6]. From a morphological point of view, the United States Natural Resources Conservation Service defined soil as a natural body made up of solids (minerals and organic matter), liquids, and gases that appears on the surface of the land, occupies space, and is characterized by horizons or layers, which are distinguished from the original material as a result of additions, losses, transfers, and transformations of energy and matter, and the ability to support plants in a natural environment [2,3,4].

This definition was extended from the previous version of Soil Taxonomy—A Basic System of Soil Classification for Making and Interpreting Soil Surveys [1] to include soils in Antarctica, where pedogenesis occurs but the climate is too harsh to support superior vegetal forms.

All the definitions above tried to capture the essence of the role that the soil has in the development of society, as shown in Figure 1 [7,8].

Another definition, which bears the imprint of another entity on American soil, with concerns in the field of soil research and protection, was given by the Society for Soil Science. Depending on its genetic and environmental factors, the soil was considered to be unconsolidated mineral or organic matter on the Earth’s surface that has effects on climatic factors (including effects on water and temperature) and relief-conditioned macro- and microorganisms, which act on the parent material over some time [9]. Soil differs from the material from which it is derived in its physical, chemical, biological, and morphological characteristics.

The soil—as a physical entity—is considered to be one of the most complex natural systems on the planet, a key component of the physical and geographical environment, and a biological complex that is constantly changing. The soil is also the equivalent of a multifunctional system that supports the essential functions of life on Earth [10]. For humanity, the soil, by its nature, has peculiarities different from those of other environmental factors that are as important for the biosphere.

As a support and living environment for plants, the soil, through its humus content, makes the main connections in the trophic chains of the biological cycle of the elements, from the synthesis of organic matter to the products of its mineralization.

The soil is closely involved in all cyclical biogeochemical processes that contribute to the maintenance and assurance of life on earth. The pedosphere is irreplaceable in its many functions: as an environment conducive to the development of various organisms, as a reservoir and source of nutrients and energy, as an active intermediate in all biogeochemical cycles, and as a mediator in the processes that determine the bioenergetic balance of the biosphere. These functions have acted uninterruptedly in the past, they act in the present, and they will continue to act, with different intensities and rhythms in the different ecosystems of the globe in the future. Because of its ability to sustain plant life, the soil is the main means of agricultural production, but the existence and development of human society will long be conditioned by the abundance and quality of higher terrestrial plants, which must provide people with food and raw materials for clothing, shelter, and other requirements.

The approach in this study started from the few Romanian contributions on the definition, role, and functions of soil, trying to rally to the main European and international concerns and focus on the relationship between soil and the knowledge society by exemplifying the importance of soil in the Someș-Tisa river basin. In this vast space (with an impressive set of conditions for soil development at the level of water collection markets), we set out to analyze the suitability of the use of soil resources, closely targeting soil monitoring and protection policies and good agricultural practice in land use.

If on the American continent the soil is seen as a dynamic, nonrenewable natural resource that is essential to life because the movement and quality of water, land use, and vegetation productivity are all closely related to the soil [6], in Europe, things are slightly more nuanced. However, we cannot live without healthy soil; we produce most of our food and build our houses on land [11]. This finding was based on knowledge of specific characteristics with well-defined numerical values obtained by different methods and procedures of measurement, determination, and standardized calculation associated with the soil [5]. Law No. 246/2020 [12] showed that for the full and correct definition and understanding of the soil at the local level, it is necessary to examine the soil cover or the pedosphere (as shown in Figure 2) over very wide geographical areas, even at the subcontinental or continental level, in correlation with climatic zones and the ever-increasing influence of the anthropogenic factor.

The soil is the result of the action of different processes determined by environmental factors, continuously adapting to natural and/or artificial changes in the environment and recording and memorizing, step by step, certain phenomena, processes, and characteristics of the main moments of community evolution. We report in detail on the role and functions of soil at the community level in the following.

In nature, as in human society, the soil performs important global functions (as shown in Figure 3). It is essential for ensuring the existence of biodiversity on Earth, both by accumulating nutrients and energy and supplying them to living organisms and by ensuring other conditions conducive to the development of these organisms.

Through the functions it performs (see Figure 3), the soil is one of the most valuable natural resources used by humanity to obtain the plant products it needs. Soil is the most important medium for biomass production, with the possible exception of aquatic bodies. Being used by humanity in the process of plant production, the soil is the main means of production in agriculture and forestry, being perceived as a renewable resource as long as its use does not negatively affect its functionality. In this sense, the role of soil has been unanimously accepted, not only in promoting and developing sustainable agriculture, maintaining the quality of the environment, influencing global climate change, and conserving biodiversity but in developing the economy [5].

Three other functions are related to nonagricultural human activities. The soil is a physical environment for technological and industrial structures, a source of raw material, and a factor that ensures cultural heritage (situation exemplified in Figure 4). The following figure and lists detail some of the functions that the soil performs in society, starting with the ecological functions and ending with the information- and knowledge-based functions, thus showing, step by step, its undeniable importance.

Ecological functions:

• Contributes to the regulation of the composition of the atmosphere and hydrosphere by participation in the circuits of the chemical elements and of water in nature, respectively;
• Contributes to the stability of the relief, protecting the deep layers of the bark;
• Attenuates sudden variations in some soil characteristics, regulating the development conditions of plants;
• Acts as a protection filter, preventing contamination with pollutants;
• Has the role of a purification system against foreign organic substances and pathogenic microorganisms that have reached the soil;
• Protects the normal functioning and evolution of the biosphere;
• Determines the genetic protection of some species and implicitly biodiversity;
• Represents the development habitat of soil organisms.

Economic functions:

• Contributes to the production of phytomass, which serves as a basic raw material to produce food, clothing, and fuel, through its functions as a reservoir and continuous supplier of water and nutrients, which give it its most important property, namely fertility;
• Has a role in regenerating the production capacity of ecosystems through an essential contribution to the circuit of chemical elements in nature.

Energy functions:

• Accumulates chemical energy via the conversion of solar energy, through the process of photosynthesis, into organic substances and the partial accumulation of these substances in the soil in the form of humus. This energy can be released into the soil through the process of decomposition (mineralization) of organic substances;
• Mediates the exchange of energy and substances between the lithosphere and atmosphere and has the role of absorbing solar radiation and transferring heat to the atmosphere.

Industrial functions:

• Plays an important role in infrastructure for various constructions and installations, such as roads, highways, aerodromes, stadiums, etc., and provides space for the installation of underground cables and pipes;
• Provides raw materials for various industries (clay, sand, etc.).

Information- and knowledge-based functions:

• Triggers seasonal biological processes;
• Records and faithfully reflects the stages of historical evolution by preserving historical and archeological relics.

As the interface of the cosmos with the lithosphere and biosphere, the soil plays an essential role in the normal functioning of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, as shown in Figure 5a [14], which represents a huge plant on a global scale permanently producing through automorphic processes, which are the basis for the development of organisms. Without soil, which provides nutrition with carbohydrates, proteins, and other compounds as well as necessary energy, life would not exist or unfold. Soil plays a key role in nature’s circuits, including that of nutrients [14], which refers to the amount of organic matter absorbed and stored. Organisms that live in the soil break down organic compounds, such as leaves and root tips, into simpler compounds, which can then be used by plants. Some bacteria in the soil convert atmospheric nitrogen into mineral nitrogen, which is essential for plant growth.

Fertilizers introduce nitrogen and phosphates into the soil to stimulate plant growth, but plants do not absorb the entire amount. The surplus can enter rivers and lakes and affect life in aquatic ecosystems. Soil is also an important and often-neglected element of the climate system. It is the second-largest carbon sink or “carbon dioxide depression” after the oceans. Restoring vital land ecosystems and sustainably using land in urban and rural areas can help us mitigate and adapt to climate change.

Soils contain significant amounts of carbon and nitrogen, which can be released into the atmosphere depending on current land use (see Figure 5b) [15]. Deforestation, forest planting, and permafrost thawing can tip the balance of greenhouse gas emissions to one side or the other. Climate change can also substantially affect agricultural production and subsequent land use.

In the Soil Law—draft version (Parliament of the Republic of Moldova, 2008), article 4, soil functions are mentioned in a statement that soil is the essence of terrestrial ecosystems and fulfills the following functions, as in Law No. 246/2020 from the Romanian Parliament [12,16]:

• A specific living environment, the basis of terrestrial ecosystems, and the habitat of humans, animals, plants, and soil organisms;
• A place where energy is stored and preserved in the form of humus;
• An environment for the decomposition and biochemical transformation of organic residues; buffering, transformation, and filtration of substances; regulating substrates of the circuit; and formation of surface and groundwater as well as air;
• An archive of natural and cultural history;
• An environment that stores the raw material and space for localities, recreation, agriculture, forestry, and other economic purposes.

The soil as the main object of study of pedology is the loose layer on the surface of the earth’s crust formed by the action of the biosphere on the products of disintegration and alteration of rocks, able to sustain plant life. As a system, soil is:

• Structural—an organized and structured environment, the constituents of which are in close interdependence both vertically and horizontally;
• Natural—formed under the influence of natural factors;
• Complex—a product of the interaction of five factors;
• Polyphasic—developed over time in several phases;
• Open—exchanging with other spheres in a continuous transformation;
• Multifunctional—performing multiple functions;
• Polydisperse—as its solid phase is in different degrees of dispersion (molecular or ionic dispersions, colloidal dispersions, coarse dispersions, and suspensions);
• Heterogeneous—because it consists of three phases (solid, liquid, and gaseous).

Furthermore, by the established objectives of sustainable development (Figure 6) [16], the soil has a very significant role, particularly in objectives 2, 3, 6, 11, 12, 13, and 15. With the above, our opinion is that the soil should be perceived as a multisystem with a special dynamic that in terrestrial ecosystems fulfills various functions: ecological, industrial, social, and technical–economic. With the intensification of pollution processes and the obvious interest in obtaining more and more resources (specific to the knowledge society), the most important functions can be mentioned:

• The functions of filtering, buffering, and transformation, which are important not only for the protection of the soil fund but for the prevention of disturbance to the food chain;
• The functions of water conservation and carbon sequestration in the form of organic matter, the importance of which is amplified with global climate change;
• The function of maintaining genetic biodiversity.

2. Materials and Methods

To begin with, we started from the knowledge, analysis, and synthesis of the aspects that characterize the soil as a physical, biochemical, and cosmic–telluric–biotic product in close relation to the scientific literature, the development of society, and the diversity in the characteristics of soils throughout the world.

In addition to research, the role and functions of the soil at the level of local communities were also considered, as the use of soil resources and agricultural practices is significantly involved in the development of society. Against the background of the researched aspects, an attempt was made to nuance the role and functions of the soil with the hydrographic and pedoagricultural space of Someș-Tisa. Thus, a profile was made by direct reporting of environmental conditions (conditions on conformation, structure, and variation in relief, microclimate dynamics, etc.) and recording of the main ecopedological factors according to the 1987 edition of the Methodology for Development of Pedological Studies [17], with changes and subsequent additions.

In this vast space (with an impressive set of conditions for soil development at the level of water collection markets), we set out to analyze the suitability of the use of soil resources, closely targeting soil monitoring and protection policies, both of which represent agricultural good practice in land use.

3. Results and Discussion

The present approach started from the identification and delimitation of the spatial conformation of the Someș-Tisa hydrographic area (see Figure 7a) and continued with explanation and detailing of the agropedological characteristics of the area (Figure 7b), with emphasis on the use of soil resources and land.

Because of the spatial conformation, size, and altitudinal layer of the area, there were significant differences between the depression and the mountainous space in Someș-Tisa [20,21,22]. The climate of the area was of a temperate-continental type, with some Baltic and Scandinavian influences that made it wetter and colder; the mountainous area reached the maximum rainfall recorded in the country.

Furthermore, the depressions had a climate-shelter effect in relation to the mountain areas, an effect also felt in the Someș-Tisa hydrographic area. For example, the climate of the Baia Mare depression was characterized by oceanic influences in addition to the particular morphographic conformation generated in contact with the mountainous area [23,24]. The meeting of climate manifestations, with shades of shelter, resulted in the average annual temperatures reaching 9.4 °C in Baia Mare (Figure 8 and Figure 9) and decreasing to approximately 8 °C in the eastern and southern hilly areas [10,18,19,25,26].

The average temperature in the summer months was 19.5 °C, and that in the winter months was −2.8 °C, with an average annual thermal amplitude of 20-22 °C. From the point of view of the thermal regime, the Baia Mare Depression could be characterized as a warm region. The average annual temperature for the Baia Mare region was 9.6 °C [10,26,28].

Negative average temperatures were recorded in December (0.2 °C), January (−2.4 °C), and February (−0.1 °C), with the annual average of lows being 5.2 °C and that of highs being 14.9 °C (Figure 8 and Figure 9). Other features included a low frequency of temperature inversions and 100–120 frost days/year. The Baia Mare depression area was characterized by an increased frequency of precipitation. The average annual amount of precipitation increased from the west (700 mm/year) to the south and east (1000 mm/year), with an average of 922 mm/year in Baia Mare as a whole and with a concentration of most precipitation in the summer season. The number of snowy days increased from the west (50 days/year) to the east of the depression (60 days/year) [10,26,28].

The rainfall regime was rich year-round. In June, the rainfall exceeded 100 mm. The relatively humid period covered the whole year, with no periods of drought or intense drought. The number of clear sky days was small (45–50 days/year). Cloudy skies predominated (140–150 days/year), supported by the wind directions, which were predominantly westerly in the warm semester of the year [26,28,29].

Air quality in the county saw a remarkable improvement in recent years amid the closure of polluting industrial units and investments in transport infrastructure, sanitation services, and landscaping. The only daily exceedances (not exceeding annual maximums) were registered in winter for suspended particles [29].

In the considered area, we found most types of soils and vegetation layers in Romania (alpine, subalpine, mixed forests, deciduous forests, etc.), but there was a tendency to restrict them in favor of heavily anthropized landscapes. From an agroecological point of view, the soils of the Someș-Tisa hydrographic area, according to the degree of fertility, were (see Figure 10 and Figure 11): chernozems—21,111 ha; lithosols—23,470 ha; regosols—34,196 ha; alluvial soils—35,692 ha; brown soils—63,923 ha; rendzina—14,565 ha; unproductive soils—40,777 ha; preluvosols, erodosols, gleiosols, etc. [18,19,25,30]. Over 40% of the agricultural lands in the area had very poor quality, being subjected to a process of accentuated degradation by erosion, pseudoglide, pollution, excess moisture, etc. One of the biggest problems in the area was the pollution of heavy metals in the land, especially in the former mining areas, where there were 17 tailings ponds and over 300 tailings dumps, of which less than half had been closed and greened because of a lack of funds from the state budget. Moreover, some greening works carried out must most likely be resumed, being experimental. To these were added dozens of contaminated and potentially contaminated sites, including in heavily inhabited areas.

The hydrophysical properties of the soil are an essential factor in the water circuit, with influences on infiltration, surface runoff, and water loss through evaporation. The following soil classes were found in the perimeter of the Someș-Tisa hydrographic area:

• Cernisol class (CER)—chestnut soils, chernozem, phaeozium, rendzina (plain areas);
• Luvisol class (LUV)—soils with polygenetic evolution developed in good or moderate drainage conditions (intermontane and submontane depression areas, plateau and plain areas);
• Cambisol class (CAM)—includes eutricambosol, distrambambosol, and eutricambosol soils (common in mountainous areas, submontane and intermontane depressions, meadows, and wandering areas);
• Spodisol class (SPO)—prepodzol and podzol soil (present on a large scale in the Rodna, Maramureș, and Apuseni Mountains);
• Umbrisol class (UMB)—black and humus soil (present in the Carpathians at altitudes of 1000–1400 m);
• Andisol class (DNA)—soils formed by volcanic ash, pumice stone, and other volcanic derivatives of different compositions, morphologically characterized by a vitreous and andic horizon (which develops especially on volcanic rocks);
• Hydrosol class (HID)—gleiosol soils (low-drained lowland areas, meadows, lower terraces, and depressions, and, on the other hand, on higher, flat surfaces covered with clay deposits within wetlands);
• Salsodisol (SAL) and vertisol classes (VER) do not have a significant spread, being present only in isolation.

Regarding the land use in the entire Someș-Tisa hydrographic area (Figure 11), there was an uneven distribution of forests, pastures, arable lands, and urban and industrial lands, depending on the type of relief of the respective areas. According to the Romanian Soil Taxonomy System (2012), 4 classes, 7 types, and 15 subtypes of soil were identified in the Someș-Tisa hydrographic area. Of the agricultural area of 44,420 ha, 30.03% represented protisols (regosol, alluvial); 2.38%, cambisols (eutricambosol); 32.04%, luvisols (preluvosol, luvosol); and 35.55%, hydrisols (gleiosol, stagnosol).

The following genetic types of soil were seen to a greater extent:

• Regosol (district, eutrophic, lithic) occupied an area of 2568 ha (5.81%), spread over the Someș terraces, Săsar–Chechiș interfluve, and Curtuiuș Hills.
• Alluvial (district, eutrophic, entic, gleic) had an area of 10,715 ha (24.22%), occupying the meadows of Săsar, Lăpuș, Bârsău, and Someș.
• Eutricambosol (typically) had an area of 1054 ha (2.38%), mostly spread on the left terraces of Someș.
• Preluvosol (stagnant) occupied an area of 407 ha (0.92%), spread on the nonfloodable terraces of Someș.
• Luvosol (typical, albic, stagnant) occupied the largest area of 13,768 ha (31.12%), spread over the terraces of Someș, Săsar, and Lăpuș; the Lăpuș–Bârsău interfluve; and the Bârsău—Someș interfluve.
• Gleiosol (eutrophic) had an area of 8583 ha (19.40%), spread on the low terraces of Lăpuș and Someș.
• Stagnosol (typical, luvic) occupied an area of 7145 ha (16.15%), spread on the meadow terraces of the rivers Săsar, Lăpuș, and Bârsău.

Agricultural lands were predominant in all three river basins: Tisa (51.9%), Someș (64.3%), and Crasna (72.1%). The forests occupied a larger area in the Tisza basin (42.8%) than in the other subbasins (Someș, 28.3%, and Crasna, 18.2%), and the Tisza basin forests represented 7% of the total study area.

4. Conclusions

In a knowledge society, the search for new alternatives for the resources so necessary for daily life has made the issue of soil protection intensely publicized. This is even though there are remedial policies and antipollution strategies at the international level that, if adopted and applied consistently, could save and conserve many soil resources and affected or degraded lands.

Browsing both articles in the literature and the pages of sites dedicated to soil protection of international organizations (UN, FAO, NRCS, EEA, SSSA, etc.) with established concerns in the field, a multitude of definitions of and functions assigned to soil were found. Thus, we discuss in the few pages of this paper the essence of the concerns for defining the soil as a cosmic–telluric–biotic product of the synergistic interaction of energy flows, mass, and information with soil processes in various development conditions, with cyclic dynamics, on the surface of the earth’s crust. The role of soil is also well emphasized, with special emphasis on its ecological, economic, energy, industrial, and information functions.