Enhancing Foreign Language Learning Outcomes and Mitigating Cultural Attributes Inherent in Asian Culture in a Mobile-Assisted Language Learning Environment

Abstract

To achieve sustainable language learning, we designed a foreign language learning activity that extended traditional lectures in classrooms to informal learning in the real world using mobile technology. Chinese undergraduate students participated in our learning activity. We tested whether our learning activity could enhance their language learning outcomes through employing a single group pretest post-test design. We explored how the participants perceived the usefulness of the activity to foster language learning by administering a questionnaire survey. Finally, we investigated whether our learning activity could mitigate the cultural attributes inherent in Asian culture through interviews with the participants and their instructors. Our results demonstrated that participant learning outcomes improved during the learning activity. The results also showed that the perceptions of most participants of the value of the exercise were high. In the interviews, the participants and the instructors revealed that they felt the learning activity was useful and interesting. They also claimed that the learning activity helped mitigate cultural attributes, such as shyness, reservedness, passiveness, inhibition, lack of confidence, risk-avoidance, test-oriented learning, reliance on teachers for knowledge, and memorization. Based on these results, we provide some implications and useful suggestions for educators and researchers.

1. Introduction

Sustainable language learning refers to more sustainable, effective, adaptive, motivated, and enjoyable learning to improve students’ language acquisition and use [1,2,3,4]. Mobile assisted language learning (MALL) has the potential to support the sustainable development of language learning. MALL can provide convenient, flexible, real-time, and contextual learning opportunities for students to be more adaptable to the learning environment and support a sustainable self-directed learning experience [3,4].

The importance of developing the ability to acquire new information in class and then to be able to apply it to the real world has been emphasized by scholars [5,6,7]. In the field of foreign/second language learning, this notion has been especially highlighted because of the input and output hypotheses [8] and the authentic learning theory [9]. According to the input and output hypotheses, the language learning process includes two functions: (i) language input when a learner receives information through listening and reading and (ii) language output when a learner applies learned information through speaking and writing. Harmer [10] argued that both functions are essential for language learning and that a balance should be kept between them. The authentic learning theory emphasizes learning in contexts involving real-world problems that are relevant to a learner.

According to these language learning theories, several issues were reported in earlier studies with respect to language output in the real world. First, some educators have emphasized language input far more than language output [11]. Second, there is excessive dependence upon traditional teaching techniques in some schools [12,13]. Finally, the interdependence of context, situation, and cognition are ignored by some teachers [7]. In addition to these issues, some cultural attributes that contribute to language learning have also been reported. For example, there are Asian students (e.g., from China, Japan, or Korea) who rely on teachers for knowledge, and their learning process is test-oriented and focuses on rote memorization [12,13,14]. Additionally, these students have very little confidence or feel extremely anxious when producing the target language, especially in group work where they have to interact and share personal ideas with their peers [15,16]. These behaviors may hamper the effectiveness of their knowledge acquisition and its application to the real world.

2. Literature Review

2.1. Theories Related to Language Input and Output

Hypotheses related to language input and language output attempt to explain how a foreign language should be learned. This hypothesis has been widely used as the theoretical foundation in previous studies on technology-supported language learning [17,18]. According to Harmer [10], language input and output are two functions of the language learning process. Language input takes place when information is received through listening or reading [19]. That is, a learner is exposed to language in use from various sources such as an instructor, other learners, or the environment around the learners [20]. According to Krashen [21], language acquisition takes place when a learner is exposed to sufficient comprehensible input. This input has to be slightly more advanced than the learner’s current level. This level of input is called “I + 1”, where “I” is the learner interlanguage and “+1” is next level of language acquisition [22]. With comprehensible input, a learner can acquire something new. Otherwise, if a learner is exposed to language and patterns that he/she already knows, such input will be useless [23]. On the other hand, language output occurs when learned information is activated by producing linguistic output through speaking or writing [24]. According to the comprehensible output hypothesis, learners tend to exert more effort in getting their messages understood by others when they experience difficult situations where it is hard to achieve this goal [25]. Three main functions of output were highlighted by Swain [26]: (1) the noticing function: learners notice what they do not know or know partially. When they attempt to produce the target language, learners may notice that they do not know how to say/write precisely the meaning they wish to convey; (2) hypothesis-testing function: there is a tacit hypothesis underlying what a learner wants to say/write, and when a learner says/writes something, he/she tests his/her hypothesis and receives feedback on the spoken/written utterance; (3) metalinguistic function: learners use the language to reflect on the language they/others produce, and this function mediates language learning. Scholars have argued that both meaningful and comprehensible input and output are essential elements for foreign language learning and suggest that one should keep a balance between them [8]. Following this notion, the four strands principle was proposed by [27]. In addition to meaning-focused input and output, the principle includes language-focused learning (i.e., when deliberate attention is paid to language features, including spelling, pronunciation, vocabulary, multiword units, grammar, and discourse) and fluency development (i.e., aimed at helping learners make the best use of what is already known). Furthermore, the affective filter hypothesis was proposed by Krashen [22]. According to this hypothesis, if learners are experiencing negative emotions such as fear or anxiety during language learning, their ability to acquire language will be constrained.

Foreign language learning theories informed the design of the present study. That is, the language learning process in this study included equal parts of meaningful and comprehensible language input and output. Furthermore, we focused on achieving language-focused learning and fluency development with our learning activity design. We employed various strategies to eliminate the affective filter so that our students would not experience negative emotions during the language learning process.

2.2. Learning in the Real World

Previous studies have suggested that classroom learning is abstract and disconnected from real-life scenarios when schools ignore the interdependence of context, situation, and cognition [28,29]. Such knowledge can’t be retrieved in real-life contexts [29,30]. Therefore, learners regard knowledge itself as the final product of education rather than as a tool to be used spontaneously to solve problems under real-world circumstances.

Learning in the real world helps achieve effective and meaningful learning [5,30,31,32]. Scholars suggest that authentic environments may bring various benefits and opportunities for language learning, i.e., relevant and meaningful daily encounters, communication on topics about real-life situations, and first-hand learning experience [33]. For example, scholars designed a smartwatch-supported language learning activity in which language learners learned new knowledge in class and then applied it to the real world. Scholars found that, under such circumstances, learners’ cognitive processes developed from a low level to a high level [34]. In another study, scholars designed language learning activities supported by the mobile learning system in authentic environments; language learners were asked to use the system to take pictures of objects, people, situations, and scenarios of interest and then generate labels for them in English. Language learners were also asked to take pictures and describe their family shopping experiences using the learning system on mobile phones. Scholars found that students who learned in an authentic environment using the mobile learning system had a higher learning performance than those students who used the traditional learning approach such as pen and pencil [35].

The theory of authentic learning states that because learning is context-related, context and learning should not be separated [9,36]. Herrington and Herrington [9] discussed several core features of an authentic environment: (1) it provides authentic learning contexts that reflect the way the knowledge will be used by learners in real life; (2) it provides authentic learning activities that have real-world relevance, ideally ones that present complex tasks to be completed over a sustained period of time, and (3) it promotes reflection and enables authentic learning assessment within the tasks. Therefore, authentic learning contexts are both meaningful and relevant to learners during their learning process [28]. Our learning activity in the present study was arranged in such way so that language learners acquired new knowledge in class and then applied new knowledge in the real world by completing assigned homework.

2.3. Mobile-Assisted Language Learning Activity

Mobile technologies are being widely employed in the language learning process [37]. Scholars argued that mobile-assisted language learning (MALL) can significantly contribute to improving language acquisition due to numerous advantages [38]. For example, mobile technology offers seamless learning experiences that make it possible for students to study anytime and anywhere [39]. For example, the gap between formal and informal learning spaces can be bridged by technology [40]. Palalas and Hoven [41] suggested that MALL can also bridge “creation with sharing of content, learning for work with learning at work, individual and social learning” and others. Kukulska-Hulme and Viberg [37] ascribed several affordances of MALL, including flexible use, continuity of use, timely feedback, personalization, socialization, active participation, peer coaching, self-evaluation, sources of inspiration outdoors, and cultural authenticity. Following this notion, Palalas and Hoven [41] included the following key elements that impact MALL: location, context, time, tools, learning /teaching approaches and modes, and gamification. For example, in terms of flexibility, students can acquire language at various times and places; when working in small groups, students are able to communicate with each other either face-to-face or virtually, therefore expanding their interaction boundaries in terms of time and place [42,43]. With regard to time, MALL enables increasing time spent on language acquisition out of class as well as the ability to receive timely feedback from peers and instructors [44]. In terms of context, Wong and Looi [40] argued that language learning should not be limited to a single context; that is, language learners should decide by themselves what and how to learn across different learning contexts. As for personalization, MALL can be designed around the characteristics, needs, and habits of language learners [7]. For example, learning content can be delivered to learners based on their location, proficiency level, and interests [41,45]. Multimedia tools allow students to create their own content [46]. That is, students can practice their language skills by describing people, objects, and situations in real world contexts and then can create textual content, take photos, and record audio and video files using multimedia tools. Learners can also share their created content with peers and instructors using technology for further discussion and reflection purposes [31,37]. Furthermore, mobile assisted language learning may benefit students’ 21st century skills development, such as creativity, critical thinking, and collaboration, which are important for achieving sustainable language learning [47]. For example, scholars in the study of technology-supported language learning asked students to use mobile devices to describe people and objects in real-world scenarios using newly learned knowledge. Scholars compared students’ creativity in familiar versus unfamiliar contexts in authentic learning environments. Scholars found that students’ creativity was influenced by their familiarity with the authentic environment [48].

2.4. Cultural Attributes in Language Learning in Asian Countries

Scholars have argued that some specific cultural attributes related to language learning exist in Asian countries. The following attributes (also refer to

Table 1. Cultural attributes negatively influencing language learning in Asian countries.

#	Attributes	Definition	References
1	Shyness	Students are nervous or reserved with regard to communicating in the target language around other people, e.g., unwilling to ask questions or speak up in class.	Adib-Hajbaghery and Aghajani [49] Goh, Quek and Lee [50] Meyer [12] Ruble and Zhang [51] Souriyavongsa et al. [52] Talley [53] Tran [54] Tuan and Mai [55]
2	Reservedness	Students refrain from expressing their thoughts and views in front of others, e.g., a student does not reveal his/her thoughts or feelings readily.	Adib-Hajbaghery and Aghajani [49] Goh et al. [50] Meyer [12] Talley [53]
3	Reliance on teachers for knowledge	Students see knowledge as something to be transmitted by the teacher, e.g., a student perceives that his/her learning depends on the teachers as authorities.	Adib-Hajbaghery and Aghajani [49] Loh and Teo [14] Meyer [12] Souriyavongsa et al. [52]
4	Passiveness	A passive student usually takes a backseat in most learning activities, e.g., a student rarely raises his/her hand to answer the teacher’s questions.	Meyer [12] Talley [53] Tran [54]
5	Test-oriented learning	Usage of examinations in which the outcome determines student academic performance, e.g., a student learns material only to pass a test.	Loh and Teo [14] Meyer [12] Tsou [13]
6	Memorization/rote learning	Committing something to memory, e.g., a student learns new words by repeatedly speaking them aloud or repeatedly writing them down.	Loh and Teo [14] Meyer [12] Tsou [13]
7	Inhibition	Unable to act in a relaxed and natural way, e.g., students are often worried about making mistakes when they try to say something in a foreign language in the classroom; they are fearful of criticism or losing face.	Souriyavongsa et al. [52] Tuan and Mai [55]
8	Lack of confidence	Low degree of trust or faith a student has in her/himself and his/her abilities; e.g., a student believes he/she cannot finish a task even when it is not very difficult.	Talley [53]
9	Risk-avoidance	The elimination of learning activities that can result in unpleasant situations, e.g., a student avoids sharing his/her opinion because of the potential for criticism from others.	Meyer [12]

) essentially compromise learning outcomes: (1) shyness, (2) reservedness, (3) passiveness, (4) inhibition, (5) lack of confidence, (6) risk-avoidance, (7) test-oriented learning, (8) reliance on teachers for knowledge, and (9) rote memorization. The most frequently cited attributes were: (a) Shyness (in eight studies), where scholars suggested that Asian students are nervous or reserved with regard to communicating in the target language around other people, with many, for example, being unwilling to ask questions or speak up in class, and (b) reservedness (in four studies), where Asian students were found to refrain from expressing their thoughts and views in front of others. For example, it was found that students do not manifest their thoughts or feelings on a timely basis. Finally, it was found (c) that they rely on teachers for knowledge (in four studies), where Asian students were found to regard knowledge as something to be transmitted by the teacher. For example, a student perceives that his/her learning depends on the teacher as an authority.

Rapee et al. [56] suggested that these factors may be partly influenced by cultural norms and expectations. Biggs [57] mentioned Confucian-heritage cultures. According to Goh et al. [50], Confucianism values a quiet, self-effacing behavioral style that includes modesty, social harmony, and deference to parents. Biggs [57] argued that under Confucianism, students show their great respect to a knowledgeable teacher, and passivity and reticence are indications of such respect. Therefore, it is both acceptable and desirable for students to exhibit shyness and withdrawn behavior, where they not only listen to but also obey their teachers, and where challenging the teacher by asking questions is not acceptable. Nevertheless, these attributes compromise language learning. Yang, Chen, and Hung [58] suggested that these issues can be addressed through adopting various teaching and learning strategies. Tsui [59] concluded that the degree of these attributes largely depends on the instructors’ strategies, where successful strategies minimize negative effects on language learning. Talley [53] suggested that scaffolding student learning is one useful strategy to remediate the abovementioned issues.

3. Research Aims

This study was set to ensure that language learners have equal language input and output and to facilitate their efficient and sustainable language learning. First, we designed a foreign language learning activity that extended traditional lectures in the classroom to informal learning in the real world using mobile technology. Chinese students learning RFL participated in the learning activity. This study focused on Russian as a foreign language, which is important for maintaining and promoting a diversity of foreign languages that language learners may learn, which is one aspect of multilingualism and multicultural education in the context of globalization initiatives [60]. The learning process included equal language input and output: the participants learned new information in class and then applied it to the real world. In this way, we considered the interdependence of context, situation, and cognition in our learning activity. Finally, we employed effective strategies to scaffold and guide students through the learning activity to mitigate the cultural attributes inherent in Asian culture. We aimed to test the feasibility of our learning activity supported by mobile technology specifically in terms of how it facilitates learning outcomes. We explored the perceptions of our participants towards the usefulness of the activity to foster language learning. Furthermore, we investigated whether the learning activity can mitigate the cultural attributes inherent in Asian culture in these participants.

4. Research Questions

The present study addressed the following research questions: (1) Do the language learning outcomes of the participants improve after the learning activity? (2) What are the perceptions of the participants toward the usefulness of the present activity to foster language learning? Finally, (3) Are the cultural attributes inherent in Asian culture mitigated in the participants after the learning activity?

5. Methods

5.1. Participants and Research Procedure

Twelve university students majoring in RFL voluntarily participated in this study. The small sample size can be explained by the size of the RFL classes in China itself. A small number of students take this course because RFL is not as popular as other languages (e.g., English) in China nowadays. The participants were from a public university in Jiangsu province (China). Seven of the participants were females and five were males. The age of the participants ranged between 18 and 20 years old (M = 19.08, SD = 0.51). They had an elementary RFL level. The participants only had one semester of RFL learning experience prior to the present study. In addition, two instructors were involved in this study. They taught the course, developed research instruments, and evaluated students’ outcomes.

The ethics issues relevant to the research and approvals under which the data were collected and reported have been considered. That is, the study was performed following the Institutional Ethical Guidelines. In addition, a consent form was obtained from the participants prior to their participation in the study.

The research procedure is shown in Figure 1. Before the study, we collected demographic information from the participants and informed them of the details of the learning activity. We carried out a pretest during the first class. The instructor then delivered lectures, and the students practiced their language skills in class for one semester. After each class, the students were asked to apply the newly learned information to the real world. In the last class, we carried out a post-test. In addition, we distributed questionnaires and conducted interview surveys.

5.2. Mobile-Assisted Language Learning Activity Design

We used a Russian course for this study. The learning objectives were to make students learn new vocabulary, grammar, and sentence patterns, as well as to be able to articulate main ideas and details related to topics of the course using acquired knowledge and skills. The instructor lectured the course on a weekly basis and the course lasted for one semester. There were three classes every week, each lasting for forty minutes. The following five topics were covered in the course: (1) About myself, (2) My family, (3) My study, (4) My work day, and (5) Visiting someone. During the lessons, the instructors explained new learning content and grammar, and the students learned new vocabulary and sentence patterns. In addition, they read texts and dialogues from the textbook. After the class, the instructor assigned students homework to apply their new knowledge to the real world. They had to write and talk about the topics they had studied and were asked to relate the created content to their daily lives. For example, for the “My family” topic, the participants could write and talk about their family members, such as grandparents, parents, and siblings. We asked them to use mobile phones to complete their homework and to share their homework with their instructor. For completing homework, the students used mobile phone functions such as texting, voice recording, camera, and messenger apps such as WeChat. WeChat is the most popular instant messaging app for socializing and communicating in China and it is widely used for research in an academic context. Students used the texting function to type textual content, e.g., to communicate with their classmates about homework assignments, and the voice recording function was used to record verbal content, e.g., to describe their family members verbally, so that audio-recorded files can be heard by students themselves, by their classmates, or by their instructors. Students used cameras to take pictures of people, objects, and scenarios related to the homework, e.g., people, objects, situations, or scenarios that students described, so that pictures provided visual information. Messenger apps such as WeChat were used by students to share the homework with the instructor and other students. The instructor listened to all recorded audio files and checked corresponding photos, and then pointed out mistakes in content and provided corrective feedback to students.

5.3. Research Instruments

A pretest was carried out to measure the prior knowledge of the participants, and a post-test was carried out to measure the participants’ learning achievement. Both tests were related to the learning material and were similar in structure but different in terms of content. The post-test items are presented in the Appendix A. Test items from one to six measured how the participants recalled and understood new concepts learned in class (i.e., the Recall and Understanding pretest/the Recall and Understanding post-test). The last item (no. 7) measured the creativity of the participants through essay writing (i.e., Creativity pretest/Creativity post-test). The tests were developed by two instructors with more than ten years of teaching experience based on general recommendations provided in earlier, related studies. Scholars have suggested that teacher-made tests based on textbook material and previously validated tests are generally valid and reliable [61]. However, in order to add more confidence to the validity and reliability of the tests, we subjected the initial draft of the tests to the scrutiny of an expert in the field. Some items were modified based on expert advice before the final version of the tests was produced.

We developed a questionnaire survey to evaluate how the participants perceived the usefulness of the learning activity to promote their learning outcomes. It included seven items: Items 1–4 related to perceptions of the participants toward the usefulness of the learning activity to promote their learning outcomes, and items 5–7 related to behavioral intentions to participate in a learning activity in the future. The questionnaire was developed based on the Technology Acceptance Model, i.e., TAM [62]. TAM has been successfully employed in a wide array of educational research areas. Researchers have demonstrated that TAM-based questionnaires are valid and reliably measure students’ perceptions towards an intervention [62].

All participants and two instructors were interviewed by the researchers in order to explore the participants’ mobile-assisted language learning/teaching experiences and their perceptions towards the usefulness of the activity to mitigate cultural attributes inherent in Asian culture. The general recommendations of Creswell [63] were considered for carrying out the interviews, the data collection, and the analysis of the data. During the interviews, the participants and instructors were asked open-ended questions about their language learning experiences, the usefulness of the learning activity supported by mobile technology, and whether the learning activity could mitigate their cultural attributes.

5.4. Data Analysis

5.4.1. Pre-/Post-Tests

The first item of the test included four subitems; items from two to five included 10 subitems; item six included five subitems, and item seven included one subitem (see Appendix A). Each subitem of items from one to four was scored as “1” if the response was correct or as “0” if the response was incorrect. For item five, a participant received a score of “2” if his/her answer to each subitem was correct, a score of “1” if his/her answer was partially correct, or a score of “0” if his/her answer was incorrect. Each subitem of item six was scored on a 10-point scale. Finally, item seven was scored on a 100-point scale. The maximum score for item one was “4”, for each item from two to four was “10”, for item five was “20”, for item six was “46”, and for item seven was “100.” We measured the creativity of the participants with our last item (item seven). That is, the content of the essay was analyzed and evaluated by the instructors using creativity rubrics derived from well-designed scales from earlier studies [64,65,66]. Our rubrics were: (1) originality—the statistical rarity of the responses among the test subjects—max 20 points, (2) elaboration—the amount of detail in the responses—max 25 points, (3) fluency—the total number of interpretable, meaningful, and relevant ideas—max 35 points, and (4) grammar—max 20 points. In this study, we replaced the “flexibility” scale with the “grammar” scale because we did not focus on different categories of student responses but considered their grammatical competence.

Two experienced instructors analyzed the results of the two tests. The inter-rater reliability of the scoring was evaluated using Cohen’s kappa. The kappa value exceeded 0.80 (before the discussion) and 0.90 (after the discussion).

5.4.2. Questionnaire

All twelve questionnaire responses were collected. The participants responded to the questionnaire items on a five-point Likert scale, anchored by the end-points “strongly disagree” (1) and “strongly agree” (5) We defined average scores of 3.5–5.0 to the questionnaire as high perceptions, scores of 2.5–3.4 as medium perceptions, and scores of 1.0–2.4 as low perceptions. In order to assess the internal consistency of the questionnaire, we employed Cronbach’s α. The value exceeded 0.85, which demonstrated the reliability of the items.

5.4.3. Interview

The interview data analysis was carried out as follows: First, we audio-recorded all interviews with the participants’ permission. We then fully transcribed all interviews for our analysis. Next, we highlighted and coded the text segments that met the criteria of providing the best research information. After that, codes with similar meanings were sorted into categories, and categories were established to form a framework by which to report findings.

Table 2. Perceptions of the participants towards the mobile-assisted language learning activity.

	Item	M	SD
1	The learning activity helped me use new words and expressions and remember them better.	3.67	0.89
2	The learning activity helped me understand new concepts better.	4.08	1.00
3	The learning activity helped me develop my Russian speaking skills.	3.67	0.89
4	The learning activity was useful in improving my Russian skills.	4.33	0.65
5	I would like to continue mobile-assisted language learning as in this study.	3.83	0.83
6	The learning activity using mobile technology was more interesting compared to a traditional approach.	3.75	0.97
7	It was more interesting to talk about topics related to my daily life.	4.25	0.75

includes the categories, codes, definitions, and examples from the interview data analysis. Two coders were involved in the coding process. The inter-rater reliability was evaluated using Cohen’s kappa, and the result exceeded 0.90, which indicated high inter-rater reliability.

5.5. Statistical Analyses

We employed the Wilcoxon signed-rank test to examine the difference between the participants’ scores on the pretest and post-test. The Wilcoxon signed-rank test is a nonparametric statistical hypothesis test used to compare two related samples, matched samples, or repeated measurements on a single sample to assess whether their population mean ranks differ. This test is used when the distribution of the difference between two samples’ means cannot be assumed to be normally distributed. We set a p-value at 0.05 since an alpha level of less than 0.05 is accepted in most educational research as statistically significant.

6. Results

6.1. Pre-/Post-Tests

According to the results of the Wilcoxon signed-rank test, there was a significant difference between the scores for the Recall and Understanding pretest (M = 32.75, SD = 12.11) and those for the Recall and Understanding post-test (M = 74.00, SD = 16.53), Z = −3.063, p < 0.005, and d = 5.905. There was also a significant difference between scores for the Creativity pretest (M = 71.22, SD = 6.12) and those for the Creativity post-test (M = 89.57, SD = 5.42), Z = −3.059, p < 0.005, and d = 4.099. The results may suggest that the mobile-assisted language learning activity was beneficial for improving the learning performance of the participants, including the participants’ recall and understanding of the learning material, as well as their creativity.

6.2. Questionnaire

According to the results of the questionnaire survey (Table 2), the participants scored their perceptions of the usefulness of the activity as high. The lowest mean was for items 1 and 3 (M = 3.67; SD = 0.89). The results may suggest that the perceived usefulness perceptions of most participants were high; that is, they perceived that the mobile-assisted language learning activity was useful for their learning; they had positive intentions to participate in such learning activities in the future, they perceived that the learning activity helped them express their ideas more openly, and they were less afraid to speak in Russian.

6.3. Interview

According to the results of the interviews (

Table 3. Interviews’ data analysis.

Category/Code		Definition
Language learning
	Application	Applying newly learned knowledge in school to the real world
	Usefulness	The tasks of the learning activity were useful
Learning satisfaction
	Interesting	The tasks of the learning activity were interesting
	Motivating	The learning activity improved learning motivation
	Supportive	Supportive environment for the participants to practice their language skills
Effort
	Mental effort	Mental effort required for participating in the learning activity
	Time	Time spent on participating in the learning activity
Others
	Additional resources	Usage of additional resources during the learning activity
	Typing	Improvement of typing in a foreign language
Cultural attributes
	Shyness	Changes in cultural attributes during the learning activity
	Reservedness
	Passiveness
	Inhibition
	Lack of confidence
	Risks
	Test-oriented
	Reliance on teachers for knowledge
	Memorization

), six main categories emerged from the interview data: (1) Language learning, (2) Learning satisfaction, (3) Effort, (4) Others, (5) Creativity, and (6) Cultural attributes.

The Language learning category included two codes: (a) Application (i.e., students were able to apply what they learned in class to the real world) and (b) Useful (i.e., the tasks of the learning activity were useful). The Learning satisfaction category included three codes: (a) Interesting (i.e., the tasks of the learning activity were interesting), (b) Motivating (i.e., the learning activity improved learning motivation), and (c) Supportive (i.e., the learning activity was carried out in a supportive environment in which the participants could practice their language skills). The Effort category included two codes: (a) Mental effort (i.e., it did not require too much mental effort to participate in the learning activity) and (b) Time (i.e., it took too much time to participate in the learning activity). The Others category included two codes: (a) Additional resources (i.e., students used some additional resources during the learning activity) and (b) Typing (i.e., typing of the participants in a foreign language improved). Cultural attributes included (a) Shyness, (b) Reservedness, (c) Passiveness, (d) Inhibition, (e) Lack of confidence, (f) Risk avoidance (g) Test-oriented, (h) Reliance on teachers for knowledge, and (i) Memorization.

7. Discussion

7.1. Learning Gained: Recall and Understanding of New Information and Creativity

The results of the Wilcoxon signed-rank test showed that the post-test scores were higher than those of the pretest. These results may suggest that there was a learning gain after the learning activity. The participants had low prior knowledge at the beginning of the study. The participants learned new material related to five topics and practiced their skills. After the learning activity, the participants’ scores improved significantly. Therefore, we may assume that the mobile-assisted language learning activity was beneficial for improving the learning outcomes of the participants, including the participants’ recall and understanding of the learning material, as well as their creativity. Our findings were in line with those found in earlier related studies [6,7,67]. Considering the absence of a control condition, we need to be cautious regarding the findings. Further studies are warranted to test the effectiveness of the approach used in this study to enhance foreign language learning outcomes by involving both control and intervention conditions.

Our results can be supported by the results of the questionnaire and interview surveys. For example, according to our questionnaire survey, the participants’ perceptions of the usefulness of the present mobile-assisted learning activity were high. In addition, the participants had positive intentions to participate in such learning activities in the future.

In the interviews, the participants confirmed that the learning activity helped them remember and understand newly learned knowledge better. The reason is because the language learning process was seamless, connecting learning experiences inside and outside of the classroom. The participants learned new knowledge in class and then applied it to solve real-life problems in the real world. According to the participants, the seamless language learning facilitated their recall and understanding of newly learned knowledge. According to the participants, the learning activity was also helpful to use new words and expressions. The participants had learning autonomy because the instructor gave the participants freedom to select learning sites outside the classroom to learn in. Therefore, the participants learned in sites that were interesting, relevant, and meaningful to them. The participants tried to describe people, objects, and scenarios from such sites and used not only words and expressions that were provided in their textbooks but also new ones to describe them in more details and meaningfully. As the participants mentioned, such language learning process enabled them to practice their speaking skills more so that their speaking skills developed and improved.

The participants said that the learning activity was more interesting than the traditional approach and that they could express their ideas more openly and without embarrassment or fear. This is in contrast to the affective filter hypothesis proposed by Krashen [22]. The participants also mentioned that it was more interesting to learn if the essay content was related to their everyday life. Their motivation to learn Russian was high during the activity. The instructors revealed that the creativity of students improved during the learning activity. For example, the instructors said that most students used ideas provided in the textbook to compose their writing/speaking content at the beginning of the learning activity. This is how students usually complete their assignments in her class. However, after a couple of weeks, because students had learning autonomy and the employed strategies, the students came up with new ideas to create their content. These ideas were detailed, original, and meaningful. The participants wanted their content to be different from that of others and also to catch the interest of classmates and the instructor. Such outcomes show the creativity of the students, which is defined as new and original work produced by the students [68,69,70]. Furthermore, the instructor said that the content of the participants also improved. It became more elaborate and fluent. Perhaps some strategies such as providing examples, giving follow up questions, and sharing essays with others were beneficial to the participants’ content improvement. Our findings are supported by those obtained from related studies. Scholars suggested that mobile technology is beneficial for language learning because it offers seamless learning experiences [4,7,39,40,41], multimedia tools for practice, timely feedback, socialization, and active participation [37,41,42]. In this study, the students created their own multimedia content using mobile technology, and therefore, they were able to practice language skills by describing people, objects, and situations in the real world. Furthermore, sharing created content with peers and instructors and further discussion and reflection on the shared content using mobile technology could also facilitate language learning [31,37].

7.2. Cultural Attributes

The results of the interviews showed that the MALL activity with the effective strategies was useful in terms of mitigating cultural attributes. The participants mentioned that they did not feel shy about speaking in Russian during the activity. They also said that they were not afraid to speak in Russian anymore or to use new or unfamiliar vocabulary in their writing/speaking. The participants said that they actively tried to apply new concepts to the real world and were confident and could take risks related to using the language. Some participants mentioned that the MALL process was student-centered instead of teacher-oriented and that they were free to select what to learn and how to learn. For example, they could select authentic learning environments (i.e., the bus stops near the campus to explain a bus schedule, how to take the bus downtown, and how to pay for a bus ticket instead of doing this in the classroom or dormitory, where the students usually practice their language skills) for language learning by themselves and also practiced their skills as they wished. Furthermore, the participants tried to find some extra resources on the internet using mobile technology to enhance their language skills and to make their essay content more original. The participants admitted that they still had to memorize new content because of their exams, but in addition, they tried to apply it to solve some real-life problems. In this way, they not only could recall and understand new content but could also apply it to the real world. Our results may show that the mobile-assisted learning activity was useful in mitigating cultural attributes.

The instructors mentioned several strategies used during the MALL activity that were aimed at mitigating the cultural attributes. First, they asked the participants to link their essay content to their everyday life. Second, they provided examples of how to complete the tasks. Third, they established a teacher–student relationship based on trust. Fourth, the instructors gave follow-up questions to extract more information. Finally, they asked students to share their essays with the instructors only at the beginning and later, with all of the other students. These strategies were considered to be useful for facilitating learning and for mitigating cultural attributes. Our findings are in line with earlier, related research. Scholars have warned that some Asian students exhibit cultural attributes inherent in their culture, e.g., shyness, rote memorization, or lack of confidence [12,50,53,71]. Such cultural attributes inhibit language learning, and researchers suggested adopting various teaching and learning strategies to mitigate them [53,58,59]. We employed effective strategies to scaffold and guide students through the MALL activity to mitigate the cultural attributes. As a result, the participants perceived changes in their cultural attributes during the MALL activity. However, our findings need to be treated with caution because of the research design; it lacked comparisons of the intervention with the traditional learning. This limitation needs to be considered in future studies.

8. Conclusions

In the present study, to achieve sustainable language learning, we designed a mobile-assisted foreign language learning activity that extends traditional classroom lectures to informal learning in the real world. We aimed to test whether our learning activity could enhance language learners’ learning outcomes. We also explored how they perceived the usefulness of the activity and we investigated whether our learning activity could mitigate the cultural attributes inherent in Asian culture. According to our results, language learning outcomes improved during the learning activity and the perceptions of most learners of the learning activity were high.

Based on our results, we suggest designing MALL activities based on knowledge acquisition and their applications to the real world. Such approaches may ensure that students have language input and output that are well-balanced. We also suggest employing the strategies used by our instructors; this may help facilitate learning, mitigate cultural attributes, and achieve sustainable language learning.

Furthermore, our findings provide implications for achieving effective and sustainable language learning, which are described as follows.

First, mobile-assisted language learning can provide learners with a sustainable learning environment because students can create active learning at any time and place, which can make learning more independent and sustainable outside of the classroom. Second, this study combines mobile-assisted language learning with authentic environments to support students’ access to information and resources from the real world, promote active learning and discovery, and facilitate their better use of language, which is in line with the concept of sustainable language education. Third, mobile-assisted language learning promotes student motivation and interest, which is more sustainable and entertaining than traditional approaches.

Several other limitations should be acknowledged as well. A relatively small sample size was involved, and the learning activity was short. These limitations prevent making inferences about the larger population and long-term activities with a given level of confidence. Another limitation relates to time spent on the activity. Learning in authentic learning environments as well as evaluating student content takes much more time and effort compared to traditional learning/teaching approaches. This issue may discourage participants from carrying out such activities due to time availability and motivation. These limitations should be addressed.