Relationship between Environmental Pollution, Environmental Regulation and Resident Health in the Urban Agglomeration in the Middle Reaches of Yangtze River, China: Spatial Effect and Regulating Effect
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Theoretical Framework and Hypotheses
2.1. Environmental Pollution and Resident Health
2.2. The Regulating Effect of Environmental Regulation
2.3. The Spatial Spillover of Environmental Pollution and Environmental Regulation
3. Model Construction and Data Processing
3.1. Model Construction
3.2. Variable Selection
3.2.1. Explained Variable: Resident Health
3.2.2. Core Explanatory Variable: Environmental Pollution
3.2.3. Regulated Variable: Environmental Regulation
3.2.4. Control Variables
3.3. Study Area and Data Explanation
3.3.1. Study Area
3.3.2. Data Source
3.3.3. Descriptive Statistics of Variables
4. Empirical Results
4.1. Health Effect of Environmental Pollution
4.2. Regulating Effect of Environmental Regulation
4.3. Spatial Spillover Effect of Environmental Pollution and Environmental Regulation
4.3.1. Decomposing the Spatial Effect of Environmental Pollution
4.3.2. Decomposing the Spatial Effect of Environmental Regulation
4.3.3. The Analysis of Regional Differences in Spatial Effects
5. Robustness Test
5.1. Endogeneity Test
5.2. Robustness Test
6. Conclusions and Policy Implications
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Test | Statistic | p-Value | Test | Statistic | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
LM–spatial lag | 332.580 | 0.000 | LR–spatial lag | 43.87 | 0.000 |
Robust LM–spatial lag | 13.007 | 0.000 | Wald–spatial lag | 13.42 | 0.037 |
LM–spatial error | 329.212 | 0.000 | LR–spatial error | 45.36 | 0.000 |
Robust LM–spatial error | 9.639 | 0.002 | Wald–spatial error | 13.22 | 0.040 |
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Variables | Names | Units | Symbols | Definitions |
---|---|---|---|---|
Explained variable | Mortality | ‰ | Reflect the health status of resident | |
Core explanatory variable | Environmental pollution | - | Reflect the degree of environmental pollution | |
Regulated variable | Environmental regulation | - | Reflect the intensity of environmental regulation | |
Control variables | Per-capita gross domestic product | Ten thousand Yuan | Reflect the level of economic development | |
Number of certified (assistant) doctors per 1000 people | People | Reflect the level of medical and health | ||
Number of university students per 10,000 people | People | Reflect the educational level of the population | ||
Urbanization rate | % | Reflect the level of urban development | ||
Number of patent authorizations | One hundred Pieces | Reflect the level of science and technology |
Variables | The Full Sample | The Circum-Changsha–Zhuzhou– Xiangtan Urban Agglomeration | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Obs | Mean | Sd | Min | Max | Obs | Mean | Sd | Min | Max | |
308 | 0.62 | 0.15 | 0.07 | 1.34 | 88 | 0.72 | 0.07 | 0.42 | 0.85 | |
308 | 0.32 | 0.18 | 0.02 | 0.95 | 88 | 0.34 | 0.14 | 0.05 | 0.63 | |
308 | 0.75 | 0.18 | 0.16 | 1.00 | 88 | 0.80 | 0.15 | 0.31 | 0.99 | |
308 | 3.51 | 1.96 | 0.99 | 11.54 | 88 | 3.74 | 2.09 | 1.26 | 10.52 | |
308 | 2.01 | 0.72 | 0.81 | 4.86 | 88 | 2.26 | 0.74 | 1.09 | 4.40 | |
308 | 217.03 | 292.02 | 24.86 | 1176.28 | 88 | 243.57 | 260.93 | 54.62 | 965.05 | |
308 | 53.64 | 11.30 | 21.83 | 80.49 | 88 | 53.16 | 10.47 | 34.97 | 79.56 | |
308 | 25.85 | 46.58 | 1.07 | 391.26 | 88 | 29.75 | 42.51 | 2.28 | 225.04 | |
Variables | The Wuhan Urban Agglomeration | The Poyang Lake Urban Agglomeration | ||||||||
Obs | Mean | Sd | Min | Max | Obs | Mean | Sd | Min | Max | |
110 | 0.57 | 0.22 | 0.07 | 1.34 | 110 | 0.61 | 0.01 | 0.55 | 0.63 | |
110 | 0.31 | 0.22 | 0.04 | 0.95 | 110 | 0.30 | 0.17 | 0.02 | 0.70 | |
110 | 0.68 | 0.19 | 0.16 | 0.96 | 110 | 0.79 | 0.16 | 0.35 | 1.00 | |
110 | 3.83 | 2.19 | 0.99 | 11.54 | 110 | 3.01 | 1.46 | 1.00 | 6.81 | |
110 | 2.12 | 0.78 | 0.94 | 4.86 | 110 | 1.70 | 0.51 | 0.81 | 3.56 | |
110 | 210.62 | 309.69 | 41.05 | 1175.57 | 110 | 202.21 | 298.50 | 24.86 | 1176.28 | |
110 | 53.24 | 12.39 | 21.83 | 80.49 | 110 | 54.43 | 10.84 | 35.52 | 75.14 | |
110 | 30.83 | 63.40 | 1.33 | 391.26 | 110 | 17.74 | 23.35 | 1.07 | 130.57 |
Variables | Mixed Regression Model | Fixed-Effects Regression Model | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
(1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | |
0.0389 ** | 0.0473 *** | 0.0248 * | 0.0289 ** | 0.0706 ** | |
(0.0168) | (0.0174) | (0.0140) | (0.0145) | (0.0343) | |
−0.0781 * | |||||
(0.0412) | |||||
−0.0620 * | |||||
(0.0356) | |||||
0.0143 | 0.0652 * | 0.0710 * | |||
(0.0401) | (0.0383) | (0.0388) | |||
−0.0210 | −0.0085 | −0.0312 | |||
(0.0551) | (0.0596) | (0.0618) | |||
0.0393 *** | 0.0235 *** | 0.0225 *** | |||
(0.0114) | (0.0083) | (0.0085) | |||
−0.0086 | −0.0126 | −0.0127 | |||
(0.0158) | (0.0118) | (0.0116) | |||
−0.0194 | −0.0796 ** | −0.0945 *** | |||
(0.0525) | (0.0340) | (0.0356) | |||
Constant | −0.8567 *** | −1.2232 *** | −0.5762 *** | −1.3096 *** | −0.9194 *** |
(0.1568) | (0.3454) | (0.1340) | (0.3041) | (0.3282) | |
Observation | 308 | 308 | 308 | 308 | 308 |
R2 | 0.0173 | 0.0739 | 0.3665 | 0.3978 | 0.4096 |
Variables | The Full Sample | The Circum−Changsha−Zhuzhou− Xiangtan Urban Agglomeration | The Wuhan Urban Agglomeration | The Poyang Lake Urban Agglomeration | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | |
0.0269 * | 0.0322 ** | 0.0671 *** | 0.2510 | −0.0151 | 0.0224 *** | |
(0.0141) | (0.0150) | (0.0259) | (0.1410) | (0.0590) | (0.0036) | |
−0.2281 ** | −0.2475 ** | −0.3200 * | −0.0757 *** | −0.0158 * | ||
(0.1021) | (0.1062) | (0.1520) | (0.0176) | (0.0084) | ||
2.1815 ** | 2.3163 ** | 3.1930 * | 1.2870 *** | −0.0206 | ||
(0.9624) | (1.0074) | (1.5140) | (0.2800) | (0.0220) | ||
−0.0682 ** | ||||||
(0.0306) | ||||||
0.0665 * | 0.0593 | 0.0909 | 0.1310 | 0.0803 ** | ||
(0.0377) | (0.0392) | (0.1120) | (0.1610) | (0.0310) | ||
−0.0320 | −0.0281 | −0.3640 | −0.1520 | −0.0736 | ||
(0.0570) | (0.0589) | (0.4300) | (0.1010) | (0.0700) | ||
0.0242 *** | 0.0265 *** | 0.0092 | −0.0038 | −0.0071 | ||
(0.0085) | (0.0083) | (0.0269) | (0.0672) | (0.0057) | ||
−0.0095 | −0.0128 | 0.0545 | −0.0337 | −0.0009 | ||
(0.0116) | (0.0117) | (0.1990) | (0.1140) | (0.0165) | ||
−0.0779 ** | −0.0830 ** | −0.0885 | −0.0426 | 0.0033 | ||
(0.0331) | (0.0342) | (0.0638) | (0.0717) | (0.0097) | ||
Constant | −0.5999 *** | −1.2861 *** | −1.5754 *** | −2.6370 | −2.1890 | −1.1840 *** |
(0.1350) | (0.3168) | (0.3764) | (1.4630) | (2.0320) | (0.2190) | |
Observation | 308 | 308 | 308 | 88 | 110 | 110 |
R2 | 0.3861 | 0.4160 | 0.4201 | 0.2237 | 0.0958 | 0.3091 |
Variables | (1) Estimation Coefficient | (2) Direct Effect | (3) Indirect Effect | (4) Total Effect |
---|---|---|---|---|
0.0447 ** | 0.5379 *** | 0.5825 *** | ||
(0.0223) | (0.1577) | (0.1696) | ||
−0.0909 | −1.1402 *** | −1.2312 *** | ||
(0.0555) | (0.3522) | (0.3742) | ||
0.3194 *** | ||||
(0.0899) | ||||
−0.6900 *** | ||||
(0.1967) | ||||
0.4031 *** | ||||
(0.1022) | ||||
Control variables | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Observation | 308 | 308 | 308 | 308 |
R2 | 0.0300 | 0.0300 | 0.0300 | 0.0300 |
Variables | Effects | The Circum−Changsha−Zhuzhou− Xiangtan Urban Agglomeration | The Wuhan Urban Agglomeration | The Poyang Lake Urban Agglomeration |
---|---|---|---|---|
Direct Effect | 0.0791 * | 0.0872 * | 0.0104 ** | |
(0.0431) | (0.0495) | (0.0052) | ||
Indirect Effect | 0.0339 *** | 0.1150 | 0.0039 * | |
(0.0123) | (0.0829) | (0.0021) | ||
Total Effect | 0.0453 *** | 0.2020 * | 0.0143 ** | |
(0.0133) | (0.1120) | (0.0071) | ||
Direct Effect | −0.1480 * | −0.1400 ** | −0.0027 * | |
(0.0774) | (0.0663) | (0.0014) | ||
Indirect Effect | −0.0626 *** | −0.1700 | 0.0010 | |
(0.0201) | (0.1490) | (0.0034) | ||
Total Effect | −0.0852 *** | −0.3100 ** | 0.0037 | |
(0.0263) | (0.1570) | (0.0114) | ||
Control variables | Yes | Yes | Yes | |
Observation | 88 | 110 | 110 | |
R2 | 0.2101 | 0.1707 | 0.0050 |
Variables | (1) Endogeneity Test | (2) Introducing Lagged Explanatory Variable | (3) Replacing Control Variables | (4) Replacing Control Variables |
---|---|---|---|---|
0.0939 ** | 0.0339 ** | 0.0282 * | 0.0322 ** | |
(0.0457) | (0.0157) | (0.0145) | (0.0152) | |
0.0640 * | 0.0301 | 0.0365 | 0.0398 | |
(0.0333) | (0.0420) | (0.0368) | (0.0366) | |
−0.0090 | 0.0554 | −0.0010 | −0.0223 | |
(0.0461) | (0.0601) | (0.0619) | (0.0589) | |
0.0292 *** | 0.0240 *** | 0.0163 * | 0.0178 * | |
(0.0102) | (0.0090) | (0.0098) | (0.0102) | |
−0.0293 * | −0.0065 | −0.0158 | −0.0137 | |
(0.0171) | (0.0131) | (0.0123) | (0.0121) | |
−0.0479 | −0.0832 ** | |||
(0.0503) | (0.0366) | |||
0.1393 | −0.1441 | |||
(0.5646) | (0.5765) | |||
0.0109 | 0.0121 | |||
(0.0122) | (0.0122) | |||
2.3648 ** | ||||
(1.0457) | ||||
−0.2529 ** | ||||
(0.1104) | ||||
Constant | −1.8886 *** | −1.2823 *** | −1.7151 | −0.6419 |
(0.4800) | (0.3377) | (2.1939) | (2.2228) | |
Observation | 308 | 308 | 308 | 308 |
R2 | 0.3554 | 0.3899 | 0.3931 | 0.4116 |
Variables | (1) Estimation Coefficient | (2) Direct Effect | (3) Indirect Effect | (4) Total Effect |
---|---|---|---|---|
0.0408 * | 0.3715 *** | 0.4123 *** | ||
(0.0217) | (0.1320) | (0.1427) | ||
−0.0688 | −0.7869 *** | −0.8557 *** | ||
(0.0538) | (0.2765) | (0.2951) | ||
0.2660 *** | ||||
(0.0928) | ||||
−0.5927 *** | ||||
(0.2000) | ||||
0.2398 ** | ||||
(0.1188) | ||||
Control variables | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Observation | 308 | 308 | 308 | 308 |
R2 | 0.0550 | 0.0550 | 0.0550 | 0.0550 |
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Deng, Q.; Qin, Y.; Ahmad, N. Relationship between Environmental Pollution, Environmental Regulation and Resident Health in the Urban Agglomeration in the Middle Reaches of Yangtze River, China: Spatial Effect and Regulating Effect. Sustainability 2022, 14, 7801. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14137801
Deng Q, Qin Y, Ahmad N. Relationship between Environmental Pollution, Environmental Regulation and Resident Health in the Urban Agglomeration in the Middle Reaches of Yangtze River, China: Spatial Effect and Regulating Effect. Sustainability. 2022; 14(13):7801. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14137801
Chicago/Turabian StyleDeng, Qizhong, Yansi Qin, and Najid Ahmad. 2022. "Relationship between Environmental Pollution, Environmental Regulation and Resident Health in the Urban Agglomeration in the Middle Reaches of Yangtze River, China: Spatial Effect and Regulating Effect" Sustainability 14, no. 13: 7801. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14137801